Evaporative water loss, relative water economy and evaporative partitioning of a heterothermic marsupial, the monito del monte (Dromiciops gliroides)

Heterothermy as the Norm, Homeothermy as the Exception: Variable Torpor Patterns in the South American Marsupial Monito del Monte (Dromiciops gliroides)

Hibernation (i.e., multiday torpor) is considered an adaptive strategy of mammals to face seasonal environmental challenges such as food, cold, and/or water shortage. It has been considered functionally different from daily torpor, a physiological strategy to cope with unpredictable environments. However, recent studies have shown large variability in patterns of hibernation and daily torpor ("heterothermic responses"), especially in species from tropical and subtropical regions. The arboreal marsupial "monito del monte" (Dromiciops gliroides) is the last living representative of the order Microbiotheria and is known to express both short torpor episodes and also multiday torpor depending on environmental conditions. However, only limited laboratory experiments have documented these patterns in D. gliroides. Here, we combined laboratory and field experiments to characterize the heterothermic responses in this marsupial at extreme temperatures. We used intraperitoneal data loggers and simultaneous measurement of ambient and body temperatures (T A and T B, respectively) for analyzing variations in the thermal differential, in active and torpid animals. We also explored how this differential was affected by environmental variables (T A, natural photoperiod changes, food availability, and body mass changes), using mixed-effects generalized linear models. Our results suggest that: (1) individuals express short bouts of torpor, independently of T A and even during the reproductive period; (2) seasonal torpor also occurs in D. gliroides, with a maximum bout duration of 5 days and a mean defended T B of 3.6 ± 0.9°C (one individual controlled T B at 0.09°C, at sub-freezing T A); (3) the best model explaining torpor occurrence (Akaike information criteria weight = 0.59) discarded all predictor variables except for photoperiod and a photoperiod by food interaction. Altogether, these results confirm that this marsupial expresses a dynamic form of torpor that progresses from short torpor to hibernation as daylength shortens. These data add to a growing body of evidence characterizing tropical and sub-tropical heterothermy as a form of opportunistic torpor, expressed as daily or seasonal torpor depending on environmental conditions.

Does control of insensible evaporative water loss by two species of mesic parrot have a thermoregulatory role?

Insensible evaporative water loss (EWL) at or below thermoneutrality is generally assumed to be a passive physical process. However, some arid zone mammals and a single arid zone bird can control their insensible water loss, so we tested the hypothesis that the same is the case for two parrot species from a mesic habitat. We investigated red-rumped parrots (Psephotus haematonotus) and eastern rosellas (Platycercus eximius), measuring their EWL, and other physiological variables, at a range of relative humidities at ambient temperatures of 20 and 30°C (below and at thermoneutrality). We found that, despite a decrease in EWL with increasing relative humidity, rates of EWL were not fully accounted for by the water vapour deficit between the animal and its environment, indicating that the insensible EWL of both parrots was controlled. It is unlikely that this deviation from physical expectations was regulation with a primary role for water conservation because our mesic-habitat parrots had equivalent regulatory ability as the arid habitat budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). This, together with our observations of body temperature and metabolic rate, instead support the hypothesis that acute physiological control of insensible water loss serves a thermoregulatory purpose for endotherms. Modification of both cutaneous and respiratory avenues of evaporation may be involved, possibly via modification of expired air temperature and humidity, and surface resistance.

Ambient Temperature Cycles Affect Daily Torpor and Hibernation Patterns in Malagasy Tenrecs

Hibernation and daily torpor (heterothermy) allow endotherms to cope with demanding environmental conditions. The depth and duration of torpor bouts vary considerably between tropical and temperate climates, and tropical hibernators manage to cope with a wider spectrum of ambient temperature (T_a) regimes during heterothermy. As cycles in T_a can have profound effects on activity and torpor patterns as well as energy expenditure, we examined how these characteristics are affected by daily fluctuating versus constant T_a in a tropical hibernator, the lesser hedgehog tenrec (Echinops telfairi). Throughout the study, regardless of season, the tenrecs became torpid every day. In summer, E. telfairi used daily fluctuations in T_a to passively rewarm from daily torpor, which led to synchrony in the activity phases and torpor bouts between individuals and generally decreased energy expenditure. In contrast, animals housed at constant T_a showed considerable variation in timing and they had to invest more energy through endogenous heat production. During the hibernation season (winter) E. telfairi hibernated for several months in constant, as well as in fluctuating T_a and, as in summer, under fluctuating T_a arousals were much more uniform and showed less variation in timing compared to constant temperature regimes. The timing of torpor is not only important for its effective use, but synchronization of activity patterns could also be essential for social interactions, and successful foraging bouts. Our results highlight that T_a cycles can be an effective zeitgeber for activity and thermoregulatory rhythms throughout the year and that consideration should be given to the choice of temperature regime when studying heterothermy under laboratory conditions.

