Histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1 and 2 expression and chemotherapy in gastric cancer

Deciphering the potential role of post-translational modifications of histones in gastrointestinal cancers: a proteomics-based review with therapeutic challenges and opportunities

Oncogenesis is a complex and multi-step process, controlled by several factors including epigenetic modifications. It is considered that histone modifications are critical components in the regulation of gene expression, protein functions, and molecular interactions. Dysregulated post-translationally modified histones and the related enzymatic systems are key players in the control of cell proliferation and differentiation, which are associated with the onset and progression of cancers. The most of traditional investigations on cancer have focused on mutations of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. However, increasing evidence indicates that epigenetics, especially histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) play important roles in various cancer types. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic approaches have demonstrated tremendous potential in PTMs profiling and quantitation in different biological systems. In this paper, we have made a proteomics-based review on the role of histone modifications involved in gastrointestinal cancers (GCs) tumorigenesis processes. These alterations function not only as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers for GCs, but a deeper comprehension of the epigenetic regulation of GCs could facilitate the treatment of this prevalent malignancy through the creation of more effective targeted therapies.

Clinical Significance of the Immunohistochemical Expression of Histone Deacetylases (HDACs)-2, -4, and -5 in Ovarian Adenocarcinomas

BACKGROUND

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are implicated in carcinogenesis, and HDAC inhibitors (HDACis) are explored as a therapeutic tool in several tumors. The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical significance of HDAC-2, -4, and -5 expression in epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC).

METHODS

HDAC-2, -4, and -5 immunohistochemical expression was examined in 92 EOC tissue specimens and was correlated with clinicopathological characteristics.

RESULTS

HDAC-2 was the most frequently (94.4%) expressed isoform, being marginally higher in serous tumors compared with other types (p = 0.08). HDAC-5 was the less frequently expressed (28.1%), being positively associated with HDAC-4. HDAC-4 positivity was associated with lower FIGO-stage (p = 0.045) and T-category (p = 0.043) and the absence of lymph node (p = 0.05) or distant metastasis (p = 0.09) in serous carcinomas. HDAC-2 positivity was correlated with the absence of lymph node metastasis in serous tumors (p = 0.045). On the contrary, HDAC-5 nuclear positivity was correlated with lymph node metastasis in the entire cohort (p = 0.048). HDAC-4 positivity was marginally associated with favorable prognosis in serous carcinomas in univariate survival analysis (p = 0.086), but this correlation was not significant in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a differential expression among HDAC-2, -4, and -5 in ovarian adenocarcinomas in terms of immunolocalization, positivity rate, and associations with clinicopathological parameters, providing evidence for a potential role in the pathobiology of EOC.

Deciphering the Mysterious Relationship between the Cross-Pathogenetic Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative and Oncological Diseases

The relationship between oncological pathologies and neurodegenerative disorders is extremely complex and is a topic of concern among a growing number of researchers around the world. In recent years, convincing scientific evidence has accumulated that indicates the contribution of a number of etiological factors and pathophysiological processes to the pathogenesis of these two fundamentally different diseases, thus demonstrating an intriguing relationship between oncology and neurodegeneration. In this review, we establish the general links between three intersecting aspects of oncological pathologies and neurodegenerative disorders, i.e., oxidative stress, epigenetic dysregulation, and metabolic dysfunction, examining each process in detail to establish an unusual epidemiological relationship. We also focus on reviewing the current trends in the research and the clinical application of the most promising chemical structures and therapeutic platforms that have a modulating effect on the above processes. Thus, our comprehensive analysis of the set of molecular determinants that have obvious cross-functional pathways in the pathogenesis of oncological and neurodegenerative diseases can help in the creation of advanced diagnostic tools and in the development of innovative pharmacological strategies.

