Behavioral Abnormalities in Captive Nonhuman Primates

The influence of feeding routines on the behavior of zoo-housed Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra)

Many species thrive in captivity, yet there is still much to be assessed regarding the often-unknown stressors present that can compromise welfare. Uncovering such stressors is of paramount importance if we are to ensure the zoo environment provides the highest levels of animal welfare that will contribute to species conservation. Zoo-housed primates are subject to many potential stressors, including daily husbandry routines which they may find aversive or habituate to, regardless of their outcome. The specific aim of this study was to assess the behavioral responses to daily husbandry feeding routines on a total of 33 Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra), across two different UK zoological collections. Group scan sampling was used to record behaviors for 30-min periods before feeding (BF), for 30 min after feeding (AF), which we began 30 min after feed provision, and for 30 min when no feeding occurred (NF). The feeding condition significantly influenced behaviors recorded and post-hoc comparisons showed that BF conditions produced significantly higher frequencies of food anticipatory related activity (FAA). Furthermore, during BF periods, behaviors associated with FAA increased during the 15 min closer to a feed. This research finds that temporal feeding events cause changes in the behavior of two independent groups of crested macaques, indicative of food anticipation activity, during 30-min periods leading up to a feed. These results have implications for how animal keeper routines and advertised zoo feeds are managed for this species within zoological collections.

The impact of housing on birth outcomes in breeding macaque groups across multiple research centers

Demand for nonhuman primates in research has increased over the past several years, while nonhuman primate supply remains a challenge in the United States. Global nonhuman primate supply issues make it increasingly important to maximize domestic colony production. To explore how housing conditions across primate breeding colonies impact infant survival and animal production more broadly, we collected medical records from 7959 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and 492 pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina) across seven breeding facilities and used generalized mixed-effect modeling to determine prenatal and infant survival odds by housing type and group size. Infant survival odds for each housing type and group size varied for prenatal, neonatal, early infant, and late infant age groups. Odds of prenatal survival were lowest in paired indoor housing and small and medium outdoor groups. No housing type performed better than large outdoor groups for neonatal survival. Odds of early infant survival was greatest in indoor and mixed indoor/outdoor housing compared to large outdoor enclosures. Large outdoor housing was associated with higher survival odds for late infant survival compared to small and medium outdoor housing. These results may influence housing choices at macaque breeding facilities hoping to maximize infant success, although there are relative care costs, the promotion of species-typical behaviors, and infrastructure factors to also consider. Our study used an interinstitutional collaboration that allowed for the analysis of more infant macaque medical records than ever before and used the broad variations across the seven national primate research centers to make the results applicable to many other facilities housing macaques.

Room size and offspring presence impact pair-bonded primate affiliation

Primates live in a variety of social groupings and vary in the expression of species-typical behaviors depending upon social conditions. Coppery titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus) are pair-bonding, territorial primates often used to study neurobiology and social behavior in captivity at the California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC). At the center, titi monkeys are housed in cages of standardized size. However, the number of cages--and thus families--per room varies based upon the room size (small or large). Anecdotal evidence suggests titi monkeys behave differently in the two different room sizes. To empirically test this, we measured rates of pair-bonding related affiliation in 23 pairs of titi monkeys. We predicted that monkeys in small rooms would show higher rates of affiliation compared to large rooms. We used a between- and within- subjects design in which all subjects moved from either small to large or large to small rooms. Affiliative behavior was recorded via bihourly instantaneous scan samples. We found that titi monkey pairs affiliated significantly more in small rooms compared to large rooms (partial R2 = 0.1468, t(33) = -3.729, p-value < .0005). We also confirmed that the presence of offspring negatively impacts pair affiliation rates (partial R2 = 0.2240, t(33) = -0.181, p-value = 0.0011). The results of this study suggest that titi monkey pair behavior is influenced by room size, and thus the number of neighboring groups. Management decisions should consider the implications that housing may have on the results of social behavior research.

