Steroidogenesis in the fetal testis and its susceptibility to disruption by exogenous compounds

Postnatal Dysregulation of Androgens in Extremely Preterm Male Infants

Context

Neurodevelopmental impairments are common among survivors of extremely preterm birth, particularly in males. Hyperactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis has been suggested as an underlying cause, but this has been poorly investigated.

Objective

Establish levels and temporal changes in circulating androgens in extremely preterm infant males.

Methods

Observational cohort study analyzing cord blood serum (n = 25) and postnatal plasma (n = 13) collected from day 0 until week 11 from infant males born at 22.8-27.9 weeks gestational age. Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) were determined using gas chromatography mass spectrometry, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) with the Luminex xMAP multiplex assay.

Results

Testosterone and DHT levels were higher on day 0 (median 4.27 and 0.30 ng/mL) than in cord blood (0.15 and 0.01 ng/mL) (P < .001 for both). Levels of the hormones then declined rapidly until day 5 (median 0.16 and 0.12 ng/mL), then remained relatively constant throughout the study period. Median levels of testosterone and DHT across the whole study period were approximately 6-fold higher than reported in utero levels. FSH and LH showed similar postnatal patterns as the androgens. SHBG steadily increased over time, and, as a result, the fraction of bioavailable testosterone declined with infant postnatal age.

Conclusion

The HPG axis is activated immediately after birth in extremely preterm infant males, resulting in an androgen pulse occurring several months earlier than during a normal pregnancy. The long-term implications of high androgen exposure during a sensitive neurodevelopmental period warrant further studies.

Endocrine-Disruptive Effects of Adenylate Cyclase Activator Forskolin: In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence

Forskolin (FSK) is a potent adenylate cyclase activator and may display endocrine-disruptive effects via the disruption of steroidogenesis. Here, we tested this hypothesis by use of the in vitro H295R steroidogenesis assay and the in vivo long-term medaka (Oryzias latipes) exposure assay. The results from the H295R assay demonstrated that the transcriptional levels of a series of genes involved in steroidogenesis, including HSD3B2, CYP11A, CYP11B2, CYP17, CYP19, and CYP21, were remarkably up-regulated. Meanwhile, the productions of estrogens (17β-estradiol (17β-E2) and estrone (E1)) and progestins (progesterone (PGT) and 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-HPT)) were significantly increased, and those of androgens (androstenedione (ADD) and testosterone (TTR)) were significantly inhibited. After waterborne exposure of medaka to FSK for 100 days, the gene expressions of HMGR, HSD17B1, CYP17B, CYP19A, and CYP21A were significantly enhanced in the gonads of male medaka. 17β-E2 was remarkably induced, although without statistical significance. In addition, the biomarker genes for estrogenicity, including VTG-I, VTG-II, CHG-H, and CHG-L, were significantly induced in male medaka livers. Pathological damage to their gonads was further identified. Therefore, the results demonstrated that FSK modulates the transcriptions of steroidogenesis genes and alters hormone levels in vitro and in vivo, which is a mark of endocrine disruption in organisms.

Endocrine disruption and male reproductive disorders: unanswered questions

Maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in human pregnancy is widely considered as an important cause of adverse changes in male reproductive health due to impaired foetal androgen production/action. However, the epidemiological evidence supporting this view is equivocal, except for certain phthalates, notably diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP). Maternal phthalate exposure levels associated with adverse reproductive changes in epidemiological studies are several thousand-fold lower than those needed to suppress foetal androgen production in rats, and direct studies using human foetal testis tissue show no effect of high phthalate exposure on androgen production. This conundrum is unexplained and raises fundamental questions. Human DEHP exposure is predominantly via food with highest exposure associated with consumption of a Western style (unhealthy) diet. This diet is also associated with increased exposure to the most common EDCs, whether persistent (chlorinated or fluorinated chemicals) or non-persistent (phthalates, bisphenols) compounds, which are found at highest levels in fatty and processed foods. Consequently, epidemiological studies associating EDC exposure and male reproductive health disorders are confounded by potential dietary effects, and vice versa. A Western diet/lifestyle in young adulthood is also associated with low sperm counts. Disentangling EDC and dietary effects in epidemiological studies is challenging. In pregnancy, a Western diet, EDC exposure, and maternal living in proximity to industrial sites are all associated with impaired foetal growth/development due to placental dysfunction, which predisposes to congenital male reproductive disorders (cryptorchidism, hypospadias). While the latter are considered to reflect impaired foetal androgen production, effects resulting from foetal growth impairment (FGI) are likely indirect. As FGI has numerous life-long health consequences, and is affected by maternal lifestyle, research into the origins of male reproductive disorders should take more account of this. Additionally, potential effects on foetal growth/foetal testis from the increasing use of medications in pregnancy deserves more research attention.

Causal effects of omega-6 and LDL-C on androgenetic alopecia: A Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Increasing studies have reported a causal relationship between androgenetic alopecia (AGA) and lipid-related metabolites. However, the relationships between HDL-C, LDL-C, Omega-6, and Omega-3 with AGA remain unclear. Some research findings are even contradictory. Therefore, we designed this study to explore this issue.

METHODS

In this study, we selected seven exposure factors, screened SNPs with significant associations, removed linkage disequilibrium and weak instrumental variables, and conducted bidirectional MR analysis.

RESULTS

The study found that omega-6 and LDL-C, especially total cholesterol in medium LDL and total cholesterol in small LDL, are risk factors for the occurrence of androgenetic alopecia.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we found that various lipid-related metabolites have a causal relationship with the occurrence of androgenetic alopecia, providing new insights into the pathogenesis of androgenetic alopecia and offering references for clinical treatment of androgenetic alopecia.

Effects of microbiota-testis interactions on the reproductive health of male ruminants: A review

Ruminants are one of the world's economically important species, and their reproductive health is critical to the economic development of the livestock industry. In recent years, research on the relationship between microbiota and reproductive health has received much attention. Microbiota disruption affects the developmental health of the testes and epididymis, the male reproductive organs of the host, which in turn is related to sperm quality. Maintaining a stable microbiota protects the host from pathogens and increases breeding performance, which in turn promotes the economic development of animal husbandry. In addition, the effects and mechanisms of microbiota on reproduction were further explored. These findings support new approaches to improving and managing reproductive health in ruminants through the microbiota and facilitate further systematic exploration of microbiota-mediated reproductive impacts.

Endocrine-Disrupting Effects of Transplacental and Translactational Exposure to Tembotrione on Hormone Status in Wistar Rat Offspring at Different Developmental Stages: A Pilot Study

Green agronomy promotes the implementation of natural and naturally derived substances in crop protection. In the present study, we evaluated the endocrine-disrupting potential of the allelopathic herbicide tembotrione in Wistar rats by studying the hormone status of offspring from the treated dams. Three doses of tembotrione (0.0004, 0.0007, and 4.0 mg/kg b.w./day) have been administered to dams during gestation and/or lactation. In the serum of newborn, weaning, and pubertal female and male offspring, 17β-estradiol and testosterone were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A decrease in 17β-estradiol and testosterone was observed in female and male weaning and pubertal offspring exposed to all doses of tembotrione during gestation and lactation. In weaning offspring exposed only during lactation, 17β-estradiol dropped significantly after exposure to the two lower doses and testosterone after exposure to the lowest dose of tembotrione. The greatest effect was observed at the lowest dose of tembotrione. In newborns, we observed increased 17β-estradiol after exposure to two lower doses of tembotrione and significantly increased testosterone after exposure to the lowest dose. The highest dose of tembotrione decreased 17β-estradiol significantly in newborn females. The obtained results suggest that tembotrione might be considered a pro-estrogenic or estrogen agonistic compound under the exposure conditions applied in this investigation.

Vitamin D and reproductive disorders: a comprehensive review with a focus on endometriosis

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble steroid hormone that was initially known only for regulating calcium and phosphorus levels and maintaining bone health. However, it was later discovered that many organs express vitamin D metabolizing enzymes and have a ligand for vitamin D, which regulates the expression of an extensive assortment of genes. As a result, vitamin D is indispensable for the proper function of organs, and its deficiency is believed to be a critical factor in symptoms and disorders such as cardiovascular diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancers. The significance of vitamin D in reproductive tissues was recognized later, and studies have revealed its crucial role in male and female fertility, as well as proper reproductive function during pregnancy. Vitamin D deficiency has been identified as a risk factor for infertility, gonadal cancers, pregnancy complications, polycystic ovary syndrome, and endometriosis. However, data investigating the association between vitamin D levels and reproductive disorders, including endometriosis, have encountered inconsistencies. Therefore, the present study aims to review existing research on the effect of vitamin D on proper reproductive function, and the role of deficiency in reproductive diseases and specifically focuses on endometriosis.