Physiological implications of climate change for a critically endangered Australian marsupial

Extreme weather events (e.g. heatwaves and droughts) can expose animals to environmental conditions outside of their zones of physiological tolerance, and even resistance, and impact long-term viability of populations and species. We examined the thermal and hygric physiology of the critically endangered western ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus occidentalis), a member of a family of marsupial folivores (Pseudocheiridae) that appear particularly vulnerable to environmental extremes. Basal metabolic rate and other standard physiological variables measured at an ambient temperature of 30°C conformed to values for other marsupials. At lower temperatures, body temperature decreased slightly, and metabolic rate increased significantly at 5°C. At higher temperatures, possums experienced mild hyperthermia and increased evaporative heat loss by licking rather than panting. Their point of relative water economy (–8.7°C) was more favourable than other pseudocheirid possums and the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). We predict that western ringtail possums should tolerate low ambient temperatures well and be more physiologically tolerant of hot and dry conditions than common (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and particularly green (Pseudochirops archeri) ringtail possums, and koalas. Our physiological data can be incorporated into mechanistic species distribution models to test our hypothesis that western ringtail possums should physiologically tolerate the climate of habitat further inland than their current distribution, and withstand moderate impacts of climate change in the south-west of Western Australia.

Can birds do it too? Evidence for convergence in evaporative water loss regulation for birds and mammals

Birds have many physiological characteristics that are convergent with mammals. In the light of recent evidence that mammals can maintain a constant insensible evaporative water loss (EWL) over a range of perturbing environmental conditions, we hypothesized that birds might also regulate insensible EWL, reflecting this convergence. We found that budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) maintain EWL constant over a range of relative humidities at three ambient temperatures. EWL, expressed as a function of water vapour pressure deficit, differed from a physical model where the water vapour pressure deficit between the animal and the ambient air is the driver of evaporation, indicating physiological control of EWL. Regulating EWL avoids thermoregulatory impacts of varied evaporative heat loss; changes in relative humidity had no effect on body temperature, metabolic rate or thermal conductance. Our findings that a small bird can regulate EWL are evidence that this is a common feature of convergently endothermic birds and mammals, and may therefore be a fundamental characteristic of endothermy.

Thermoregulatory role of insensible evaporative water loss constancy in a heterothermic marsupial

'Insensible' evaporative water loss of mammals has been traditionally viewed as a passive process, but recent studies suggest that insensible water loss is under regulatory control, although the physiological role of this control is unclear. We test the hypothesis that regulation of insensible water loss has a thermoregulatory function by quantifying for the first time evaporative water loss control, along with metabolic rate and body temperature, of a heterothermic mammal during normothermia and torpor. Evaporative water loss was independent of ambient relative humidity at ambient temperatures of 20 and 30°C, but not at 25°C or during torpor at 20°C. Evaporative water loss per water vapour pressure deficit had a positive linear relationship with relative humidity at ambient temperatures of 20 and 30°C, but not at 25°C or during torpor at 20 or 25°C. These findings suggest that insensible water loss deviates from a physical model only during thermoregulation, providing support for the hypothesis that regulation of insensible evaporative water loss has a thermoregulatory role.

Comparative analyses of basal rate of metabolism in mammals: data selection does matter