Observation of Masturbation After Visual Sexual Stimuli From Conspecifics in a Captive Male Bearded Capuchin (Sapajus libidinosus)

Masturbation is part of the natural behavioral repertoire of primates, with visual sexual stimuli known to trigger this behavior. Here, we report masturbation events triggered by visual sexual stimulus (VSS) in the South American primate Sapajus libidinosus. We observed a multi-male multi-female captive colony of 17 bearded capuchins between January and October 2014. Over this period, we registered 11 copulation events, 68 attempt copulations, and five masturbation events. The same low-ranking male (named Fu) performed all masturbation events. Fu directly looked at other individuals engaged in sexual displays while he masturbated in three events. The masturbation events associated with VSS lasted up to 2 min and 40 s. Our observations show that VSS can trigger masturbation in capuchin monkeys. The low hierarchy rank of the male, and the consequent lack of mating opportunities in the multi-male multi-female recently formed group in captivity, may have prompted the masturbation events.

The effects of visitors and social isolation from a peer on the behavior of a mixed-species pair of captive gibbons

Human visitors affect the behavior of captive animals, which is the so-called visitor effect. The number and behavior of visitors may influence stress-related behaviors in captive animals, such as self-scratching, yawning, and visitor-directed vigilance. A social group setting can be applied to alleviate such negative visitor effects and facilitate social behavior and interactions between individuals. In this study, we examined how the number and behavior of visitors are related to stress-related behaviors of a captive mixed-species gibbon pair comprising a yellow-cheek gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae) and a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar). The two gibbons were separated during the study period, and we examined whether the social isolation stimulated the visitor effect. The frequency of stress-related behaviors of the gibbons increased and the social playing between them decreased proportionally to visitor number. In the indoor enclosure, the gibbons increased their visitor-directed vigilance when visitors shouted or struck the glass partition. Our findings indicate that the number and behavior of visitors negatively affect captive gibbons and that a mixed-species social setting can help gibbons reduce visitor-induced stress. Future studies with larger sample sizes will improve the understanding of the visitor effect and the social setting in the captivity.

Multigenerational Social Housing and Group-Rearing Enhance Female Reproductive Success in Captive Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Simple Summary

It is currently common practice to house non-human primates at biomedical research facilities, e.g., rhesus macaques, in social groups. To enhance female reproductive success, peer groups are formed. In these breeding groups, infants are taken from their mother at an age of ten months and housed with animals of approximately the same age. Yet for welfare, leaving offspring with their mother and allowing multigenerational groups including families is preferred. This argues that a trade-off between female reproductive success and welfare exists. In this retrospective study we investigated the differences in female rhesus macaque reproductive success between peer groups and multigenerational groups. Our results show that females in multigenerational groups have more births per year and have higher offspring survival compared with those in peer groups. Thus, housing rhesus macaques in multigenerational groups provides a win−win situation, rather than a trade-off, in which female reproductive success and animal welfare can simultaneously be optimized.

Abstract

To optimize costs and reproductive success, rhesus macaques in biomedical primate research facilities are often peer-reared. Older, dependent infants are typically removed from their natal group to enhance female reproduction. The minimal husbandry age-norm of infant removal is ten months. These practices deviate from species-specific behavior and may reduce welfare, suggesting a trade-off between female reproduction and welfare. However, the effect of breeding group type and rearing history on female reproductive success (i.e., birth rate; inter-birth interval (IBI); offspring survival) is unclear. This retrospective study investigated whether group type (i.e., peer groups versus multigenerational groups) and rearing history (i.e., peer- or hand-reared; group-reared with peer- or hand-reared mother; group-reared) affected female reproductive success in captive rhesus macaques. Data on female reproduction between 1996 and 2019 were collected at the Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk. Birth rates were higher in multigenerational breeding groups than in peer groups. Moreover, group-reared females had higher offspring survival than peer- or hand-reared females. IBI was not affected by breeding group type or female rearing history. However, females in both peer and multigenerational breeding groups typically conceived earlier after giving birth than the husbandry infant removal age-norm of ten months. Thus, infant removal at an age of ten months does not enhance a female’s reproduction. Altogether, female reproduction and non-human primate welfare can simultaneously be optimized through multigenerational breeding groups and group-rearing.