Post-translational modifications of histones: Mechanisms, biological functions, and therapeutic targets

Histones are DNA-binding basic proteins found in chromosomes. After the histone translation, its amino tail undergoes various modifications, such as methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, malonylation, propionylation, butyrylation, crotonylation, and lactylation, which together constitute the "histone code." The relationship between their combination and biological function can be used as an important epigenetic marker. Methylation and demethylation of the same histone residue, acetylation and deacetylation, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, and even methylation and acetylation between different histone residues cooperate or antagonize with each other, forming a complex network. Histone-modifying enzymes, which cause numerous histone codes, have become a hot topic in the research on cancer therapeutic targets. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the role of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) in cell life activities is very important for preventing and treating human diseases. In this review, several most thoroughly studied and newly discovered histone PTMs are introduced. Furthermore, we focus on the histone-modifying enzymes with carcinogenic potential, their abnormal modification sites in various tumors, and multiple essential molecular regulation mechanism. Finally, we summarize the missing areas of the current research and point out the direction of future research. We hope to provide a comprehensive understanding and promote further research in this field.

The Epigenesis of Salivary Glands Carcinoma: From Field Cancerization to Carcinogenesis

Salivary gland carcinomas (SGCs) are a diverse collection of malignant tumors with marked differences in biological activity, clinical presentation and microscopic appearance. Although the etiology is varied, secondary radiation, oncogenic viruses as well as chromosomal rearrangements have all been linked to the formation of SGCs. Epigenetic modifications may also contribute to the genesis and progression of SGCs. Epigenetic modifications are any heritable changes in gene expression that are not caused by changes in DNA sequence. It is now widely accepted that epigenetics plays an important role in SGCs development. A basic epigenetic process that has been linked to a variety of pathological as well as physiological conditions including cancer formation, is DNA methylation. Transcriptional repression is caused by CpG islands hypermethylation at gene promoters, whereas hypomethylation causes overexpression of a gene. Epigenetic changes in SGCs have been identified, and they have been linked to the genesis, progression as well as prognosis of these neoplasms. Thus, we conduct a thorough evaluation of the currently known evidence on the involvement of epigenetic processes in SGCs.

Pre-therapeutic molecular biomarkers of pathological response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in gastric and esophago-gastric junction adenocarcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Multimodal treatment is the standard of care in patients with locally advanced gastric cancer. Unfortunately, the response rate after neoadjuvant treatment remains limited. The ability to predict the response has a potential to improve patient outcomes by promoting a more individualized approach. We sought to describe the current state of research in pre-treatment molecular biomarkers of response to neoadjuvant therapy in gastric adenocarcinoma available for testing before the initiation of treatment and to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis in order to summarize and evaluate the potential methods.

METHODS

A systematic MEDLINE, EMBASE and CENTRAL literature search was conducted to extract articles on potentially predictive molecular biomarkers of pathological response to neoadjuvant therapy in patients with gastric- and esophago-gastric junction adenocarcinoma. Fixed and random effects models were used to undertake the meta-analysis when appropriate.

RESULTS

Data on predictive biomarkers was reported in 38 studies. These articles described 47 biomarkers showing statistical significance. After evaluation of all reported biomarkers, 3 of them met the inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis results indicate that >5 ​ng/mL pre-therapeutic serum concentration of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA; norm <5 ​ng/mL) is significantly associated with tumor response (RR ​= ​5.13, 95% CI 2.53-10.43, P ​= ​0.026).

CONCLUSION

Previous studies describe a large number of candidate biomarkers. Our meta-analysis indicated pre-therapeutic serum concentration of CEA >5 ​ng/mL as a potential and easy-accessible biomarker available for use before initiation of treatment. However, it could be only an additional tool for complex qualification for neoadjuvant therapy.

Histone Deacetylase Functions in Gastric Cancer: Therapeutic Target?

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most aggressive cancers. Therapeutic treatments are based on surgery combined with chemotherapy using a combination of platinum-based agents. However, at metastatic stages of the disease, survival is extremely low due to late diagnosis and resistance mechanisms to chemotherapies. The development of new classifications has not yet identified new prognostic markers for clinical use. The studies of epigenetic processes highlighted the implication of histone acetylation status, regulated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and by histone deacetylases (HDACs), in cancer development. In this way, inhibitors of HDACs (HDACis) have been developed and some of them have already been clinically approved to treat T-cell lymphoma and multiple myeloma. In this review, we summarize the regulations and functions of eighteen HDACs in GC, describing their known targets, involved cellular processes, associated clinicopathological features, and impact on survival of patients. Additionally, we resume the in vitro, pre-clinical, and clinical trials of four HDACis approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in cancers in the context of GC.