Testosterone is closely related to Leydig cell activity, environmental factors, and androgen receptor distribution in adult male lizards of Liolaemus cuyanus (Reptilia: Liolaemidae) during the reproductive cycle

Testosterone, the primary sex hormone in male lizards, is closely linked to Leydig cell activity (the cells where steroidogenesis occurs) throughout the reproductive cycle, but testosterone action is related to androgen receptors (ARs) distribution in the seminiferous epithelium. In temperate zones, environmental factors detected through the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, downregulate plasma testosterone, resulting in a seasonal reproductive cycle. The aim of this work is to study plasma testosterone in adult male lizards of Liolaemus cuyanus, an oviparous species, throughout its reproductive cycle and its relationship with Leydig cell histology, TotalLeydigCell/ActiveLeydigCell (TLC/ALC) ratio, environmental factors (temperature, relative humidity and solar irradiation) and ARs distribution in seminiferous epithelium. Specimens (N = 27) were captured (October to March) in a semi-arid zone (Valle de Matagusanos, San Juan, Argentina) and grouped into three relevant reproductive periods: pre-reproductive (PrR), reproductive (R), and post-reproductive (PsR). Significant differences in plasma testosterone were found among these periods, highest during R than in PsR. A significant positive correlation between plasma testosterone and TLC/ALC ratio was also observed. Plasma testosterone has a significant positive correlation only with solar irradiation, but not with the other variables. In PrR and R, ARs distribution was cytoplasmic and nuclear, shifting to only cytoplasmic in PsR. These results highlight the close correspondence between plasma testosterone, Leydig cell histology and activity, environmental factors, and ARs distribution, resulting in a synchronization that allows males of L. cuyanus to coordinate their reproductive cycle with the most favorable environmental conditions, probably for mating and birth of offspring.

Anogenital distance in a cohort of 169 infant boys with uni- or bilateral cryptorchidism including 18 boys with vanishing testes

STUDY QUESTION

Do different boys with different types of cryptorchidism exhibit different anogenital distances (AGDs)?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Length of AGD seemed to differ in different groups of patients with cryptorchidism.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

AGD, which is used as an indicator of prenatal androgen action, tends to be shorter in boys with cryptorchidism compared to unaffected boys. Shorter AGDs have also been reported in boys with hypospadias, in men with poor semen quality, and in men with testicular cancer.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A prospective descriptive cohort study was performed using data from consecutively selected boys with cryptorchidism (n = 169) operated in a single center over a period of 3 years (September 2019 to October 2022).

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

AGD was measured in 169 infant boys, at 3 to 26 months of age, during anesthesia with a vernier caliper measuring the distance from the anus to the base of the scrotum (AGDAS) and from the anus to the anterior base of the penis (AGDAP) in two body positions according to the methods by 'The Infant Development and the Environment Study' (TIDES) and 'Cambridge Baby Growth Study', resulting in four mean values per patient (TIDES AGDAS/AP and Cambridge AGDAS/AP). Normal values for AGD by age were set by our hospital Department of Growth and Reproduction based on a large cohort of healthy infant boys (n = 1940). Testicular biopsies were performed at orchidopexy as a clinical routine. The germ cell number (G/T) and type Ad spermatogonia number (AdS/T) per cross-sectional tubule of at least 100 and 250 tubules, respectively were measured and related to normal samples. Blood samples were obtained by venipuncture for measuring serum LH, FSH, and inhibin B. They were analyzed in our hospital Department of Growth and Reproduction where the normal reference was also established. Correlations between the four mean AGD measurements for each boy were evaluated by Spearman rank correlation analyses. The AGD measurement of every boy was transferred to the multiple of the median (MoM) of the normal AGD for age and named MoM AGD.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

There were 104 boysoperated for unilateral, and 47 boys operated for bilateral, undescended testes, whereas 18 boys had vanished testis including one boy with bilateral vanished testes. Only 6% of cases with vanished testes had a MoM AGD higher than the normal median compared to 32% with undescended testes (P < 0.05). MoM AGD increased with the age at surgery for boys with vanished testis (Spearman r = 0.44), but not for boys with undescended testes (Spearman r = 0.14). Boys with bilateral cryptorchidism had longer AGDs and more often had hypogonadotropic hypogonadism than boys with unilateral cryptorchidism (P < 0.005) and (P < 0.000001).

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

Although being the largest published material of AGD measurements of infant boys with cryptorchidism, one limitation of this study covers the quite small number of patients in the different groups, which may decrease the statistical power. Another limitation involves the sparse normal reference material on G/T and AdS/T. Finally, there are currently no longitudinal studies evaluating AGD from birth to adulthood and evaluating childhood AGD in relation to fertility outcome. Our study is hypothesis generating and therefore the interpretation of the results should be regarded as exploratory rather than reaching definite conclusions.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The study findings are in agreement with literature as the total included group of boys with cryptorchidism exhibited shorter than normal AGDs. However, new insights were demonstrated. Boys with vanished testis had shorter AGDs compared to unaffected boys and to boys with undescended testes. This finding challenges the current concept of AGD being determined in 'the masculinization programming window' in Week 8 to 14 of gestation. Furthermore, boys with bilateral cryptorchidism had longer AGDs and more often had hypogonadotropic hypogonadism than boys with unilateral cryptorchidism, suggesting that the lack of fetal androgen in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is not that significant.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

No external funding was used and no competing interests are declared.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The trial was not registered in an ICMJE-recognized trial registry.

Fetal Leydig cells: What we know and what we don't

During male fetal development, testosterone plays an essential role in the differentiation and maturation of the male reproductive system. Deficient fetal testosterone production can result in variations of sex differentiation that may cause infertility and even increased tumor incidence later in life. Fetal Leydig cells in the fetal testis are the major androgen source in mammals. Although fetal and adult Leydig cells are similar in their functions, they are two distinct cell types, and therefore, the knowledge of adult Leydig cells cannot be directly applied to understanding fetal Leydig cells. This review summarizes our current knowledge of fetal Leydig cells regarding their cell biology, developmental biology, and androgen production regulation in rodents and human. Fetal Leydig cells are present in basement membrane-enclosed clusters in between testis cords. They originate from the mesonephros mesenchyme and the coelomic epithelium and start to differentiate upon receiving a Desert Hedgehog signal from Sertoli cells or being released from a NOTCH signal from endothelial cells. Mature fetal Leydig cells produce androgens. Human fetal Leydig cell steroidogenesis is LHCGR (Luteinizing Hormone Chronic Gonadotropin Receptor) dependent, while rodents are not, although other Gαs -protein coupled receptors might be involved in rodent steroidogenesis regulation. Fetal steroidogenesis ceases after sex differentiation is completed, and some fetal Leydig cells dedifferentiate to serve as stem cells for adult testicular cell types. Significant gaps are acknowledged: (1) Why are adult and fetal Leydig cells different? (2) What are bona fide progenitor and fetal Leydig cell markers? (3) Which signaling pathways and transcription factors regulate fetal Leydig cell steroidogenesis? It is critical to discover answers to these questions so that we can understand vulnerable targets in fetal Leydig cells and the mechanisms for androgen production that when disrupted, leads to variations in sex differentiation that range from subtle to complete sex reversal.

Molecular pathways in placental-fetal development and disruption

The first trimester of pregnancy ranks high in priority when minimizing harmful exposures, given the wide-ranging types of organogenesis occurring between 4- and 12-weeks' gestation. One way to quantify potential harm to the fetus in the first trimester is to measure a corollary effect on the placenta. Placental biomarkers are widely present in maternal circulation, cord blood, and placental tissue biopsied at birth or at the time of pregnancy termination. Here we evaluate ten diverse pathways involving molecules expressed in the first trimester human placenta based on their relevance to normal fetal development and to the hypothesis of placental-fetal endocrine disruption (perturbation in development that results in abnormal endocrine function in the offspring), namely: human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), thyroid hormone regulation, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor protein gamma (PPARγ), leptin, transforming growth factor beta, epiregulin, growth differentiation factor 15, small nucleolar RNAs, serotonin, and vitamin D. Some of these are well-established as biomarkers of placental-fetal endocrine disruption, while others are not well studied and were selected based on discovery analyses of the placental transcriptome. A literature search on these biomarkers summarizes evidence of placenta-specific production and regulation of each biomarker, and their role in fetal reproductive tract, brain, and other specific domains of fetal development. In this review, we extend the theory of fetal programming to placental-fetal programming.