Nonhuman primate abnormal behavior: Etiology, assessment, and treatment

Across captive settings, nonhuman primates may develop an array of abnormal behaviors including stereotypic and self-injurious behavior. Abnormal behavior can indicate a state of poor welfare, since it is often associated with a suboptimal environment. However, this may not always be the case as some behaviors can develop independently of any psychological distress, be triggered in environments known to promote welfare, and be part of an animal's coping mechanism. Furthermore, not all animals develop abnormal behavior, which has led researchers to assess risk factors that differentiate individuals in the display of these behaviors. Intrinsic risk factors that have been identified include the animal's species and genetics, age, sex, temperament, and clinical condition, while environmental risk factors include variables such as the animal's rearing, housing condition, husbandry procedures, and research experiences. To identify specific triggers and at-risk animals, the expression of abnormal behavior in captive nonhuman primates should be routinely addressed in a consistent manner by appropriately trained staff. Which behaviors to assess, what assessment methods to use, which primates to monitor, and the aims of data collection should all be identified before proceeding to an intervention and/or treatment. This article provides guidance for this process, by presenting an overview of known triggers and risk factors that should be considered, steps to design a comprehensive evaluation plan, and strategies that might be used for prevention or treatment. It also outlines the tools and processes for assessing and evaluating behavior in an appendix. This process will lead to a better understanding of abnormal behavior in captive primate colonies and ultimately to improved welfare.

Recommendations for Abnormal Behaviour Ethograms in Monkey Research

Laboratory monkey ethograms currently include subcategories of abnormal behaviours that are based on superficial morphological similarity. Yet, such ethograms may be misclassifying behaviour, with potential welfare implications as different abnormal behaviours are likely to have distinct risk factors and treatments. We therefore investigated the convergent validity of four hypothesized subcategories of abnormal behaviours ('motor', e.g., pacing; 'self-stimulation', e.g., self-sucking; 'postural', e.g., hanging; and 'self-abuse', e.g., self-biting). This hypothesis predicts positive relationships between the behaviours within each subcategory. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) data on 19 abnormal behaviours were obtained from indoor-housed animals (n = 1183). Logistic regression models, controlling for sex, age, and the number of observations, revealed that only 1/6 'motor' behaviours positively predicted pacing, while 2/3 'self-abuse' behaviours positively predicted self-biting (one-tailed p-value < 0.05). Furthermore, 'self-stimulation' behaviours did not predict self-sucking, and none of the 'postural' behaviours predicted hanging. Thus, none of the subcategories fully met convergent validity. Subsequently, we created four new valid subcategories formed of comorbid behaviours. The first consisted of self-biting, self-hitting, self-injurious behaviour, floating limb, leg-lifting, and self-clasping. The second comprised twirling, bouncing, rocking, swinging, and hanging. The third comprised pacing and head-twisting, while the final subcategory consisted of flipping and eye-poking. Self-sucking, hair-plucking, threat-biting, and withdrawn remained as individual behaviours. We encourage laboratories to replicate the validation of these subcategories first, and for scientists working with other species to validate their ethograms before using them in welfare assessments.

Effect of enclosure expansion on the activity budgets of eastern black-and-white colobus monkeys, Colobus guereza

Behavior is one of the most observable and informative indicators of animal welfare. This study used behavioral observation methodologies to evaluate the impact of an enclosure expansion on the activity budgets of a group of three eastern black-and-white colobus monkeys, Colobus guereza, housed at the Adelaide Zoo in South Australia. Instantaneous scan sampling methods were used to record the monkeys' behavior before and after they were given access to new aerial walkways at 2-min intervals between 8:30 a.m. and 4:30 p.m., over a total of 109 h (66 baseline hours, 43 post-expansion hours). Broad state behaviors (e.g., social, moving, resting, interacting, and feeding) were recorded and were used to generate activity budgets. Locomotion, feeding, and social behaviors increased following the addition of the aerial walkways, along with an overall increase in activity, attributed to the larger area and increased complexity of the environment. Results indicate that the addition of aerial walkways was effective for increasing the behavioral repertoire in colobus monkeys, aligning activity budgets more closely with their wild counterparts, and increasing active and affiliative behaviors.