Basal rate of metabolism (BMR) is a physiological parameter that should be measured under strictly defined experimental conditions. In comparative analyses among mammals BMR is widely used as an index of the intensity of the metabolic machinery or as a proxy for energy expenditure. Many databases with BMR values for mammals are available, but the criteria used to select metabolic data as BMR estimates have often varied and the potential effect of this variability has rarely been questioned. We provide a new, expanded BMR database reflecting compliance with standard criteria (resting, postabsorptive state; thermal neutrality; adult, non-reproductive status for females) and examine potential effects of differential selectivity on the results of comparative analyses. The database includes 1739 different entries for 817 species of mammals, compiled from the original sources. It provides information permitting assessment of the validity of each estimate and presents the value closest to a proper BMR for each entry. Using different selection criteria, several alternative data sets were extracted and used in comparative analyses of (i) the scaling of BMR to body mass and (ii) the relationship between brain mass and BMR. It was expected that results would be especially dependent on selection criteria with small sample sizes and with relatively weak relationships. Phylogenetically informed regression (phylogenetic generalized least squares, PGLS) was applied to the alternative data sets for several different clades (Mammalia, Eutheria, Metatheria, or individual orders). For Mammalia, a 'subsampling procedure' was also applied, in which random subsamples of different sample sizes were taken from each original data set and successively analysed. In each case, two data sets with identical sample size and species, but comprising BMR data with different degrees of reliability, were compared. Selection criteria had minor effects on scaling equations computed for large clades (Mammalia, Eutheria, Metatheria), although less-reliable estimates of BMR were generally about 12-20% larger than more-reliable ones. Larger effects were found with more-limited clades, such as sciuromorph rodents. For the relationship between BMR and brain mass the results of comparative analyses were found to depend strongly on the data set used, especially with more-limited, order-level clades. In fact, with small sample sizes (e.g. <100) results often appeared erratic. Subsampling revealed that sample size has a non-linear effect on the probability of a zero slope for a given relationship. Depending on the species included, results could differ dramatically, especially with small sample sizes. Overall, our findings indicate a need for due diligence when selecting BMR estimates and caution regarding results (even if seemingly significant) with small sample sizes.

Marsupials don't adjust their thermal energetics for life in an alpine environment

Marsupials have relatively low body temperatures and metabolic rates, and are therefore considered to be maladapted for life in cold habitats such as alpine environments. We compared body temperature, energetics and water loss as a function of ambient temperature for 4 Antechinus species, 2 from alpine habitats and 2 from low altitude habitats. Our results show that body temperature, metabolic rate, evaporative water loss, thermal conductance and relative water economy are markedly influenced by ambient temperature for each species, as expected for endothermic mammals. However, despite some species and individual differences, habitat (alpine vs non-alpine) does not affect any of these physiological variables, which are consistent with those for other marsupials. Our study suggests that at least under the environmental conditions experienced on the Australian continent, life in an alpine habitat does not require major physiological adjustments by small marsupials and that they are physiologically equipped to deal with sub-zero temperatures and winter snow cover.

Leptin levels, seasonality and thermal acclimation in the Microbiotherid marsupial Dromiciops gliroides: Does photoperiod play a role?

Mammals of the Neotropics are characterized by a marked annual cycle of activity, which is accompanied by several physiological changes at the levels of the whole organism, organs and tissues. The physiological characterization of these cycles is important, as it gives insight on the mechanisms by which animals adjust adaptively to seasonality. Here we studied the seasonal changes in blood biochemical parameters in the relict South American marsupial Dromiciops gliroides ("monito del monte" or "little mountain monkey"), under semi-natural conditions. We manipulated thermal conditions in order to characterize the effects of temperature and season on a battery of biochemical parameters, body mass and adiposity. Our results indicate that monitos experience an annual cycle in body mass and adiposity (measured as leptin levels), reaching a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer. Blood biochemistry confirms that the nutritional condition of animals is reduced in summer instead of winter (as generally reported). This was coincident with a reduction of several biochemical parameters in summer, such as betahydroxybutyrate, cholesterol, total protein concentration and globulins. Monitos seem to initiate winter preparation during autumn and reach maximum body reserves in winter. Hibernation lasts until spring, at which time they use fat reserves and become reproductively active. Sexual maturation during summer would be the strongest energetic bottleneck, which explains the reductions in body mass and other parameters in this season. Overall, this study suggests that monitos anticipate the cold season by a complex interaction of photoperiodic and thermal cues.

Physiological responses of a rodent to heliox reveal constancy of evaporative water loss under perturbing environmental conditions

Total evaporative water loss of endotherms is assumed to be determined essentially by biophysics, at least at temperatures below thermoneutrality, with evaporative water loss determined by the water vapor deficit between the animal and the ambient air. We present here evidence, based on the first measurements of evaporative water loss for a small mammal in heliox, that mammals may have a previously unappreciated ability to maintain acute constancy of total evaporative water loss under perturbing environmental conditions. Thermoregulatory responses of ash-grey mice ( Pseudomys albocinereus) to heliox were as expected, with changes in metabolic rate, conductance, and respiratory ventilation consistent with maintaining constancy of body temperature under conditions of enhanced heat loss. However, evaporative water loss did not increase in heliox. This is despite our confirmation of the physical effect that heliox augments evaporation from nonliving surfaces, which should increase cutaneous water loss, and increases minute volume of live ash-grey mice in heliox to accommodate their elevated metabolic rate, which should increase respiratory water loss. Therefore, mice had not only a thermoregulatory but also a hygroregulatory response to heliox. We interpret these results as evidence that ash-grey mice can acutely control their evaporative water loss under perturbing environmental conditions and suggest that hygroregulation at and below thermoneutrality is an important aspect of the physiology of at least some small mammals.