Placental single cell transcriptomics: Opportunities for endocrine disrupting chemical toxicology

The placenta performs essential biologic functions for fetal development throughout pregnancy. Placental dysfunction is at the root of multiple adverse birth outcomes such as intrauterine growth restriction, preeclampsia, and preterm birth. Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals during pregnancy can cause placental dysfunction, and many prior human studies have examined molecular changes in bulk placental tissues. Placenta-specific cell types, including cytotrophoblasts, syncytiotrophoblasts, extravillous trophoblasts, and placental resident macrophage Hofbauer cells play unique roles in placental development, structure, and function. Toxicant-induced changes in relative abundance and/or impairment of these cell types likely contribute to placental pathogenesis. Although gene expression insights gained from bulk placental tissue RNA-sequencing data are useful, their interpretation is limited because bulk analysis can mask the effects of a chemical on individual populations of placental cells. Cutting-edge single cell RNA-sequencing technologies are enabling the investigation of placental cell-type specific responses to endocrine disrupting chemicals. Moreover, in situ bioinformatic cell deconvolution enables the estimation of cell type proportions in bulk placental tissue gene expression data. These emerging technologies have tremendous potential to provide novel mechanistic insights in a complex heterogeneous tissue with implications for toxicant contributions to adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Intergenerational effects on fertility in male and female mice after chronic exposure to environmental doses of NSAIDs and 17α-ethinylestradiol mixtures

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) are extensively used in human and veterinary medicine. Due to their partial removal by wastewater treatment plants, they are frequent environmental contaminants, particularly in drinking water. Here, we investigated the adverse outcomes of chronic exposure to mixtures of NSAIDs (ibuprofen, 2hydroxy-ibuprofen, diclofenac) and EE2 at two environmentally relevant doses in drinking water, on the reproductive organ development and fertility in F1-exposed male and female mice and in their F2 offspring. In male and female F1 mice, which were exposed to these mixtures, reproductive organ maturation, estrous cyclicity, and spermiogenesis were altered. These defects were observed also in F2 animals, in addition to some specific sperm parameter alterations in F2 males. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significant changes in gene expression patterns and associated pathways implicated in testis and ovarian physiology. Chronic exposure of mice to NSAID and EE2 mixtures at environmental doses intergenerationally affected male and female fertility (i.e. total number of pups and time between litters). Our study provides new insights into the adverse effects of these pharmaceuticals on the reproductive health and will facilitate the implementation of a future regulatory environmental risk assessment of NSAIDs and EE2 for human health.

Sex-based differences in placental DNA methylation profiles related to gestational age: an NIH ECHO meta-analysis

The placenta undergoes many changes throughout gestation to support the evolving needs of the foetus. There is also a growing appreciation that male and female foetuses develop differently in utero, with unique epigenetic changes in placental tissue. Here, we report meta-analysed sex-specific associations between gestational age and placental DNA methylation from four cohorts in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Programme (355 females/419 males, gestational ages 23-42 weeks). We identified 407 cytosine-guanine dinucleotides (CpGs) in females and 794 in males where placental methylation levels were associated with gestational age. After cell-type adjustment, 55 CpGs in females and 826 in males were significant. These were enriched for biological processes critical to the immune system in females and transmembrane transport in males. Our findings are distinct between the sexes: in females, associations with gestational age are largely explained by differences in placental cellular composition, whereas in males, gestational age is directly associated with numerous alterations in methylation levels.

Serum steroid metabolite profiling by LC-MS/MS in two phenotypic male patients with HSD17B3 deficiency: Implications for hormonal diagnosis

Although 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (HSD17B3) deficiency is diagnosed when a testosterone/androstenedione (T/A-dione) ratio after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulation is below 0.8, this cut-off value is primarily based on hormonal data measured by conventional immunoassay (IA) in patients with feminized or ambiguous genitalia. We examined two 46,XY Japanese patients with undermasculinized genitalia including hypospadias (patient 1 and patient 2). Endocrine studies by IA showed well increased serum T value after hCG stimulation (2.91 ng/mL) and a high T/A-dione ratio (4.04) in patient 1 at 2 weeks of age and sufficiently elevated basal serum T value (2.60 ng/mL) in patient 2 at 1.5 months of age. Despite such partial androgen insensitivity syndrome-like findings, whole exome sequencing identified biallelic ″pathogenic″ or ″likely pathogenic″ variants in HSD17B3 (c .188 C>T:p.(Ala63Val) and c .194 C>T:p.(Ser65Leu) in patient 1, and c.139 A>G:p.(Met47Val) and c.672 + 1 G>A in patient 2) (NM_000197.2), and functional analysis revealed reduced HSD17B3 activities of the missense variants (∼ 43% for p.Met47Val, ∼ 14% for p.Ala63Val, and ∼ 0% for p.Ser65Leu). Thus, we investigated hCG-stimulated serum steroid metabolite profiles by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in patient 1 at 7 months of age and in patient 2 at 11 months of age as well as in five control males with idiopathic micropenis aged 1 - 8 years, and found markedly high T/A-dione ratios (12.3 in patient 1 and 5.4 in patient 2) which were, however, obviously lower than those in the control boys (25.3 - 56.1) and sufficiently increased T values comparable to those of control males. The elevated T/A-dione ratios are considered be due to the residual HSD17B3 function and the measurement by LC-MS/MS. Thus, it is recommended to establish the cut-off value for the T/A-dione ratio according to the phenotypic sex reflecting the residual function and the measurement method.

Low placental weight may be involved in the etiology of congenital cryptorchidism in neonatal boys

INTRODUCTION

Several factors have been reported to be associated with the etiology of cryptorchidism; however, clear evidence regarding the risk factors for cryptorchidism is elusive. In the present study, we evaluated the clinical characteristics of cryptorchidism using the common neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU) database of the National Hospital Organization and explored one of possible factors associated with the development of cryptorchidism.

METHODS

A total of 7882 male neonates were included in this study. We separated them into two groups: those without cryptorchidism (n = 7852) and those with cryptorchidism (n = 30) at the time of discharge from the NICU. Cryptorchidism was defined as a condition in which the testis was located out of the scrotum on the route of descent at the time of NICU discharge. The associations between cryptorchidism and the maternal, placental, and neonatal information were analyzed. Analyses were performed statistically to compare nominal variables between the groups using Fisher's direct establishment calculation method and logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Univariate analyses showed the placental weight <10% tile (odds ratio 3.31, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.18-8.64), birth height <-2 standard deviations (SD) (odds ratio 3.65, 95% CI 0.92-10.6), birth weight <-2SD (odds ratio 4.06, 95% CI 1.55-9.51), and small for gestational age (odds ratio 3.82, 95% CI 1.46-8.97) were significantly associated with the development of cryptorchidism. Multivariate analyses showed that placental weight <10th percentile (odds ratio 2.86, 95% CI 1.11-7.44) was significantly associated with the development of cryptorchidism.

DISCUSSION

Although, this study population was limited to infants admitted to the ICU, the data indicated a possible association between low placental weight and the development of cryptorchidism in neonatal boys.

Abnormal DNA methylation within genes of the steroidogenesis pathway two years after paediatric critical illness and association with stunted growth in height further in time

BACKGROUND

Former critically ill children show an epigenetic age deceleration 2 years after paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission as compared with normally developing healthy children, with stunted growth in height 2 years further in time as physical correlate. This was particularly pronounced in children who were 6 years or older at the time of critical illness. As this age roughly corresponds to the onset of adrenarche and further pubertal development, a relation with altered activation of endocrine pathways is plausible. We hypothesised that children who have been admitted to the PICU, sex- and age-dependently show long-term abnormal DNA methylation within genes involved in steroid hormone synthesis or steroid sulphation/desulphation, possibly aggravated by in-PICU glucocorticoid treatment, which may contribute to stunted growth in height further in time after critical illness.

RESULTS

In this preplanned secondary analysis of the multicentre PEPaNIC-RCT and its follow-up, we compared the methylation status of genes involved in the biosynthesis of steroid hormones (aldosterone, cortisol and sex hormones) and steroid sulphation/desulphation in buccal mucosa DNA (Infinium HumanMethylation EPIC BeadChip) from former PICU patients at 2-year follow-up (n = 818) and healthy children with comparable sex and age (n = 392). Adjusting for technical variation and baseline risk factors and corrected for multiple testing (false discovery rate < 0.05), former PICU patients showed abnormal DNA methylation of 23 CpG sites (within CYP11A1, POR, CYB5A, HSD17B1, HSD17B2, HSD17B3, HSD17B6, HSD17B10, HSD17B12, CYP19A1, CYP21A2, and CYP11B2) and 4 DNA regions (within HSD17B2, HSD17B8, and HSD17B10) that were mostly hypomethylated. These abnormalities were partially sex- (1 CpG site) or age-dependent (7 CpG sites) and affected by glucocorticoid treatment (3 CpG sites). Finally, multivariable linear models identified robust associations of abnormal methylation of steroidogenic genes with shorter height further in time, at 4-year follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Children who have been critically ill show abnormal methylation within steroidogenic genes 2 years after PICU admission, which explained part of the stunted growth in height at 4-year follow-up. The abnormalities in DNA methylation may point to a long-term disturbance in the balance between active sex steroids and mineralocorticoids/glucocorticoids after paediatric critical illness, which requires further investigation.