Pet Macaques in Vietnam: An NGO's Perspective

Simple Summary

Macaques are regularly kept as pets in Vietnam, although the practice is illegal. This is substantially damaging to the individuals involved. In this article, we present the available data on the number of confiscations and releases of macaques throughout Vietnam over a five-year period (2015–2019). We examine this information alongside the data provided by Education for Nature Vietnam in a recent report on macaque possession cases. We also present insights from two key Animals Asia (a non-governmental organization) colleagues who work on the front lines of the macaque issue in Vietnam.

Abstract

In this article, we attempt to characterize the widespread trade in pet macaques in Vietnam. Data on confiscations as well as surrenders, releases, and individuals housed at rescue centers across Vietnam for 2015–2019 were opportunistically recorded. Data comparisons between Education for Nature Vietnam and three government-run wildlife rescue centers show that at least 1254 cases of macaque keeping occurred during the study period, including a minimum of 32 Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis), 158 long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), 291 Northern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca leonina), 65 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), and 110 stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides). A minimum of 423 individuals were confiscated, and at least 490 individual macaques were released. Three semi-structured interviews were conducted with two key Animals Asia (a non-governmental organization) colleagues and their insights are presented. Although we recognize that the data included are limited and can serve only as a baseline for the scale of the macaque pet trade in Vietnam, we believe that they support our concern that the problem is significant and must be addressed. We stress the need for organizations and authorities to work together to better understand the issue. The keeping of macaques as pets is the cause of serious welfare and conservation issues in Vietnam.

Individual, social, and environmental factors affecting salivary and fecal cortisol levels in captive pied tamarins (Saguinus bicolor)

Pied tamarins (Saguinus bicolor) are endangered New World primates, and in captivity appear to be very susceptible to stress. We measured cortisol in 214 saliva samples from 36 tamarins and in 227 fecal samples from 27 tamarins, and investigated the effects of age, sex, pregnancy, rearing history, social status, weight, group composition, and enclosure type using generalized linear mixed models. There was no effect of age on either fecal or salivary cortisol levels. Female pied tamarins in late pregnancy had higher fecal cortisol levels than those in early pregnancy, or nonpregnant females, but there was no effect of pregnancy on salivary cortisol. Females had higher salivary cortisol levels than males, but there was no effect of rearing history. However, for fecal cortisol, there was an interaction between sex and rearing history. Hand-reared tamarins overall had higher fecal cortisol levels, but while male parent-reared tamarins had higher levels than females who were parent-reared, the reverse was true for hand-reared individuals. There was a trend towards lower fecal cortisol levels in subordinate individuals, but no effect of status on salivary cortisol. Fecal but not salivary cortisol levels declined with increasing weight. We found little effect of group composition on cortisol levels in either saliva or feces, suggesting that as long as tamarins are housed socially, the nature of the group is of less importance. However, animals in off-show enclosures had higher salivary and fecal cortisol levels than individuals housed on-show. We suggest that large on-show enclosures with permanent access to off-exhibit areas may compensate for the effects of visitor disturbance, and a larger number of tamarins of the same species housed close together may explain the higher cortisol levels found in tamarins living in off-show accommodation, but further research is needed.