The effects of poly-unsaturated fatty acids on the physiology of hibernation in a South American marsupial, Dromiciops gliroides

Many mammals hibernate, which is a profound lethargic state of several weeks or months during winter, that represents a transitory episode of hetherothermy. As with other cases of dormancy, the main benefit of hibernation seems to be energy saving. However, the depth and duration of torpor can be experimentally modified by the composition of food, especially by fattyacid composition. In eutherians, diets rich in unsaturated fatty acids (i.e., fatty acids with at least one double bond) lengthen torpor, reduce metabolism and permit hibernation at lower temperatures. Here we studied whether diets varying in fatty acid composition have an effect on the physiology of hibernation in a South American marsupial, Dromiciops gliroides. We designed a factorial experiment where thermal acclimation (two levels: natural versus constant temperature) was combined with diet acclimation: saturated (i.e., diets with high concentration of saturated fatty acids) versus unsaturated (i.e., diets with high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids). We measured energy metabolism in active and torpid individuals, as well as torpor duration, and a suite of 12 blood biochemical parameters. After a cafeteria test, we found that D. gliroides did not show any preference for a given diet. Also, we did not find effects of diet on body temperature during torpor, or its duration. However, saturated diets, combined with high temperatures provoked a disproportionate increase in fat utilization, leading to body mass reduction. Those animals were more active, and metabolized more fats than those fed with a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids (="unsaturated diets"). These results contrast with previous studies, which showed a significant effect of fatty acid composition of diets on food preferences and torpor patterns in mammals.

Physiological regulation of evaporative water loss in endotherms: is the little red kaluta (Dasykaluta rosamondae) an exception or the rule?

It is a central paradigm of comparative physiology that the effect of humidity on evaporative water loss (EWL) is determined for most mammals and birds, in and below thermoneutrality, essentially by physics and is not under physiological regulation. Fick's law predicts that EWL should be inversely proportional to ambient relative humidity (RH) and linearly proportional to the water vapour pressure deficit (Δwvp) between animal and air. However, we show here for a small dasyurid marsupial, the little kaluta (Dasykaluta rosamondae), that EWL is essentially independent of RH (and Δwvp) at low RH (as are metabolic rate and thermal conductance). These results suggest regulation of a constant EWL independent of RH, a hitherto unappreciated capacity of endothermic vertebrates. Independence of EWL from RH conserves water and heat at low RH, and avoids physiological adjustments to changes in evaporative heat loss such as thermoregulation. Re-evaluation of previously published data for mammals and birds suggests that a lesser dependence of EWL on RH is observed more commonly than previously thought, suggesting that physiological independence of EWL of RH is not just an unusual capacity of a few species, such as the little kaluta, but a more general capability of many mammals and birds.

Ecological consequences of temperature regulation: Why might the mountain pygmy possum Burramys parvus need to hibernate near underground streams?

The mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus) is an endangered marsupial restricted to boulder fields in the Australian Alps, where it hibernates under the snow during winter. Understanding its habitat requirements is essential for conservation, so we examine here ecological implications of the thermal consequences of maintaining water balance during the hibernation season. Hibernating mountain pygmy possums arousing to consume water must either drink liquid water or consume snow. If they drink water, then the energy required to warm that water to body temperature (4.18 J g^{-1 o}C⁻¹) increases linearly with mass ingested. If they eat snow, then the energy required melt the snow (latent heat of fusion = 332 J g⁻¹) and then warm it to body temperature is much higher than just drinking. For mountain pygmy possums, these energetic costs are a large proportion (up to 19%) of their average daily metabolic rate during the hibernation period and may dramatically shorten it. If mountain pygmy possums lose water equivalent to 5% of body mass before arousing to rehydrate, then the potential hibernation period is reduced by 30 days for consuming snow compared with 8.6 days for drinking water. The consequences of ingesting snow rather than liquid water are even more severe for juvenile possums. A reduction in the hibernation period can impact on the overwinter survival, a key factor determining demographics and population size. Therefore, habitats with subnivean access to liquid water during winter, such as those with subterranean streams running under boulder fields, may be of particular value.