Expression of the endocannabinoid system and response to cannabinoid components by the human fetal testis

BACKGROUND

Cannabis consumption by pregnant women continues to increase worldwide, raising concerns about adverse effects on fetal growth and deleterious impacts on the newborn, in connection with evidence of placental transfer of cannabis compound. Cannabis action is mediated by the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which expression is well established in the brain but unknown in the developing testis. The fetal testis, whose endocrine function orchestrates the masculinization of many distant organs, is particularly sensitive to disruption by xenobiotics. In this context, we aimed to determine whether cannabis exposure has the potential to directly impact the human fetal testis.

METHODS

We determined the expression of components of the ECS in the human fetal testis from 6 to 17 developmental weeks and assessed the direct effects of phytocannabinoids Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) on the testis morphology and cell functions ex vivo.

RESULTS

We demonstrate the presence in the human fetal testis of two key endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) and to a lower level anandamide (AEA), as well as a range of enzymes and receptors for the ECS. Ex vivo exposure of first trimester testes to CBD, THC, or CBD/THC [ratio 1:1] at 10^-7 to 10^-5 M altered testosterone secretion by Leydig cells, AMH secretion by Sertoli cells, and impacted testicular cell proliferation and viability as early as 72 h post-exposure. Transcriptomic analysis on 72 h-exposed fetal testis explants revealed 187 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including genes involved in steroid synthesis and toxic substance response. Depending on the molecules and testis age, highly deleterious effects of phytocannabinoid exposure were observed on testis tissue after 14 days, including Sertoli and germ cell death.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first to evidence the presence of the ECS in the human fetal testis and to highlight the potential adverse effect of cannabis consumption by pregnant women onto the development of the male gonad.

Interlaboratory prevalidation of a new in vitro transcriptional activation assay for the screening of (anti-)androgenic activity of chemicals using the UALH-hAR cell line

We report an interlaboratory evaluation of a recently developed androgen receptor (AR) transactivation assay using the UALH-hAR reporter cell line that stably expresses the luciferase gene under the transcriptional control of androgen receptor elements (AREs) with no glucocorticoid receptor (GR) crosstalk. Herein, a two-step prevalidation study involving three laboratories was conducted to assess performance criteria of the method such as transferability as well as robustness, sensitivity, and specificity. The first step consisted in the validation of the transfer of the cell line to participant laboratories through the testing of three reference chemicals: the AR agonist dihydrotestosterone, the AR antagonist hydroxyflutamide and the glucocorticoid dexamethasone. Secondly, a blinded study was conducted by screening a selection of ten chemicals, including four AR agonists, five AR antagonists, and one non-active chemical. All test compounds yielded the same activity profiles in all laboratories. The logEC₅₀ (agonist assay) or logIC₅₀ (antagonist assay) were in the same range, with intra-laboratory coefficients of variation (CVs) of 0.1-3.4% and interlaboratory CVs of 1-4%, indicating very good within- and between-laboratory reproducibility. Our results were consistent with literature and regulatory data (OECD TG458). Overall, this interlaboratory study demonstrated that the UALH-hAR assay is transferable, produces reliable, accurate and specific (anti)androgenic activity of chemicals, and can be considered for further regulatory validation.

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Influence Hub Genes Associated with Aggressive Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers among men in the world. Its prevention has been limited because of an incomplete understanding of how environmental exposures to chemicals contribute to the molecular pathogenesis of aggressive PCa. Environmental exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may mimic hormones involved in PCa development. This research aims to identify EDCs associated with PCa hub genes and/or transcription factors (TF) of these hub genes in addition to their protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. We are expanding upon the scope of our previous work, using six PCa microarray datasets, namely, GSE46602, GSE38241, GSE69223, GSE32571, GSE55945, and GSE26126, from the NCBI/GEO, to select differentially expressed genes based on |log2FC| (fold change) ≥ 1 and an adjusted p-value < 0.05. An integrated bioinformatics analysis was used for enrichment analysis (using DAVID.6.8, GO, KEGG, STRING, MCODE, CytoHubba, and GeneMANIA). Next, we validated the association of these PCa hub genes in RNA-seq PCa cases and controls from TCGA. The influence of environmental chemical exposures, including EDCs, was extrapolated using the chemical toxicogenomic database (CTD). A total of 369 overlapping DEGs were identified associated with biological processes, such as cancer pathways, cell division, response to estradiol, peptide hormone processing, and the p53 signaling pathway. Enrichment analysis revealed five up-regulated (NCAPG, MKI67, TPX2, CCNA2, CCNB1) and seven down-regulated (CDK1, CCNB2, AURKA, UBE2C, BUB1B, CENPF, RRM2) hub gene expressions. Expression levels of these hub genes were significant in PCa tissues with high Gleason scores ≥ 7. These identified hub genes influenced disease-free survival and overall survival of patients 60-80 years of age. The CTD studies showed 17 recognized EDCs that affect TFs (NFY, CETS1P54, OLF1, SRF, COMP1) that are known to bind to our PCa hub genes, namely, NCAPG, MKI67, CCNA2, CDK1, UBE2C, and CENPF. These validated differentially expressed hub genes can be potentially developed as molecular biomarkers with a systems perspective for risk assessment of a wide-ranging list of EDCs that may play overlapping and important role(s) in the prognosis of aggressive PCa.

Applying the adverse outcome pathway concept for assessing non-monotonic dose responses: biphasic effect of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on testosterone levels

Male reproduction is one of the primary health endpoints identified in rodent studies for some phthalates, such as DEHP (Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), DBP (Dibutyl phthalate), and BBP (Benzyl butyl phthalate). The reduction in testosterone level was used as an intermediate key event for grouping some phthalates and to establish a reference point for risk assessment. Phthalates, and specifically DEHP, are one of the chemicals for which the greatest number of non-monotonic dose responses (NMDRs) are observed. These NMDRs cover different endpoints and situations, often including testosterone levels. The presence of NMDR has been the subject of some debate within the area of chemical risk assessment, which is traditionally anchored around driving health-based guidance values for apical endpoints that typically follow a clear monotonic dose-response. The consequence of NMDR for chemical risk assessment has recently received considerable attention amongst regulatory agencies, which confirmed its relevance particularly for receptor-mediated effects. The present review explores the relationship between DEHP exposure and testosterone levels, investigating the biological plausibility of the observed NMDRs. The Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept is applied to integrate NMDRs into Key Event Relationships (KERs) for exploring a mechanistic understanding of initial key events and possibly associated reproductive and non-reproductive adverse outcomes.

Modeling Human Gonad Development in Organoids

BACKGROUND

Our learning about human reproductive development is greatly hampered due to the absence of an adequate model. Animal studies cannot truthfully recapitulate human developmental processes, and studies of human fetal tissues are limited by their availability and ethical restrictions. Innovative three-dimensional (3D) organoid technology utilizing human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) offered a new approach to study tissue and organ development in vitro. However, a system for modeling human gonad development has not been established, thus, limiting our ability to study causes of infertility.

METHODS

In our study we utilized the 3D hPSC organoid culture in mini-spin bioreactors. Relying on intrinsic self-organizing and differentiation capabilities of stem cells, we explored whether organoids could mimic the development of human embryonic and fetal gonad.

RESULTS

We have developed a simple, bioreactor-based organoid system for modeling early human gonad development. Male hPSC-derived organoids follow the embryonic gonad developmental trajectory and differentiate into multipotent progenitors, which further specialize into testicular supporting and interstitial cells. We demonstrated functional activity of the generated cell types by analyzing the expression of cell type-specific markers. Furthermore, the specification of gonadal progenitors in organoid culture was accompanied by the characteristic architectural tissue organization.

CONCLUSION

This organoid system opens the opportunity for detailed studies of human gonad and germ cell development that can advance our understanding of sex development disorders. Implementation of human gonad organoid technology could be extended to modeling causes of infertility and regenerative medicine applications.

The Androgen Metabolome of Preterm Infants Reflects Fetal Adrenal Gland Involution

CONTEXT

The human adrenal cortex changes with fetal-neonatal transition from the fetal to the adult organ, accompanied by changes in the steroid metabolome.

OBJECTIVE

As it is unclear how the observed developmental changes differ between preterm and full-term neonates, we investigated whether the involution of the fetal adrenals is following a fixed time course related to postmenstrual age or whether it is triggered by birth. Furthermore, the fetal and postnatal androgen metabolome of preterm infants was characterized in comparison to term babies.

METHODS

This was a prospective, longitudinal, 2-center study collecting spot urines of preterm and term infants during the first 12 to 18 months of life. Steroid metabolites were measured from spot urines by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Data relating were modeled according to established pre- and postnatal pathways.