Factors determining male introduction success and long-term stability in captive rhesus macaques

The entrance of new males into non-human primate groups bears high social risk, yet migration is necessary to prevent inbreeding. Males are not always accepted in their new group. In the wild, males may increase the likelihood of successful group entry by choosing a new group based on their own and the group's characteristics. Understanding whether these characteristics also determine a male's ability to enter captive groups is crucial to improve introduction management. This study aims to identify which factors determine male introduction success (i.e. male stays in the group for at least 4 weeks) and long-term stability (i.e. the male does not cause considerable behavioural problems after success) after male introductions in captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), creating one-male groups. We studied 64 male introductions at the breeding colony of the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, The Netherlands. 49 (77%) introductions were successful, with the male obtaining a long-term stable social position in the group in 38 (59%) introductions. Introductions of males that reached at least prime age, into groups with more adult females, but without pregnant females were most successful. Moreover, long-term stability was highest when males were heavier, were at least 3.5 years old when they were first removed from their natal group, and groups had few matrilines and no pregnant females were present. Males should be introduced at the time they would naturally immigrate, when they are strongest. Moreover, groups should consist of few large matrilines, as observed in the wild, with philoatric females and males that are removed at natural age. Our study highlights the importance of composing naturalistic groups and mimicking natural migration patterns to maintain long-term stable breeding groups in captivity.

The effects of transport stress on the behaviour and adrenocortical activity of the black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata)

The aim of this study was to assess behavioural and glucocorticoid changes in black-and-white ruffed lemur females transported for breeding purposes between Czech ZOOs. The frequency of the presented behaviour elements was recorded via direct observation. The faecal samples were collected from the floor and subsequently the faecal glucocorticoid values were determined using specifically designed assays for faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analysis. While the frequency of certain comfort behaviour patterns decreased (P < 0.05) in response to transport and change of the environment, grooming, resting, sleeping as well as playful behaviour (chasing, climbing) were not affected (P > 0.05). No changes were found in the frequency of behaviour connected to metabolic events with the exception of defecation. Lemur females defecated more frequently (P < 0.05) in their new environment. The frequency of neither fear nor exploratory behaviour differed (P > 0.05) before and after transport. The positive effect of the novelty was shown by the reduction (P < 0.01) of behavioural signs of frustration and stereotypical behaviour after transport. In response to transport, a significant (P < 0.05) increase of FGM levels was found the second day after the transport, reaching peak levels in the morning and starting to decline to baseline levels in the afternoon. The results of both behaviour and adrenocortical activity analysis suggest that despite some presented changes in the monitored indices prior and after transport, the transportation under the studied conditions presented only a mild stressor with limited behavioural and glucocorticoid responses.

Effects of housing conditions on behaviors and biochemical parameters in juvenile cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis)

To investigate the effects of environmental enrichment on laboratory monkeys, we studied behavioral and physiological differences following changes in housing conditions. Ten male and female juvenile cynomolgus monkeys were first housed in pairs for 8 weeks after quarantine/acclimatization (singly housed) and subsequently housed alone for the next 8 weeks. Monkeys were subjected to evaluations of body weight gain, stereotypic or affiliative behaviors, cortisol, 4-ethylphenyl sulfate (4EPS) and catecholamine concentrations in biological samples, and blood chemistry tests under both housing conditions. Under paired housing, the stereotypic behavioral score decreased in both sexes, and the affiliative behavioral score increased in males and showed an increasing trend in females. Under single housing, the stereotypic score increased in both sexes, and the affiliative score decreased in males. Paired housing decreased serum calcium and urine cortisol concentrations in both sexes and decreased plasma cortisol in males and plasma 4EPS concentrations in females. The stereotypic score was positively correlated with serum calcium, plasma and urine cortisol, and plasma 4EPS concentration and negatively correlated with the affiliative score. The feces painting score, affiliative score, and plasma cortisol and serum calcium concentrations showed sex differences, suggesting differences in responsiveness to environmental changes between males and females. In conclusion, paired housing improved behavioral abnormalities in juvenile cynomolgus monkeys, suggesting that it may be an effective environmental enrichment paradigm. Calcium, cortisol, and 4EPS concentrations in biological samples may be useful indices for evaluating the effects of environmental enrichment.