Torpor in the Patagonian opossum (Lestodelphys halli): implications for the evolution of daily torpor and hibernation

Hibernation and daily torpor are two distinct forms of torpor, and although they are related, it is not known how and in which sequence they evolved. As the pattern of torpor expressed by the oldest marsupial order the opossums (Didelphimorphia) may provide insights into the evolution of torpor, we aimed to provide the first quantitative data on the thermal biology and torpor expression of the rare Patagonian opossum (Lestodelphys halli). It is the opossum with the southernmost distribution, has a propensity of autumnal fattening, and therefore, is likely to hibernate. We captured two male Lestodelphys, which while in captivity displayed strong daily fluctuations of body temperatures (Tb) measured with implanted miniature data loggers even when they remained normothermic. In autumn and early winter, torpor was expressed occasionally when food was available, but cold exposure and food withdrawal increased torpor use. The mean Tb throughout the study was 32.2 ± 1.4 °C, the minimum Tb measured in torpid Lestodelphys was 7.7 °C, average torpor bout duration was 10.3 h, and the maximum torpor bout duration was 42.5 h. Thus, the pattern of torpor expressed by Lestodelphys was intermediate between that of daily heterotherms and hibernators suggesting that it may represent an ancestral opportunistic torpor pattern from which the derived patterns of daily torpor and seasonal hibernation diverged.

Aerobic power, huddling and the efficiency of torpor in the South American marsupial, Dromiciops gliroides

During periods of cold, small endotherms depend on a continuous supply of food and energy to maintain euthermic body temperature (T(b)), which can be challenging if food is limited. In these conditions, energy-saving strategies are critical to reduce the energetic requirements for survival. Mammals from temperate regions show a wide arrange of such strategies, including torpor and huddling. Here we provide a quantitative description of thermoregulatory capacities and energy-saving strategies in Dromiciops gliroides, a Microbiotherid marsupial inhabiting temperate rain forests. Unlike many mammals from temperate regions, preliminary studies have suggested that this species has low capacity for control and regulation of body temperature, but there is still an incomplete picture of its bioenergetics. In order to more fully understand the physiological capacities of this "living fossil", we measured its scope of aerobic power and the interaction between huddling and torpor. Specifically, we evaluated: (1) the relation between basal (BMR) and maximum metabolic rate (MMR), and (2) the role of huddling on the characteristics of torpor at different temperatures. We found that BMR and MMR were above the expected values for marsupials and the factorial aerobic scope (from [Formula: see text]CO(2)) was 6.0±0.45 (using [Formula: see text]CO(2)) and 6.2±0.23 (using [Formula: see text]O(2)), an unusually low value for mammals. Also, repeatability of physiological variables was non-significant, as in previous studies, suggesting poor time-consistency of energy metabolism. Comparisons of energy expenditure and body temperature (using attached data-loggers) between grouped and isolated individuals showed that at 20°C both average resting metabolic rate and body temperature were higher in groups, essentially because animals remained non-torpid. At 10°C, however, all individuals became torpid and no differences were observed between grouped and isolated individuals. In summary, our study suggests that the main response of Dromiciops gliroides to low ambient temperature is reduced body temperature and torpor, irrespective of huddling. Low aerobic power and low time-consistency of most thermoregulatory traits of Dromiciops gliroides support the idea of poor thermoregulatory abilities in this species.

Ecological consistency across space: a synthesis of the ecological aspects of Dromiciops gliroides in Argentina and Chile

Dromiciops gliroides is an arboreal marsupial found in the temperate forests of South America (36-43 °S). This species is the sole extant representative of the order Microbiotheria, and is a key seed disperser of many native plant species, including the keystone mistletoe Tristerix corymbosus. Here, we synthesized the current knowledge on the ecological aspects of this species, and compared the available information from Argentina and Chile. Population density (23 ± 2 (mean ± SE) individual/ha) and home range (1.6 ± 0.6 ha) appear to be relatively similar across a marked ecological gradient in the mainland, but lower densities (7 ± 2 individual/ha) and smaller home ranges (0.26 ± 0.04 ha) were detected at island sites. We detected regional variation in body condition in Chile, but there were no significant differences across a wider E-W gradient. Movement patterns fit a random walk model; such behavior might have important consequences in shaping plant's spatial patterns. Although our data suggest that D. gliroides is more tolerant to habitat disturbance than previously thought, its incapability to disperse across non-forested areas suggests that the rapid rate of habitat loss and fragmentation that characterizes southern temperate forests likely poses a serious threat to this species. These ecological similarities are surprising given that forests studied receive dramatically different rainfall and correspond to distinct forest types. The evidence synthetized here dispels some of the myths about this species but also stresses the need for more comprehensive ecological studies across its distribution range.