RESULTS

Fetal adrenal involution occurs around term-equivalent age in preterm infants and is not triggered by premature birth. Testosterone levels are higher in preterm infants at birth and decline slower until term compared to full-term babies. Dihydrotestosterone levels and the activity of the classic androgen biosynthesis pathway are lower in premature infants as is 5α-reductase activity. No difference was found in the activity of the alternate backdoor pathway for androgen synthesis.

CONCLUSION

Human adrenal involution follows a strict timing that is not affected by premature birth. By contrast, prematurity is associated with an altered androgen metabolome after birth. Whether this reflects altered androgen biosynthesis in utero remains to be investigated.

Linagliptin and Vitamin D3 Synergistically Rescue Testicular Steroidogenesis and Spermatogenesis in Cisplatin-Exposed Rats: The Crosstalk of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress with NF-κB/iNOS Activation

This study investigated the therapeutic effect of linagliptin and/or vitamin D3 on testicular steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis in cisplatin-exposed rats including their impact on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and NF-κB/iNOS crosstalk. Cisplatin (7 mg/kg, IP) was injected into adult male albino rats which then were orally treated with drug vehicle, linagliptin (3 mg/kg/day), vitamin D3 (10 μg/kg/day) or both drugs for four weeks. Age-matched rats were used as the control group. Serum samples and testes were collected for further analyses. Cisplatin induced testicular weight loss, deteriorated testicular architecture, loss of germ cells and declined serum and intra-testicular testosterone levels, compared to the control group. There was down-regulation of steroidogenic markers including StAR, CYP11A1, HSD3b and HSD17b in cisplatin-exposed rats, compared with controls. Cisplatin-exposed rats showed up-regulation of ER stress markers in testicular tissue along with increased expression of NF-κB and iNOS in spermatogenic and Leydig cells. These perturbations were almost reversed by vitamin D3 or linagliptin. The combined therapy exerted a more remarkable effect on testicular dysfunction than either monotherapy. These findings suggest a novel therapeutic application for linagliptin combined with vitamin D3 to restore testicular architecture, aberrant steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis after cisplatin exposure. These effects may be attributed to suppression of ER stress and NF-kB/iNOS.

Identification of a window of androgen sensitivity for somatic cell function in human fetal testis cultured ex vivo

BACKGROUND

Reduced androgen action during early fetal development has been suggested as the origin of reproductive disorders comprised within the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). This hypothesis has been supported by studies in rats demonstrating that normal male development and adult reproductive function depend on sufficient androgen exposure during a sensitive fetal period, called the masculinization programming window (MPW). The main aim of this study was therefore to examine the effects of manipulating androgen production during different timepoints during early human fetal testis development to identify the existence and timing of a possible window of androgen sensitivity resembling the MPW in rats.

METHODS

The effects of experimentally reduced androgen exposure during different periods of human fetal testis development and function were examined using an established and validated human ex vivo tissue culture model. The androgen production was reduced by treatment with ketoconazole and validated by treatment with flutamide which blocks the androgen receptor. Testicular hormone production ex vivo was measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry or ELISA assays, and selected protein markers were assessed by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Ketoconazole reduced androgen production in testes from gestational weeks (GW) 7-21, which were subsequently divided into four age groups: GW 7-10, 10-12, 12-16 and 16-21. Additionally, reduced secretion of testicular hormones INSL3, AMH and Inhibin B was observed, but only in the age groups GW 7-10 and 10-12, while a decrease in the total density of germ cells and OCT4⁺ gonocytes was found in the GW 7-10 age group. Flutamide treatment in specimens aged GW 7-12 did not alter androgen production, but the secretion of INSL3, AMH and Inhibin B was reduced, and a reduced number of pre-spermatogonia was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that reduced androgen action during early development affects the function and density of several cell types in the human fetal testis, with similar effects observed after ketoconazole and flutamide treatment. The effects were only observed within the GW 7-14 period-thereby indicating the presence of a window of androgen sensitivity in the human fetal testis.

Associations of maternal urinary bisphenol and phthalate concentrations with offspring reproductive development

Fetal exposure to bisphenols and phthalates may influence development of the reproductive system. In a population-based, prospective cohort study of 1059 mother-child pairs, we examined the associations of maternal gestational urinary bisphenols and phthalates concentrations with offspring reproductive development from infancy until 13 years. We measured urinary bisphenol and phthalate concentrations in each trimester. We obtained information on cryptorchidism or hypospadias after birth from medical records. At 9.7 years, we measured testicular and ovarian volume by MRI. At 13.5 years, we measured child Tanner stages and menstruation through questionnaire. We performed linear or logistic regression models for boys and girls to assess the associations of maternal urinary average and trimester-specific bisphenols and phthalates with child reproductive outcomes. Next, to further explore potential synergistic or additive effects of exposures together, we performed mixed exposure models using a quantile g computation approach. Models were adjusted for maternal age, ethnicity, body-mass index, education, parity, energy intake, smoking and alcohol use, and child's gestational age at birth, birthweight and body-mass index. In boys, no associations of maternal gestational phthalate or bisphenol with offspring cryptorchidism and hypospadias were found. Higher maternal high-molecular-weight phthalate and total bisphenol, but not phthalic acid or low-molecular-weight phthalate, were associated with larger child testicular volume at 10 years. Higher maternal phthalic acid and total bisphenol were associated with earlier genital and pubic hair development at 13 years, respectively (p-values<0.05). In girls, we found no associations of maternal urinary bisphenol and phthalate with ovarian volume or menstrual age. Only higher maternal urinary high-molecular-weight phthalate was associated with earlier pubic hair development at 13 years (p-values <0.05). Higher mixture exposure was associated with earlier pubic hair development in both sexes. In conclusion, higher maternal gestational urinary bisphenol and phthalate concentrations were associated with alterations in offspring reproductive development, mainly in boys.

The Effect of a Combination of Eucommia ulmoides and Achyranthes japonica on Alleviation of Testosterone Deficiency in Aged Rat Models

With aging, men inevitably encounter irreversible changes, including progressive loss of testosterone and physical strength, and increased fat mass. To assess the alleviatory effects of EUAJ on andropause symptoms, including in vivo testosterone deficiency, we administered EUAJ for 6 weeks in 22-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats. Before EUAJ (3:1) (E. ulmoides:A. japonica = 3:1, KGC08EA) administration, testosterone decline in 22-week-old SD rats was confirmed compared to 7-week-old SD rats (NC group). After administration of EUAJ (3:1) at 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg for 6 weeks, testosterone, free testosterone, and mRNA expression levels (Cyp11a1 and Hsd3b1) were significantly increased at 40 mg/kg EUAJ (3:1), whereas mRNA expression levels of Cyp19a1 and Srd5a2 were significantly reduced at this concentration, compared to the control group. Swimming retention time was significantly increased at both 40 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg. In summary, EUAJ (3:1) enhanced testosterone production by increasing bioavailable testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), and enzymes related to testosterone synthesis at 40 mg/kg. In addition, 80 mg/kg EUAJ (3:1) also increased physical and testicular functions.

Testicular Sertoli Cell Hormones in Differences in Sex Development

The Sertoli cells of the testes play an essential role during gonadal development, in addition to supporting subsequent germ cell survival and spermatogenesis. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a member of the TGF-β superfamily, which is secreted by immature Sertoli cells from the 8th week of fetal gestation. lnhibin B is a glycoprotein, which is produced by the Sertoli cells from early in fetal development. In people with a Difference or Disorder of Sex Development (DSD), these hormones may be useful to determine the presence of testicular tissue and potential for spermatogenesis. However, fetal Sertoli cell development and function is often dysregulated in DSD conditions and altered production of Sertoli cell hormones may be detected throughout the life course in these individuals. As such this review will consider the role of AMH and inhibin B in individuals with DSD.

Sheep as a model for neuroendocrinology research

Animal models remain essential to understand the fundamental mechanisms of physiology and pathology. Particularly, the complex and dynamic nature of neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus make them difficult to study. The neuroendocrine systems of the hypothalamus are critical for survival and reproduction, and are highly conserved throughout vertebrate evolution. Their roles in controlling body metabolism, growth and body composition, stress, electrolyte balance, and reproduction, have been intensively studied, and have yielded groundbreaking discoveries. Many of these discoveries would not have been feasible without the use of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries). The sheep has been used for decades to study the neuroendocrine systems of the hypothalamus and has become a model for human neuroendocrinology. The aim of this chapter is to review some of the profound biomedical discoveries made possible by the use of sheep. The advantages and limitations of sheep as a neuroendocrine model will be discussed. While no animal model can perfectly recapitulate a human disease or condition, sheep are invaluable for enabling manipulations not possible in human subjects and isolating physiologic variables to garner insight into neuroendocrinology and associated pathologies.