Complexities of Using Wild versus Captive Activity Budget Comparisons for Assessing Captive Primate Welfare

Activity budget comparisons between groups or individuals in the wild and those in captivity are commonly used to determine the range of wild-type behaviors that nonhuman animals in captivity perform. These comparisons are conducted with the view that individuals displaying a greater range of wild-type behaviors have enhanced welfare. Such comparisons have a greater appeal when it comes to primates because increased levels of anthropomorphism toward primates lead to welfare concerns. However, the validity of such comparisons has not been assessed. From the reviewed literature, some of the main complexities identified when defining "good welfare" using activity budgets were the ideas of behavioral motivation and adaptation, obstacles when using the wild as a benchmark for good welfare, study methods causing possible variances in behavior, and social and environmental factors. It is proposed that such influencing factors would be controlled for adequately in future studies with the use of multiple indices to measure welfare and methods that infer positive emotional states. It is hoped we can then build evidence of an animal's emotional state and allow welfare to be inferred to a higher degree.

REVIEW: PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES IN CAPTIVE NONHUMAN PRIMATES AND APPROACHES TO DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

  Despite the growing knowledge and literature on primate medicine, assessment and treatment of behavioral abnormalities in nonhuman primates (NHPs) is an underdeveloped field. There is ample evidence for similarity between humans and great apes, including basic neurologic physiology and emotional processes, and no substantial argument exists against a concept of continuity for abnormal conditions in NHPs that emerge in response to adverse experiences, akin to human psychopathology. NHPs have served as models for human psychopathologies for many decades, but the acquired knowledge has only hesitantly been applied to primates themselves. This review aims to raise awareness among the veterinary community of the wealth of literature on NHP psychopathologies in human medicine and anthropology literature and calls for the necessity to include mental health assessments and professionally structured treatment approaches in NHP medicine. Growing understanding about causes and pathogenesis of abnormal behavior in NHP will not only help to prevent the development of undesirable behaviors but also allow for treatment and management of long-lived, already affected animal patients.

Changes in the dominance hierarchy of captive female Japanese macaques as a consequence of merging two previously established groups

Dominance hierarchies play an important role in reducing competition and aggression in social animals. In zoos, changes in group composition are often required due to management protocols, but these changes may have long lasting effects on dominance hierarchies, and, consequently, the wellbeing of the animals. We studied the changes in the female dominance hierarchy that occurred both during and after the formation of a group of 10 adult Japanese macaques at the Zoo de Granby by combining members from two previously established groups. There was no significant correlation between individual ranks in the old groups (groups A and B) and their ranks in the new group (group AB), indicating a significant change in the hierarchy. Alliances between kin appeared to be important in determining rank; when the sister of the dominant female was removed from group AB, the hierarchy changed significantly a second time. The average standardized rank of individuals added later in the formation process of group AB was not different from those added earlier. Ranks in the group AB did correlate with age of individual at the beginning of the field season, but not at the end, after the shift in hierarchy occurred. Zoo management must be aware of the consequences small changes in a social group can have when removing and transferring individuals in both primates and in other social species. Zoo Biol. 35:505-512, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Tailored Enrichment Strategies and Stereotypic Behavior in Captive Individually Housed Macaques (Macaca spp.)

The welfare of nonhuman animals in captivity is widely dependent on the natural psychological, physical, and behavioral needs of the animals and how adequately these needs are met. Inability to engage in natural behaviors can lead to chronic stress and expression of stereotypic behavior. The majority of research on decreasing stereotypic behavior in captivity addresses problems at the group level and does not account for individual variability in each animal's needs, history, and preferences. This study combined physiological and behavioral measures of well being to comprehensively assess the unique needs of individually housed captive macaques (Macaca spp.) with the aim of developing tailored welfare strategies. Behavioral and hormonal data were collected under 2 conditions: baseline and individualized enrichment. The results showed a significant decrease in stereotypic behavior under the enrichment condition. Additionally, 7 out of 9 individuals showed a decrease in fecal glucocorticoid (stress hormone) levels, indicating a reduction in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity. Addressing welfare on an individual, rather than group, level allows for a better overall characterization of well being and maximizes the probability of improving the welfare of each animal.