Recent progress on FAK inhibitors with dual targeting capabilities for cancer treatment

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK, also known as PTK2) is a tyrosine kinase that regulates integrin and growth factor signaling pathways and is involved in the migration, proliferation and survival of cancer cells. FAK is a promising target for cancer treatment. Many small molecule FAK inhibitors have been identified and proven in both preclinical and clinical studies to be effective inhibitors of tumor growth and metastasis. There are many signaling pathways, such as those involving FAK, Src, AKT, MAPK, PI3K, and EGFR/HER-2, that provide survival signals in cancer cells. Dual inhibitors that simultaneously block FAK and another factor can significantly improve efficacy and overcome some of the shortcomings of single-target inhibitors, including drug resistance. In this review, the antitumor mechanisms and research status of dual inhibitors of FAK and other targets, such as Pyk2, IGF-IR, ALK, VEGFR-3, JAK2, EGFR, S6K1, and HDAC2, are summarized, providing new ideas for the development of effective FAK dual-target preparations.

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC) Inhibitors: A Promising Weapon to Tackle Therapy Resistance in Melanoma

Melanoma is an aggressive malignant tumor, arising more commonly on the skin, while it can also occur on mucosal surfaces and the uveal tract of the eye. In the context of the unresectable and metastatic cases that account for the vast majority of melanoma-related deaths, the currently available therapeutic options are of limited value. The exponentially increasing knowledge in the field of molecular biology has identified epigenetic reprogramming and more specifically histone deacetylation (HDAC), as a crucial regulator of melanoma progression and as a key driver in the emergence of drug resistance. A variety of HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) have been developed and evaluated in multiple solid and hematologic malignancies, showing promising results. In melanoma, various experimental models have elucidated a critical role of histone deacetylases in disease pathogenesis. They could, therefore, represent a promising novel therapeutic approach for advanced disease. A number of clinical trials assessing the efficacy of HDACi have already been completed, while a few more are in progress. Despite some early promising signs, a lot of work is required in the field of clinical studies, and larger patient cohorts are needed in order for more valid conclusions to be extracted, regarding the potential of HDACi as mainstream treatment options for melanoma.

Correlation Analysis of Protein Expression of 10 HDAC/Sirtuin Isoenzymes with Sensitivities of 23 Anticancer Drugs in 17 Cancer Cell Lines and Potentiation of Drug Activity by Co-Treatment with HDAC Inhibitors

Simple Summary

Protein expression profiles of 10 HDAC/Sirtuin isoenzymes in two panels of human cancer cell lines were compared with each other and with the potencies of various anticancer drugs by Pearson and Spearman correlation analysis to identify patterns of enzyme expression and anticancer activity. Furthermore, the NCI COMPARE database was used to identify possible correlations between the mRNA expression in a 60 cancer cell panel and the potency of the same anticancer drugs. While several interesting correlations were found within both data sets, none of these correlations were identical in the two sets of data, suggesting that protein and mRNA expression profiles are not comparable. Combination treatments with several HDAC inhibitors with a number of the anticancer drugs revealed interesting synergistic effects that were in keeping with some of the correlations predicted by our protein expression analysis.

Abstract

Inhibiting the activity of histone deacetylase (HDAC) is an ongoing strategy in anticancer therapy. However, to our knowledge, the relationships between the expression of HDAC proteins and the antitumor drug sensitivity of cancer cells have not been studied until now. In the current work, we investigated the relative expression profiles of 10 HDAC isoenzymes comprising the classes I–III (HDAC1/2/4/6; Sirt1/2/3/5/6/7) in a panel of 17 cancer cell lines, including the breast, cervix, oesophageal, lung, oral squamous, pancreas, as well as urinary bladder carcinoma cells. Correlations between the data of mRNA expression for these enzymes obtained from the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 60 cancer cell line program were also examined. Next, we performed univariate analysis between the expression patterns of HDAC/Sirt isoenzymes with the sensitivity of a 16 cell panel of cancer cell lines towards several antitumor drugs. In a univariate correlation analysis, we found a strong relation between Sirt2 expression and cytotoxicity caused by busulfan, etoposide, and hydroxyurea. Moreover, it was identified that Sirt5 correlates with the effects exerted by oxaliplatin or topotecan, as well as between HDAC4 expression and these two drugs. Correlations between the data of mRNA expression for enzymes with the potencies of the same anticancer agents obtained from the NCI 60 cancer cell line program were also found, but none were the same as those we found with our protein expression data. Additionally, we report here the effects upon combination of the approved HDAC inhibitor vorinostat and one other known inhibitor trichostatin A as well as newer hetero-stilbene and diazeno based sirtuin inhibitors on the potency of cisplatin, lomustine, and topotecan. For these three anticancer drugs, we found a significantly enhanced cytotoxicity when co-incubated with HDAC inhibitors, demonstrating a potentially beneficial influence of HDAC inhibition on anticancer drug treatment.