A rare cause of primary amenorrhea: LHCGR gene mutations

INTRODUCTION

The luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR) plays a critical role in sexual differentiation and reproductive functions in men and women. Inactivating mutations in this gene lead to Leydig cell hypoplasia (LCH), and cause disorders of sex development (DSD) in patients with 46,XY. In this study, it was aimed to discuss the clinical, laboratory and molecular genetic analysis results of nine patients with 46,XY karyotype who had mutations in the LHCGR gene.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ages, complaints, anthropometric measurements and hormonal results (follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone) of the patients at the time of admission were recorded retrospectively from their medical records. The mutations in the LHCGR gene were investigated using the Sanger sequencing method.

FINDINGS

In this study, LHCGR gene mutations were detected in a total of nine patients as a result of the analysis of the index patients presenting with primary amenorrhea from four different families and the examination of the families. In the first three families with no consanguinity between, the same mutation was detected in seven patients in total (Homozygous c.161 + 4A > G). A different mutation was detected in the fourth family (Homozygous p.A483D c.1448C > A).

CONCLUSION

In this study, nine patients with karyotype 46,XY, most of whom presented with the complaint of delayed puberty/primary amenorrhea, were diagnosed with LCH. Especially in patients, in whom the elevation of LH is pronounced and there is no testosterone synthesis, LCH should be considered.

Review of the environmental occurrence, analytical techniques, degradation and toxicity of TBBPA and its derivatives

BFRs (brominated flame retardants) are a class of compounds that are added to or applied to polymeric materials to avoid or reduce the spread of fire. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is one of the known BFR used many in industries today. Due to its wide application as an additive flame retardant in commodities, TBBPA has become a common indoor contaminant. Recent researches have raised concerns about the possible hazardous effect of exposure to TBBPA and its derivatives in humans and wildlife. This review gives a thorough assessment of the literature on TBBPA and its derivatives, as well as environmental levels and human exposure. Several analytical techniques/methods have been developed for sensitive and accurate analysis of TBBPA and its derivatives in different compartments. These chemicals have been detected in practically every environmental compartment globally, making them a ubiquitous pollutant. TBBPA may be subject to adsorption, biological degradation or photolysis, photolysis after being released into the environment. Treatment of TBBPA-containing waste, as well as manufacturing and usage regulations, can limit the release of these chemicals to the environment and the health hazards associated with its exposure. Several methods have been successfully employed for the treatment of TBBPA including but not limited to adsorption, ozonation, oxidation and anaerobic degradation. Previous studies have shown that TBBPA and its derivative cause a lot of toxic effects. Diet and dust ingestion and have been identified as the main routes of TBBPA exposure in the general population, according to human exposure studies. Toddlers are more vulnerable than adults to be exposed to indoor dust through inadvertent ingestion. Furthermore, TBBP-A exposure can occur during pregnancy and through breast milk. This review will go a long way in closing up the knowledge gap on the silent and over ignored deadly effects of TBBPA and its derivatives and their attendant consequences.

The Fate of Leydig Cells in Men with Spermatogenic Failure

The steroidogenic cells in the testicle, Leydig cells, located in the interstitial compartment, play a vital role in male reproductive tract development, maintenance of proper spermatogenesis, and overall male reproductive function. Therefore, their dysfunction can lead to all sorts of testicular pathologies. Spermatogenesis failure, manifested as azoospermia, is often associated with defective Leydig cell activity. Spermatogenic failure is the most severe form of male infertility, caused by disorders of the testicular parenchyma or testicular hormone imbalance. This review covers current progress in knowledge on Leydig cells origin, structure, and function, and focuses on recent advances in understanding how Leydig cells contribute to the impairment of spermatogenesis.

The GnRH Antagonist Degarelix Suppresses Gonadotropin Secretion and Pituitary Sensitivity in Midgestation Sheep Fetuses

The specific role of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) on brain sexual differentiation remains unclear. To investigate whether gonadotropin and, in turn, testosterone (T) secretion is regulated by GnRH during the critical period for brain differentiation in sheep fetuses, we attempted to selectively suppress pituitary-testicular activation during midgestation with the long-acting GnRH antagonist degarelix. Fetuses received subcutaneous injections of the antagonist or vehicle on day 62 of gestation. After 2 to 3 weeks we examined consequences of the intervention on baseline and GnRH-stimulated plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) and T levels. In addition, we measured the effect of degarelix-treatment on messenger RNA (mRNA) expression for the pituitary gonadotropins and key gonadal steroidogenic enzymes. Baseline and GnRH-stimulated plasma LH levels were significantly suppressed in degarelix-treated male and female fetuses compared to control values. Similarly, T concentrations were suppressed in degarelix-treated males. The percentage of LHβ-immunoreactive cells colocalizing c-fos was significantly reduced by degarelix treatment indicating that pituitary sensitivity was inhibited. Degarelix treatment also led to the significant suppression of mRNA expression coding for the pituitary gonadotropin subunits and for the gonadal enzymes involved in androgen synthesis. These findings demonstrate that pharmacologic inhibition of GnRH early in gestation results in suppression of LH secretion and deficits in the plasma T levels of male lamb fetuses. We conclude that GnRH signaling plays a pivotal role for regulating T exposure during the critical period of sheep gestation when the brain is masculinized. Thus, disturbance to gonadotropin secretion during this phase of gestation could have long-term consequence on adult sexual behaviors and fertility.

Application of 4-way decomposition to the analysis of placental-fetal biomarkers as intermediary variables between maternal body mass index and birthweight

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a placental hormone measured in pregnancy to predict individual level risk of fetal aneuploidy and other complications; yet may be useful in understanding placental origins of child development more generally. hCG was associated with maternal body mass index (BMI) and with birthweight. The primary aim here was to evaluate hCG as a mediator of maternal BMI effects on birthweight by causal mediation analysis. Subjects were 356 women from 3 U.S. sites (2010-2013). The 4-way decomposition method using med4way (STATA) was applied to screen for 5 types of effects of first trimester maternal BMI on birthweight: the total effect, the direct effect, mediation by hCG, additive interaction of BMI and hCG, and mediation in the presence of an additive interaction. Effect modification by fetal sex was evaluated, and a sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the assumption of unmeasured confounding. Additional placental-fetal biomarkers [pregnancy associated plasma protein A (PAPPA), second trimester hCG, inhibin-A, estriol, alpha fetoprotein] were analyzed for comparison. For first trimester hCG, there was a 0.20 standard deviation increase in birthweight at the 75th vs. 25th percentile of maternal BMI (95% CI 0.04, 0.36). Once stratified, the direct effect association was null in women carrying females. In women carrying males, hCG did not mediate the relationship. In women carrying females, there was a mediated effect of maternal BMI on birthweight by hCG in the reverse direction (-0.06, 95% CI: -0.12, 0.01), and a mediated interaction in the positive direction (0.06, 95% CI 0.00, 0.13). In women carrying males, the maternal BMI effect on birthweight was reverse mediated by PAPPA (-0.09, 95% CI: -0.17, 0.00). Sex-specific mediation was mostly present in the first trimester. Second trimester AFP was a positive mediator of maternal BMI effects in male infants only (0.06, 95% CI: -0.01, 0.13). Effect estimates were robust to potential bias due to unmeasured confounders. These findings motivate research to consider first trimester placental biomarkers and sex-specific mechanisms when quantifying the effects of maternal adiposity on fetal growth.

A spatiotemporal steroidogenic regulatory network in human fetal adrenal glands and gonads

Human fetal adrenal glands produce substantial amounts of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which is one of the most important precursors of sex hormones. However, the underlying biological mechanism remains largely unknown. Herein, we sequenced human fetal adrenal glands and gonads from 7 to 14 gestational weeks (GW) via 10× Genomics single-cell transcriptome techniques, reconstructed their location information by spatial transcriptomics. Relative to gonads, adrenal glands begin to synthesize steroids early. The coordination among steroidogenic cells and multiple non-steroidogenic cells promotes adrenal cortex construction and steroid synthesis. Notably, during the window of sexual differentiation (8-12 GW), key enzyme gene expression shifts to accelerate DHEA synthesis in males and cortisol synthesis in females. Our research highlights the robustness of the action of fetal adrenal glands on gonads to modify the process of sexual differentiation.

Genetics of cryptorchidism and testicular regression

Cryptorchidism, i.e., undescended testis, is one of the most common genital malformations in newborn male babies. The birth rate of cryptorchidism varies from 1.6 to 9.0 %. Etiology of disrupted testicular descent is complex and predisposing causes include genetic, hormonal, environmental, lifestyle and maternal factors. Testicular descent occurs in two major steps and testicular hormones and normal function of hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis are important for normal descent. Several gene mutations are associated with syndromic cryptorchidism but they are rarely found in boys with isolated undescended testis. Testicular regression can also cause an empty scrotum. Normal male genital phenotype indicates that the boy has had functioning testis during development. Torsion of the testis can cause testicular regression but in many cases the reason for vanishing testis remains elusive. In this narrative review we discuss genetics of cryptorchidism and testicular regression.