Stereotypical behaviors in chimpanzees rescued from the african bushmeat and pet trade

Many orphaned chimpanzees whose mothers are illegally killed for their meat (bushmeat) in Africa are sold as pets or kept caged at hotels and businesses to attract tourists. As a result of being separated from their mothers and other chimpanzees at an early age, and spending years in impoverished captive conditions, some of these individuals engage in abnormal behaviors, including stereotypically scratching at their flesh and repetitively rocking back and forth. This paper presents case studies of Poco and Safari, two chimpanzees who were rescued by sanctuaries after living alone on display for humans at businesses for the first 7 to 8 years of their lives. Decades after their rescue, they still engage in stereotypical behaviors as a result of the psychological and physical trauma they endured early on. This paper combines data from in depth interviews with caregivers and direct observations of abnormal behaviors to assess psychological distress in captive-living chimpanzees. Our results highlight some lesser known harms of the bushmeat trade and the detrimental life-long consequences that keeping chimpanzees as "pets" can have on their mental health.

Video preference assessment and behavioral management of single-caged Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) by movie presentation

Movie presentation can act as an enrichment technique for nonhuman primates, who also show preferences for certain contents. This study investigated the video preferences and effects of movies on behavioral abnormalities in single-caged Japanese macaques. When movie rewards were provided for subjects' touch responses, the subjects maintained the touch responses during 40 2-hr sessions. Although repeated presentation of 1 stimulus set decreased the subject's touch response, changing the stimulus set led to recovery of this response. The subjects showed clear preferences, consistent across 2 different stimulus sets, for movies showing humans or animation (61.1% of total duration). Subjects consistently played movies both with and without their preferred content. The availability of a variety of contents might be important for attracting subjects' interest. The frequency with which monkeys engaged in abnormal behaviors decreased in the experimental (20.9%) and the postexperimental (25.6%) periods compared with the preexperimental period (33.5%). Movie presentations could keep attracting the interest of single-caged monkeys in their visual environment, ameliorating their behavioral abnormalities for some time. In summary, social experience during infancy might influence Japanese macaques' movie preferences.

The effect of environmental enrichment and visitors on the behaviour and welfare of two captive hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas)

The welfare of zoo animals depends on a combination of physical, social, dietary and other ecological characteristics of the captive setting. We analysed the influence of the transfer of an adult couple of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) from a small and non-enriched cage that was closed to the public to a larger and enriched exhibit at the visitation area of the Sapucaia do Sul Zoological Park, RS, Brazil. A total of 350 h divided into four stages were spent observing the baboons: (i) in the non-enriched enclosure before the transfer; (ii) soon after the transfer to the enriched enclosure; (iii) six months; and (iv) 12 months after the transfer. The occurrence of stereotypic, social aggressive and social affiliative behaviours was recorded by ‘all occurrences’ sampling. The female showed a decrease in frequency of a stereotypic behaviour (spinning) and an increase in grooming in the enriched enclosure. The male showed a decrease in the frequency of certain stress-related or stereotypic behaviours after transfer, but other stress-related behaviours either increased or remained constant. The male behaviour of throwing faeces was affected by the presence of visitors. We suggest that the well-being of the female was more positively influenced by the new enclosure than that of the male, although gender differences may reflect the normal behavioural repertoire of this sexually dimorphic species.

Observational methods to measure behaviors of captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

