Direct regulation of the proglucagon gene by insulin, leptin, and cAMP in embryonic versus adult hypothalamic neurons

Intracellular cAMP Sensor EPAC: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Therapeutics Development

This review focuses on one family of the known cAMP receptors, the exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (EPACs), also known as the cAMP-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factors (cAMP-GEFs). Although EPAC proteins are fairly new additions to the growing list of cAMP effectors, and relatively "young" in the cAMP discovery timeline, the significance of an EPAC presence in different cell systems is extraordinary. The study of EPACs has considerably expanded the diversity and adaptive nature of cAMP signaling associated with numerous physiological and pathophysiological responses. This review comprehensively covers EPAC protein functions at the molecular, cellular, physiological, and pathophysiological levels; and in turn, the applications of employing EPAC-based biosensors as detection tools for dissecting cAMP signaling and the implications for targeting EPAC proteins for therapeutic development are also discussed.

Endogenous 5-HT2C Receptors Phosphorylate the cAMP Response Element Binding Protein via Protein Kinase C-Promoted Activation of Extracellular-Regulated Kinases-1/2 in Hypothalamic mHypoA-2/10 Cells

Serotonin 5-HT2C receptors (5-HT2CR) activate Gq proteins and are expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). 5-HT2CR regulate emotion, feeding, reward, or cognition and may serve as promising drug targets to treat psychiatric disorders or obesity. Owing to technical difficulties in isolating cells from the CNS and the lack of suitable cell lines endogenously expressing 5-HT2CR, our knowledge about this receptor subtype in native environments is rather limited. The hypothalamic mHypoA-2/10 cell line was recently established and resembles appetite-regulating hypothalamic neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), where 5-HT2CR have been detected in vivo. Therefore, we tested mHypoA-2/10 cells for endogenous 5-HT2CR expression. Serotonin or the 5-HT2CR preferential agonist WAY-161,503 initiated cAMP response element (CRE)-dependent gene transcription with EC50 values of 15.5 ± 9.8 and 1.1 ± 0.9 nM, respectively. Both responses were blocked by two unrelated 5-HT2CR-selective antagonists (SB-242,084, RS-102,221) but not by a 5-HT2AR (EMD-281,014) or 5-HT2BR (RS-127,455) antagonists. By single-cell calcium imaging, we found that serotonin and WAY-161,503 induced robust calcium transients, which were also blunted by both 5-HT2CR antagonists. Additionally we revealed, first, that 5-HT2CR induced CRE activation via protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated engagement of extracellular-regulated kinases-1/2 and, second, that intrinsic activity of WAY-161,503 was in the range of 0.3-0.5 compared with serotonin, defining the frequently used 5-HT2CR agonist as a partial agonist of endogenous 5-HT2CR. In conclusion, we have shown that hypothalamic mHypoA-2/10 cells endogenously express 5-HT2CR and thus are the first cell line in which to analyze 5-HT2CR pharmacology, signaling, and regulation in its natural environment.

Induction of Gnrh mRNA expression by the ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid and the saturated fatty acid palmitate in a GnRH-synthesizing neuronal cell model, mHypoA-GnRH/GFP

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons coordinate reproduction. However, whether GnRH neurons directly sense free fatty acids (FFAs) is unknown. We investigated the individual effects of the FFAs docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), palmitate, palmitoleate, and oleate (100 μM each) on Gnrh mRNA expression in the mHypoA-GnRH/GFP neuronal cell model. We report that 2 h exposure to palmitate or DHA increases Gnrh transcription. Using the inhibitors AH7614, K252c, U0126, wortmannin, and LY294002, we demonstrate that the effect of DHA is mediated through GPR120 to downstream PKC/MAPK and PI3K signaling. Our results indicate that the effect of palmitate may depend on palmitoyl-coA synthesis and PI3K signaling. Finally, we demonstrate that both DHA and palmitate increase Gnrh enhancer-derived RNA levels. Overall, these studies provide evidence that GnRH neurons directly sense FFAs. This will advance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying FFA sensing in the brain and provides insight into the links between nutrition and reproductive function.