E-Cadherin-Deficient Epithelial Cells Are Sensitive to HDAC Inhibitors

Inactivating germline mutations in the CDH1 gene (encoding the E-cadherin protein) are the genetic hallmark of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC), and somatic CDH1 mutations are an early event in the development of sporadic diffuse gastric cancer (DGC) and lobular breast cancer (LBC). In this study, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors were tested for their ability to preferentially inhibit the growth of human cell lines (MCF10A and NCI-N87) and murine organoids lacking CDH1 expression. CDH1^-/- breast and gastric cells were more sensitive to the pan-HDAC inhibitors entinostat, pracinostat, mocetinostat and vorinostat than wild-type cells, with an elevated growth inhibition that was, in part, attributable to increased apoptosis. CDH1-null cells were also sensitive to more class-specific HDAC inhibitors, but compared to the pan-inhibitors, these effects were less robust to genetic background. Increased sensitivity to entinostat was also observed in gastric organoids with both Cdh1 and Tp53 deletions. However, the deletion of Tp53 largely abrogated the sensitivity of the Cdh1-null organoids to pracinostat and mocetinostat. Finally, entinostat enhanced Cdh1 expression in heterozygous Cdh1^+/- murine organoids. In conclusion, entinostat is a promising drug for the chemoprevention and/or treatment of HDGC and may also be beneficial for the treatment of sporadic CDH1-deficient cancers.

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC)-1, -2, -4, and -6 in Uveal Melanomas: Associations with Clinicopathological Parameters and Patients' Survival

Simple Summary

Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) have been reportedly associated with tumor development and progression in several types of human malignancy, being currently investigated as potential targets of anti-cancer therapy. The aim of this study is to assess the clinical significance and prognostic role of the of HDAC-1, -2, -4, and -6 immunohistochemical expression, in 75 uveal melanoma (UM) cases. HDACs are differentially expressed in UMs, HDAC-2 being the most frequently expressed isoform, whereas cytoplasmic expression of class I HDAC isoforms is also observed. Additionally, HDAC-1 was associated with increased tumor size, HDAC-6 with mitotic index, and HDAC-2 with epithelioid cell morphology and presence of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, both parameters of adverse prognosis. Moreover, our data support a significant association of HDAC-2 with patients’ improved OS. These findings suggest that HDACs, and especially HDAC-2, may be implicated in the formation and progression of UM.

Abstract

Background: Uveal melanoma (UM) represents the most common primary intraocular malignancy in adults, exerting high metastatic potential and poor prognosis. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play a key role in carcinogenesis, and HDAC inhibitors (HDACIs) are currently being explored as anti-cancer agents in clinical settings. The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical significance of HDAC-1, -2, -4, and -6 expression in UM. Methods: HDAC-1, -2, -4, and -6 expression was examined immunohistochemically in 75 UM tissue specimens and was correlated with tumors’ clinicopathological characteristics, the presence of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILS), as well as with our patients’ overall survival (OS). Results: HDAC-2 was the most frequently expressed isoform (66%), whereas we confirmed in addition to the expected nuclear expression the presence of cytoplasmic expression of class I HDAC isoforms, namely HDAC-1 (33%) and HDAC-2 (9.5%). HDAC-4 and -6 expression was cytoplasmic. HDAC-1 nuclear expression was associated with increased tumor size (p = 0.03), HDAC-6 with higher mitotic index (p = 0.03), and nuclear HDAC-2 with epithelioid cell morphology (p = 0.03) and presence of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (p = 0.04). The association with the remaining parameters including Monosomy 3 was not significant. Moreover, the presence as well as the nuclear expression pattern of HDAC-2 were correlated with patients’ improved OS and remained significant in multivariate survival analysis. Conclusions: These findings provide evidence for a potential role of HDACs and especially HDAC-2 in the biological mechanisms governing UM evolution and progression.