The purpose of this study was to identify efficient sampling methods for establishing accurate activity budgets for zoo animals. Seven cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) from two zoos were videotaped for multiple 90 min sessions, 3 to 4 days per week for 12 weeks. An activity budget was constructed for each animal using a continuous sampling method to analyze 30 hr of video recording of each animal. These master datasets, reflecting actual behavior, were re-sampled using interval sampling lengths of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 min, and cluster sampling protocols (periodic sessions of continuous sampling) of 10 min x 3, 15 min x 2, 20 min x 1, 15 min x 1 and 10 min x 1 (min x repetitions/90 min sample period) to construct additional activity budgets for each animal. The Canberra similarity index was used to determine the statistical relationship between these activity budgets and those based on the master datasets. As interval length increased, there was a consequent decrease in the accuracy of the associated activity budgets as compared with the master dataset. No cluster sampling protocols yielded activity budgets as accurate as the four shortest interval lengths, but all cluster sampling protocols were more accurate than the three longest interval lengths. All the tested protocols varied in ability to accurately portray animal behavior. Overall, interval sampling provided superior behavioral representations at lower observer input. Results from this study will potentially facilitate the standardization of behavior monitoring protocols at zoos.

Are wild animals suited to a travelling circus life?

A comprehensive synopsis of the welfare of captive, wild (ie non-domesticated) animals in travelling circuses is missing. We examined circus animal welfare and, specifically, behaviour, health, living and travelling conditions. We compared the conditions of non-domesticated animals in circuses with their counterparts kept in zoos. Data on circus animals were very scarce; where data were absent, we inferred likely welfare implications based on zoo data. Circus animals spent the majority of the day confined, about 1-9% of the day performing/training and the remaining time in exercise pens. Exercise pens were significantly smaller than minimum zoo standards for outdoor enclosures. Behavioural budgets were restricted, with circus animals spending a great amount of time performing stereotypies, especially when shackled or confined in beast wagons. A higher degree of stereotyping in circuses may be indicative of poorer welfare. Inadequate diet and housing conditions, and the effects of repeated performances, can lead to significant health problems. Circus animals travel frequently and the associated forced movement, human handling, noise, trailer movement and confinement are important stressors. Although there is no conclusive evidence as to whether animals habituate to travel, confinement in beast wagons for long timeperiods is a definite welfare concern. Circuses have a limited ability to make improvements, such as increased space, environmental enrichment and appropriate social housing. Consequently, we argue that non-domesticated animals, suitable for circus life, should exhibit low space requirements, simple social structures, low cognitive function, non-specialist ecological requirements and an ability to be transported without adverse welfare effects. None of the commonest species exhibited by circuses, such as elephants and large felids, currently meet these criteria. We conclude that the species of non-domesticated animals commonly kept in circuses appear the least suited to a circus life.

Influence of zoo visitor presence on the behavior of captive Indian gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a zoological park

Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.

Use of enclosure space by captive lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) housed in Indian zoos

Captive nonhuman animals use enclosure space differentially. Enclosure features strongly influence this. This study recorded both the enclosure space used by 47 captive lion-tailed macaques housed in 13 zoos across India and the behavior of the macaques. The exhibition of abnormal behaviors, food-related behaviors, and social interactions correlated significantly with the use of the edge zone (the part of the enclosure closest to the visitor area). Animals housed in barren enclosures used the edge zone to a significantly greater percentage than did those housed in complex exhibits. Percentages of autogrooming, social interactions, and food-related behaviors significantly correlated with the use of the enrich zone. Space use studies assist in recognizing areas within the enclosure, which captive animals actively use. Conversely, the studies can identify areas infrequently used and show how to make maximum use of these enclosure areas. Further studies targeting both the increase in percentages of natural behaviors exhibited and use of the enrich zone used the current study on captive lion-tailed macaques for their design.

Enrichment Strategies for Laboratory Animals from the Viewpoint of Clinical Veterinary Behavioral Medicine: Emphasis on Cats and Dogs

Behavioral wellness has become a recent focus for the care of laboratory animals, farm and zoo animals, and pets. Behavioral enrichment issues for these groups are more similar than dissimilar, and each group can learn from the other. The emphasis on overall enhancement for laboratory dogs and cats in this review includes an emphasis on behavioral enrichment. Understanding the range of behaviors, behavioral choices, and cognitive stimulation that cats and dogs exhibit under non-laboratory conditions can increase the ability of investigators to predict which enrichments are likely to be the most successful in the laboratory. Many of the enrichment strategies described are surprisingly straightforward and inexpensive to implement.