Glucose Enhances Basal or Melanocortin-Induced cAMP-Response Element Activity in Hypothalamic Cells

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)-induced activation of the cAMP-response element (CRE) via the CRE-binding protein in hypothalamic cells promotes expression of TRH and thereby restricts food intake and increases energy expenditure. Glucose also induces central anorexigenic effects by acting on hypothalamic neurons, but the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. It has been proposed that glucose activates the CRE-binding protein-regulated transcriptional coactivator 2 (CRTC-2) in hypothalamic neurons by inhibition of AMP-activated protein kinases (AMPKs), but whether glucose directly affects hypothalamic CRE activity has not yet been shown. Hence, we dissected effects of glucose on basal and MSH-induced CRE activation in terms of kinetics, affinity, and desensitization in murine, hypothalamic mHypoA-2/10-CRE cells that stably express a CRE-dependent reporter gene construct. Physiologically relevant increases in extracellular glucose enhanced basal or MSH-induced CRE-dependent gene transcription, whereas prolonged elevated glucose concentrations reduced the sensitivity of mHypoA-2/10-CRE cells towards glucose. Glucose also induced CRCT-2 translocation into the nucleus and the AMPK activator metformin decreased basal and glucose-induced CRE activity, suggesting a role for AMPK/CRTC-2 in glucose-induced CRE activation. Accordingly, small interfering RNA-induced down-regulation of CRTC-2 expression decreased glucose-induced CRE-dependent reporter activation. Of note, glucose also induced expression of TRH, suggesting that glucose might affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis via the regulation of hypothalamic CRE activity. These findings significantly advance our knowledge about the impact of glucose on hypothalamic signaling and suggest that TRH release might account for the central anorexigenic effects of glucose and could represent a new molecular link between hyperglycaemia and thyroid dysfunction.

Serine-727 phosphorylation activates hypothalamic STAT-3 independently from tyrosine-705 phosphorylation

Transcriptional activity of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) is a key element in the central regulation of appetite and energy homeostasis. Activation of hypothalamic STAT-3 has been attributed to cytokine-promoted phosphorylation at tyrosine-705 (Tyr-705). In nonhypothalamic cells, STAT-3 is also phosphorylated at serine-727 (Ser-727), but the functional significance of Ser-727 in the regulation of hypothalamic STAT-3 is not known. We used 2 hypothalamic cell lines and analyzed the effects of various hormones on STAT-3-dependent reporter gene activity and observed that IFN-γ, epidermal growth factor (EGF), and bradykinin (BK) induce similar STAT-3 reporter activation. EGF and BK solely increased Ser-727 and IFN-γ increased Tyr-705 phosphorylation of STAT-3. Specific inhibition of ERK-1/2 activity blocked EGF- and BK-induced STAT-3 activation and Ser-727 phosphorylation. BK-induced ERK-1/2 activation occurred via EGF receptor transactivation. Consequently, the BK-mediated effects on STAT-3 were blocked by a specific EGF receptor antagonist. Next, we analyzed the effects of IFN-γ and EGF on the expression of the STAT-3-dependent genes thyroliberin-releasing hormone and suppressors of cytokine signaling-3. EGF but not IFN-γ enhanced thyroliberin-releasing hormone expression via STAT-3. With regard to suppressors of cytokine signaling-3, we observed prolonged expression induced by IFN-γ and a transient effect of EGF that required coactivation of the activator protein-1. Thus, EGF-promoted Ser-727 phosphorylation by ERK-1/2 is not only sufficient to fully activate hypothalamic STAT-3, but, in terms of targeted genes and required cofactors, entails distinct modes of STAT-3 actions compared with IFN-γ-induced Tyr-705 phosphorylation.

Delineating the regulation of energy homeostasis using hypothalamic cell models

Attesting to its intimate peripheral connections, hypothalamic neurons integrate nutritional and hormonal cues to effectively manage energy homeostasis according to the overall status of the system. Extensive progress in the identification of essential transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms regulating the controlled expression and actions of hypothalamic neuropeptides has been identified through the use of animal and cell models. This review will introduce the basic techniques of hypothalamic investigation both in vivo and in vitro and will briefly highlight the key advantages and challenges of their use. Further emphasis will be place on the use of immortalized models of hypothalamic neurons for in vitro study of feeding regulation, with a particular focus on cell lines proving themselves most fruitful in deciphering fundamental basics of NPY/AgRP, Proglucagon, and POMC neuropeptide function.