Bisphenol A and Its Analogues Deteriorate the Hormones Physiological Function of the Male Reproductive System: A Mini-Review

BPA is identified as an endocrine-disrupting chemical that deteriorates the physiological function of the hormones of the male reproductive system. Bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol AF (BPAF) are actively explored as substitutes for BPA and are known as BPA analogues in most manufacturing industries. These analogues may demonstrate the same adverse effects as BPA on the male reproductive system; however, toxicological data explaining the male reproductive hormones' physiological functions are still limited. Hence, this mini-review discusses the effects of BPA and its analogues on the physiological functions of hormones in the male reproductive system, focusing on the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad (HPG) axis, steroidogenesis, and spermatogenesis outcomes. The BPA analogues mainly show a similar negative effect on the hormones' physiological functions, proven by alterations in the HPG axis and steroidogenesis via activation of the aromatase activity and reduction of spermatogenesis outcomes when compared to BPA in in vitro and in vivo studies. Human biomonitoring studies also provide significant adverse effects on the physiological functions of hormones in the male reproductive system. In conclusion, BPA and its analogues deteriorate the physiological functions of hormones in the male reproductive system as per in vitro, in vivo, and human biomonitoring studies.

On the Use and Interpretation of Areola/Nipple Retention as a Biomarker for Anti-androgenic Effects in Rat Toxicity Studies

Areola/nipple retention (NR) is an established biomarker for an anti-androgenic mode of action in rat toxicity studies. It is a mandatory measurement under several OECD test guidelines and is typically assessed in combination with anogenital distance (AGD). Both NR and AGD are considered retrospective biomarkers of insufficient androgen signaling during the masculinization programming window in male fetuses. However, there are still aspects concerning NR as a biomarker for endocrine disruption that remains to be clarified. For instance, can NR be regarded a permanent adverse effect? Is it a redundant measurement if AGD is assessed in the same study? Is NR equally sensitive and specific to anti-androgenic chemical substances as a shortening of male AGD? In this review we discuss these and other aspects concerning the use of NR as a biomarker in toxicity studies. We have collected available literature from rat toxicity studies that have reported on NR and synthesized the data in order to draw a clearer picture about the sensitivity and specificity of NR as an effect biomarker for an anti-androgenic mode of action, including comparisons to AGD measurements. We carefully conclude that NR and AGD in rats for the most part display similar sensitivity and specificity, but that there are clear exceptions which support the continued assessment of both endpoints in relevant reproductive toxicity studies. Available literature also support the view that NR in infant male rats signifies a high risk for permanent nipples in adulthood. Finally, the literature suggests that the mechanisms of action leading from a chemical stressor event to either NR or short AGD in male offspring are overlapping with respect to canonical androgen signaling, yet differ with respect to other mechanisms of action.

The Placenta's Role in Sexually Dimorphic Fetal Growth Strategies

Fetal sex affects the risk of pregnancy complications and the long-term effects of prenatal environment on health. Some have hypothesized that growth strategies differ between the sexes, whereby males prioritize growth whereas females are more responsive to their environment. This review evaluates the role of the placenta in such strategies, focusing on (1) mechanisms underlying sexual dimorphism in gene expression, (2) the nature and extent of sexual dimorphism in placental gene expression, (3) sexually dimorphic responses to nutrient supply, and (4) sexual dimorphism in morphology and histopathology. The sex chromosomes contribute to sex differences in placental gene expression, and fetal hormones may play a role later in development. Sexually dimorphic placental gene expression may contribute to differences in the prevalence of complications such as preeclampsia, although this link is not clear. Placental responses to nutrient supply frequently show sexual dimorphism, but there is no consistent pattern where one sex is more responsive. There are sex differences in the prevalence of placental histopathologies, and placental changes in pregnancy complications, but also many similarities. Overall, no clear patterns support the hypothesis that females are more responsive to the maternal environment, or that males prioritize growth. While male fetuses are at greater risk of a variety of complications, total prenatal mortality is higher in females, such that males exposed to early insults may be more likely to survive and be observed in studies of adverse outcomes. Going forward, robust statistical approaches to test for sex-dependent effects must be more widely adopted to reduce the incidence of spurious results.

Mechanisms of MEHP Inhibitory Action and Analysis of Potential Replacement Plasticizers on Leydig Cell Steroidogenesis

Steroid production in Leydig cells is stimulated mainly by the pituitary luteinizing hormone, which leads to increased expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis, including the gene encoding the steroidogenic acute regulatory (STAR) protein. Mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), the active metabolite of the widely used plasticizer DEHP, is known to disrupt Leydig steroidogenesis but its mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. We found that MEHP caused a significant reduction in hormone-induced steroid hormone production in two Leydig cell lines, MA-10 and MLTC-1. Consistent with disrupted cholesterol transport, we found that MEHP represses cAMP-induced Star promoter activity. MEHP responsiveness was mapped to the proximal Star promoter, which contains multiple binding sites for several transcription factors. In addition to STAR, we found that MEHP also reduced the levels of ferredoxin reductase, a protein essential for electron transport during steroidogenesis. Finally, we tested new plasticizers as alternatives to phthalates. Two plasticizers, dioctyl succinate and 1,6-hexanediol dibenzoate, had no significant effect on hormone-induced steroidogenesis. Our current findings reveal that MEHP represses steroidogenesis by affecting cholesterol transport and its conversion into pregnenolone. We also found that two novel molecules with desirable plasticizer properties have no impact on Leydig cell steroidogenesis and could be suitable phthalate replacements.

Environmental Impacts on Male Reproductive Development: Lessons from Experimental Models

BACKGROUND

Male reproductive development in mammals can be divided into a gonadal formation phase followed by a hormone-driven differentiation phase. Failure of these processes may result in Differences in Sex Development (DSD), which may include abnormalities of the male reproductive tract, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias, infertility, and testicular germ cell cancer (TGCC). These disorders are also considered to be part of a testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) in males. Whilst DSDs are considered to result primarily from genetic abnormalities, the development of TDS disorders is frequently associated with environmental factors.

SUMMARY

In this review, we will discuss the development of the male reproductive system in relation to DSD and TDS. We will also describe the experimental systems, including studies involving animals and human tissues or cells that can be used to investigate the role of environmental factors in inducing male reproductive disorders. We will discuss recent studies investigating the impact of environmental chemicals (e.g., phthalates and bisphenols), lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking) and pharmaceuticals (e.g., analgesics) on foetal testis development. Finally, we will describe the evidence, involving experimental and epidemiologic approaches, for a role of environmental factors in the development of specific male reproductive disorders, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and TGCC.

KEY MESSAGES

Environmental exposures can impact the development and function of the male reproductive system in humans. Epidemiology studies and experimental approaches using human tissues are important to translate findings from animal studies and account for species differences in response to environmental exposures.

Combined Effects of Different Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) on Prostate Gland

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) belong to a heterogeneous class of environmental pollutants widely diffused in different aquatic and terrestrial habitats. This implies that humans and animals are continuously exposed to EDCs from different matrices and sources. Moreover, pollution derived from anthropic and industrial activities leads to combined exposure to substances with multiple mechanisms of action on the endocrine system and correlated cell and tissue targets. For this reason, specific organs, such as the prostate gland, which physiologically are under the control of hormones like androgens and estrogens, are particularly sensitive to EDC stimulation. It is now well known that an imbalance in hormonal regulation can cause the onset of various prostate diseases, from benign prostate hyperplasia to prostate cancer. In this review, starting with the description of normal prostate gland anatomy and embryology, we summarize recent studies reporting on how the multiple and simultaneous exposure to estrogenic and anti-androgenic compounds belonging to EDCs are responsible for an increase in prostate disease incidence in the human population.

Development of a putative adverse outcome pathway network for male rat reproductive tract abnormalities with specific considerations for the androgen sensitive window of development

Structured approaches like the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework offer great potential for depicting complex toxicological processes in a manner that can facilitate informed integration of mechanistic information in regulatory decisions. While this concept provides a structure for organizing evidence and facilitates consistency in evidence integration; the process, inputs, and manner in which AOPs and AOP networks are developed is still evolving. Following the OECD guiding principles of AOP development, we propose three AOPs for male reproductive tract abnormalities and derive a putative AOP network. The AOPs were developed using a fundamental understanding of the developmental biology of the organs of interest, paying close attention to the gestational timing of key events (KEs) to very specifically inform the domain of life stage applicability for the key event relationships (KERs). Chemical stressor data primarily from studies on low molecular weight phthalates (LMWPs) served to 'bound' the pathways of focus in this dynamic period of development and were integrated with the developmental biology data through an iterative process to define KEs and conclude on the extent of evidence in support of the KERs. The AOPs developed describe the linkage between 1) a decrease in Insl3 gene expression and cryptorchidism, 2) the sustained expression of Coup-tfII and hypospadias and 3) the sustained expression of Coup-tfII and altered Wolffian duct development/ epididymal agenesis. A putative AOP network linking AOP2 and AOP3 through decreased steroidogenic biosynthetic protein expression and converging of all AOPS at the population level impaired fertility adverse outcome is proposed. The network depiction specifies and displays the KEs aligned with their occurrence in gestational time. The pathways and network described herein are intended to catalyze collaborative initiatives for expansion into a larger network to enable effective data collection and inform alternative approaches for identifying stressors impacting this sensitive period of male reproductive tract development.