Unraveling the Epigenetic Role and Clinical Impact of Histone Deacetylases in Neoplasia

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have long been implicated in tumorigenesis and tumor progression demonstrating their important participation in neoplasia. Therefore, numerous studies have been performed, highlighting the mechanism of HDACs action in tumor cells and demonstrating the potential role of HDAC inhibitors in the treatment of different cancer types. The outcome of these studies further delineated and strengthened the solid role that HDACs and epigenetic modifications exert in neoplasia. These results have spread promise regarding the potential use of HDACs as prospective therapeutic targets. Nevertheless, the clinical significance of HDAC expression and their use as biomarkers in cancer has not been extensively elucidated. The aim of our study is to emphasize the clinical significance of HDAC isoforms expression in different tumor types and the correlations noted between the clinicopathological parameters of tumors and patient outcomes. We further discuss the obstacles that the next generation HDAC inhibitors need to overcome, for them to become more potent.

A novel moniliformin derivative as pan-inhibitor of histone deacetylases triggering apoptosis of leukemia cells

New and potent agents that evade multidrug resistance (MDR) and inhibit epigenetic modifications are of great interest in cancer drug development. Here, we describe that a moniliformin derivative (IUPAC name: 3-(naphthalen-2-ylsulfanyl)-4-{[(2Z)-1,3,3-trimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-indol-2-ylidene]methyl}cyclobut-3-ene-1,2-dione; code: MCC1381) bypasses P-gp-mediated MDR. Using transcriptomics, we identified a large number of genes significantly regulated in response to MCC1381, which affected the cell cycle and disturbed cellular death and survival. The potential targets of MCC1381 might be histone deacetylases (HDACs) as predicted by SwissTargetPrediction. In silico studies confirmed that MCC1381 presented comparable affinity with HDAC1, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 11. Besides, the inhibition activity of HDACs was dose-dependently inhibited by MCC1381. Particularly, a strong binding affinity was observed between MCC1381 and HDAC6 by microscale thermophoresis analysis. MCC1381 decreased the expression of HDAC6, inversely correlated with the increase of acetylated HDAC6 substrates, acetylation p53 and α-tubulin. Furthermore, MCC1381 arrested the cell cycle at the G₂/M phase, induced the generation of reactive oxygen species and collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential. MCC1381 exhibited in vivo anti-cancer activity in xenografted zebrafish. Collectively, MCC1381 extended cytotoxicity towards P-gp-resistant leukemia cancer cells and may act as a pan-HDACs inhibitor, indicating that MCC1381 is a novel candidate for cancer therapy.

A first-in-class anticancer dual HDAC2/FAK inhibitors bearing hydroxamates/benzamides capped by pyridinyl-1,2,4-triazoles

Novel 5-pyridinyl-1,2,4-triazoles were designed as dual inhibitors of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Compounds 5d, 6a, 7c, and 11c were determined as potential inhibitors of both HDAC2 (IC₅₀ = 0.09-1.40 μM) and FAK (IC₅₀ = 12.59-36.11 nM); 6a revealed the highest activity with IC₅₀ values of 0.09 μM and 12.59 nM for HDAC2 and FAK, respectively. Compound 6a was superior to reference drugs vorinostat and valproic acid in its ability to inhibit growth/proliferation of A-498 and Caki-1 renal cancer cells. Further investigation proved that 6a strongly arrests the cell cycle at the G2/M phase and triggers apoptosis in both A-498 and Caki-1 cells. Moreover, the enhanced Akt activity that is observed upon chronic application of HDAC inhibitors was effectively suppressed by the dual HDAC2/FAK inhibitor. Finally, the high potency and selectivity of 6a towards HDAC2 and FAK proteins were rationalized by molecular docking. Taken together, these findings highlight the potential of 6a as a promising dual-acting HDAC2/FAK inhibitor that could benefit from further optimization.