Direct regulation of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) transcription by RF-amide-related peptide-3 and kisspeptin in a novel GnRH-secreting cell line, mHypoA-GnRH/GFP

RF-amide-related peptide-3 [RFRP-3; also often referred to as the mammalian orthologue of the avian gonadotrophin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH)] and kisspeptin have emerged as potent modulators of neuroendocrine function via direct regulation of the reproductive axis in the hypothalamus and pituitary. There are few studies focusing on the direct regulatory effects of RFRP-3 and kisspeptin on gonadotrophin-releasing hormones (GnRH) neurones. We report their effect on GnRH mRNA expression and release in a novel GnRH neuronal cell model, mHypoA-GnRH/GFP, generated from adult-derived GnRH-GFP neurones. The neurones express receptors for both RFRP-3 and kisspeptin, Gpr147 and Gpr54, respectively. Incubation with 100 nm RFRP-3 results in attenuation of GnRH mRNA expression by approximately 60%. Conversely, incubation with 10 nm of Kiss-10 induced GnRH mRNA expression, whereas the combined effect was an overall repression of GnRH mRNA levels. With transcription inhibitors, the repression of GnRH mRNA levels was linked to a transcriptional mechanism but not mRNA stability. No significant changes in GnRH secretion were observed upon RFRP-3 exposure in these neurones. Our findings suggest that the suppressive signalling of RFRP-3 on GnRH transcription may dominate over kisspeptin induction in the mHypoA-GnRH/GFP GnRH neuronal cell model.

Glucocorticoid receptor-mediated regulation of Rfrp (GnIH) and Gpr147 (GnIH-R) synthesis in immortalized hypothalamic neurons

A novel RFamide peptide, gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) has emerged as a modulator of avian reproduction. However, the functional role of the mammalian homologue, RFRP-3 remains poorly understood. The RFRP-3 neuronal circuit is influenced by the stress axis. However, whether the Rfrp gene is under direct glucocorticoid (GC)-mediated transcriptional regulation, in the presence and absence of the gonadal steroid, 17β-estradiol, is unknown. We investigated the regulation of the Rfrp (GnIH) and Gpr147 (GnIH-R) transcripts by steroids in a novel hypothalamic Rfrp-expressing cell model, rHypoE-23. The GC agonist, dexamethasone increased Rfrp and Gpr147 mRNA levels. Dexamethasone acted directly on the nuclear GC receptor (GR) to mediate GC-dependent transcriptional changes, independently of de novo protein synthesis. 17β-estradiol had no significant effect on Rfrp or Gpr147 biosynthesis in these neurons. This suggests that Rfrp-expressing neurons serve as potential upstream mediators of stress-induced effects through GR-dependent mechanisms.

Cyclic AMP sensor EPAC proteins and energy homeostasis

The pleiotropic second-messenger cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of various hormones on metabolism. The major intracellular functions of cAMP are transduced by protein kinase A (PKA) and by exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (EPACs). The latter act as guanine-nucleotide exchange factors for the RAS-like small G proteins Rap1 and Rap2. Although the role of PKA in regulating energy balance has been extensively studied, the impact of EPACs remains relatively enigmatic. This review summarizes recent genetic and pharmacological studies concerning EPAC involvement in glucose homeostasis and energy balance via the regulation of leptin and insulin signaling pathways. In addition, the development of small-molecule EPAC-specific modulators and their therapeutic potential for the treatment of diabetes and obesity are discussed.

Cellular insulin resistance disrupts leptin-mediated control of neuronal signaling and transcription

Central resistance to the actions of insulin and leptin is associated with the onset of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, whereas leptin and insulin signaling is essential for both glucose and energy homeostasis. Although it is known that leptin resistance can lead to attenuated insulin signaling, whether insulin resistance can lead to or exacerbate leptin resistance is unknown. To investigate the molecular events underlying crosstalk between these signaling pathways, immortalized hypothalamic neuronal models, rHypoE-19 and mHypoA-2/10, were used. Prolonged insulin exposure was used to induce cellular insulin resistance, and thereafter leptin-mediated regulation of signal transduction and gene expression was assessed. Leptin directly repressed agouti-related peptide mRNA levels but induced urocortin-2, insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1, IRS2, and IR transcription, through leptin-mediated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt activation. Neuronal insulin resistance, as assessed by attenuated Akt phosphorylation, blocked leptin-mediated signal transduction and agouti-related peptide, urocortin-2, IRS1, IRS2, and insulin receptor synthesis. Insulin resistance caused a substantial decrease in insulin receptor protein levels, forkhead box protein 1 phosphorylation, and an increase in suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 protein levels. Cellular insulin resistance may cause or exacerbate neuronal leptin resistance and, by extension, obesity. It is essential to unravel the effects of neuronal insulin resistance given that both peripheral, as well as the less widely studied central insulin resistance, may contribute to the development of metabolic, reproductive, and cardiovascular disorders. This study provides improved understanding of the complex cellular crosstalk between insulin-leptin signal transduction that is disrupted during neuronal insulin resistance.