Genomic and Hormonal Biomarkers of Phthalate-Induced Male Rat Reproductive Developmental Toxicity Part II: A Targeted RT-qPCR Array Approach That Defines a Unique Adverse Outcome Pathway

Previously, we demonstrated that exposure to some diortho-phthalate esters during sexual differentiation disrupts male reproductive development by reducing fetal rat testis testosterone production (T Prod) and gene expression in a dose-related manner. The objectives of the current project were to expand the number of test compounds that might reduce fetal T Prod, including phthalates, phthalate alternatives, pesticides, and drugs, and to compare reductions in T Prod with altered testis mRNA expression. We found that PEs that disrupt T Prod also reduced expression of a unique "cluster" of mRNAs for about 35 genes related to sterol transport, testosterone and insulin-like hormone 3 hormone syntheses, and lipoprotein signaling and cholesterol synthesis. However, phthalates had little or no effect on mRNA expression of genes in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) pathways in the fetal liver, whereas the 3 PPAR agonists induced the expression of mRNA for multiple fetal liver PPAR pathway genes without reducing testis T Prod. In summary, phthalates that disrupt T Prod act via a novel adverse outcome pathway including down regulation of mRNA for genes involved in fetal endocrine function and cholesterol synthesis and metabolism. This profile was not displayed by PEs that did not reduce T Prod, PPAR agonists or the other chemicals. Reductions in fetal testis gene expression and T Prod in utero can be used to establish relative potency factors that can be used quantitatively to predict the doses of individual PEs and mixtures of phthalates that produce adverse reproductive tract effects in male offspring.

Effect of Omega-3 or Omega-6 Dietary Supplementation on Testicular Steroidogenesis, Adipokine Network, Cytokines, and Oxidative Stress in Adult Male Rats

This study was undertaken to elucidate the effect of omega-3 and omega-6 supplementation on the levels of different adipokines and cytokines, as well as the antioxidant system, in relation to male reproductive hormones and testicular functions. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were daily gavaged with either physiological saline (control group), sunflower oil (omega 6 group; 1 mL/kg body weight), or fish oil (omega-3 group; 1000 mg/kg body weight) for 12 weeks. The administration of omega-3 or omega-6 resulted in decreased serum concentrations of kisspeptin 1, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and testosterone. In addition, it downregulated the mRNA expression levels of steroidogenic genes. The intratesticular levels of apelin, adiponectin, and irisin were elevated while chemerin, leptin, resistin, vaspin, and visfatin were declined following the administration of either omega-3 or omega-6. The testicular concentration of interleukin 10 was increased while interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, and nuclear factor kappa B were decreased after consumption of omega-3 or omega-6. In the testes, the levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase 1, and the total antioxidant capacity were improved. In conclusion, the administration of omega-3 or omega-6 adversely affects the process of steroidogenesis but improves the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status of the reproductive system via modulating the levels of testicular adipokines.

First trimester mechanisms of gestational sac placental and foetal teratogenicity: a framework for birth cohort studies

BACKGROUND

The function of the gestational sac (GS) and the placenta in the closely related processes of embryogenesis and teratogenicity in the first trimester has been minimally described. The prevailing assumption is that direct teratogenic effects are mediated by the critical extraembryonic organ, the placenta, which either blocks or transfers exposures to the foetus. Placental transfer is a dominant mechanism, but there are other paradigms by which the placenta can mediate teratogenic effects. Knowledge of these paradigms and first trimester human developmental biology can be useful to the epidemiologist in the conduct of biomarker-based studies of both maternal and child health.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

Our aim is to provide a causal framework for modelling the teratogenic effects of first trimester exposures on child health outcomes mediated by the GS and placenta using biomarker data collected in the first trimester. We initially present first trimester human developmental biology for the sake of informing and strengthening epidemiologic approaches. We then propose analytic approaches of modelling placental mechanisms by way of causal diagrams using classical non-embryolethal teratogens (diethylstilboestrol [DES], folic acid deficiency and cytomegalovirus [CMV]) as illustrative examples. We extend this framework to two chronic exposures of particular current interest, phthalates and maternal adiposity.

SEARCH METHODS

Information on teratogens was identified by a non-systematic, narrative review. For each teratogen, we included papers that answered the five following questions: (i) why were these exposures declared teratogens? (ii) is there a consensus on biologic mechanism? (iii) is there reported evidence of a placental mechanism? (iv) can we construct a theoretical model of a placental mechanism? and (v) can this knowledge inform future work on measurement and modelling of placental-foetal teratogenesis? We prioritized literature specific to human development, the organogenesis window in the first trimester and non-embryolethal mechanisms.

OUTCOMES

As a result of our review of the literature on five exposures considered harmful in the first trimester, we developed four analytic strategies to address first trimester placental mechanisms in birth cohort studies: placental transfer and direct effects on the foetus (DES and maternal adiposity), indirect effects through targeted placental molecular pathways (DES and phthalates), pre-placental effects through disruptions in embryonic and extraembryonic tissue layer differentiation (folic acid deficiency), and multi-step mechanisms that involve maternal, placental and foetal immune function and inflammation (DES and CMV).

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

The significance of this review is to offer a causal approach to classify the large number of potentially harmful exposures in pregnancy when the exposure occurs in the first trimester. Our review will facilitate future research by advancing knowledge of the first trimester mechanisms necessary for researchers to effectively associate environmental exposures with child health outcomes.

Androgens and the masculinization programming window: human-rodent differences

Human male reproductive disorders are common and may have a fetal origin - the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) hypothesis. In rats, experimentally induced TDS disorders result from disruption of fetal androgen production/action specifically in the masculinization programming window (MPW). MPW androgen action also programs longer anogenital distance (AGD) in male versus female rats; shorter male AGD is correlated with risk and severity of induced TDS disorders. AGD thus provides a lifelong, calibrated readout of MPW androgen exposure and predicts likelihood of reproductive dysfunction. Pregnant rat exposure to environmental chemicals, notably certain phthalates (e.g. diethyl hexl phthalate, DEHP; dibutyl phthalate, DBP), pesticides or paracetamol, can reduce fetal testis testosterone and AGD and induce TDS disorders, provided exposure includes the MPW. In humans, AGD is longer in males than females and the presumptive MPW is 8-14 weeks' gestation. Some, but not all, epidemiological studies of maternal DEHP (or pesticides) exposure reported shorter AGD in sons, but this occurred at DEHP exposure levels several thousand-fold lower than are effective in rats. In fetal human testis culture/xenografts, DEHP/DBP do not reduce testosterone production, whereas therapeutic paracetamol exposure does. In humans, androgen production in the MPW is controlled differently (human chorionic gonadotrophin-driven) than in rats (paracrine controlled), and other organs (placenta, liver, adrenals) contribute to MPW androgens, essential for normal masculinization, via the 'backdoor pathway'. Consequently, early placental dysfunction, which is affected by maternal lifestyle and diet, and maternal painkiller use, may be more important than environmental chemical exposures in the origin of TDS in humans.

Effect of adjunctive hormonal therapy on testicular descent and spermatogenic function among children with cryptorchidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

To systematically evaluate the effect of adjunctive hormonal therapy on testicular descent and spermatogenic function among children with cryptorchidism.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases up to February 21, 2019 was performed. Continuous data of fertility indices were evaluated using weighted mean difference (WMD) with 95% confidence interval (CI), while nominal data of fertility indices and the complete descent rates were analyzed by risk ratio (RR) with 95% CI. A fixed effect or random effect model was used.

RESULTS

A total of 27 previous studies were included for the current analysis. Hormonal therapy increased complete testicular descent rate, reaching statistical significance (RR = 3.74; 95% CI, 2.78-5.04; P < 0.001). The success rate was 22.43%. A similar result was found in subgroup analysis of hormonal category and effect on unilateral or bilateral cryptorchidism. Studies reporting primary outcome as continuous data showed that cryptorchid males have significantly increased germ cell numbers per tubule (WMD = 0.10; 95% CI, 0.01-0.20, P = 0.032) after hormonal therapy. The nominal data of pooled studies showed no significant difference (RR = 1.62; 95% CI, 0.65-4.00, P = 0.298). In addition, a significant result was noted in the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) therapy group but not in those undergoing human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings have demonstrated that hormonal therapy can effectively increase the success rate of complete testicular descent, while some boys may benefit as regards improvement of the fertility index.