Clinical Significance of Histone Deacetylase (HDAC)-1, -2, -4 and -6 Expression in Salivary Gland Tumors

Salivary gland tumors (SGTs) comprise a group of rare neoplasms. Locally aggressive, recurrent and/or metastatic SGTs are notorious for their resistance to systemic therapy, making the need for carefully designed, prospective and randomized trials with useful predictive markers mandatory to define new effective therapeutic protocols. Histone Deacetylases (HDACs), are thought to play a crucial role in carcinogenesis. They affect the DNA structure, being also able to regulate its transcription, repair, and replication. This study aimed to evaluate-to our knowledge for the first time-the HDAC-1, -2, -4 and -6 immunohistochemical expression in SGTs and their potential use as prognostic biomarkers. Medical records and archival histopathological material of 58 (36 benign and 22 malignant) SGT patients were included in this study. The H-score was statistically correlated with the clinicopathological characteristics for all cases and patients' survival rate in malignant SGTs. HDAC-2 positivity was significantly associated with more prolonged overall survival (OS) of patients with malignant SGTs (p = 0.028), while HDAC-2 positivity and no HDAC-6 expression were associated with prolonged OS of patients with HG malignant SGT (p = 0.003 and p = 0.043, respectively). Additionally, a high HDAC-2 H-score was significantly associated with longer OS for HG malignant SGT patients (p = 0.027). In our study, HDAC-2 expression is a marker for good prognosis, whereas HDAC-6 expression indicated poor prognosis; thus, an inhibitor of HDAC-6 may be used to improve patients' survival.

Dual inhibition of HDAC and tyrosine kinase signaling pathways with CUDC-907 attenuates TGFβ1 induced lung and tumor fibrosis

TGFβ1 signaling is a critical driver of collagen accumulation in pulmonary fibrotic diseases and a well-characterized regulator of cancer associated fibroblasts (CAF) activation in lung cancer. Myofibroblasts induced by TGFβ1 and other factors are key players in the pathogenesis of lung fibrosis and tumor. Tremendous attention has been gained to targeting myofibroblasts in order to inhibit the progression of fibrosis and myofibroblast-induced tumor progression and metastasis. Here we determined the therapeutic efficacy of simultaneously targeting PI3K and HDAC pathways in lung myofibroblasts and CAF with a single agent and to evaluate biomarkers of treatment response. CUDC-907 is a first-in-class compound, functioning as a dual inhibitor of HDACs and PI3K/AKT pathway. We investigated its effects in counteracting the activity of TGFβ1-induced myofibroblasts/CAF in regard to cell proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis in vitro antifibrosis efficiency in vivo. We found that CUDC-907 inhibited myofibroblasts/CAF cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner and caused cell cycle arrest at G1-S phase. CUDC-907 not only inhibited myofibroblasts markers expression, but also significantly inhibited the phosphorylation level of AKT, mTOR, Smad2/3, and promoted acetylation of histones. Furthermore, the observed inhibitory effect was also confirmed in bleomycin-induced mice lung fibrosis and nude mouse transplanted tumor model. Overall, these data suggest that dual inhibition of HDAC and the tyrosine kinase signaling pathways with CUDC-907 is a promising treatment strategy for TGFβ1-induced lung and tumor fibrosis.

Epigenetic Mechanisms in Gastric Cancer: Potential New Therapeutic Opportunities

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the deadliest malignancies worldwide. Complex disease heterogeneity, late diagnosis, and suboptimal therapies result in the poor prognosis of patients. Besides genetic alterations and environmental factors, it has been demonstrated that alterations of the epigenetic machinery guide cancer onset and progression, representing a hallmark of gastric malignancies. Moreover, epigenetic mechanisms undergo an intricate crosstalk, and distinct epigenomic profiles can be shaped under different microenvironmental contexts. In this scenario, targeting epigenetic mechanisms could be an interesting therapeutic strategy to overcome gastric cancer heterogeneity, and the efforts conducted to date are delivering promising results. In this review, we summarize the key epigenetic events involved in gastric cancer development. We conclude with a discussion of new promising epigenetic strategies for gastric cancer treatment.

Clinical significance of HDAC1, -2 and -3 expression levels in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

The present study analyzed the expression of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1, 2 and 3 in primary esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) samples and how their levels correlate with clinicopathological parameters. ESCC patients (n=88) in the present study had received no previous treatment before undergoing surgical excision. The mRNA expression of HDAC1, -2 and -3 were detected by semi-quantified PCR in ESCC samples and distal normal samples. The relationship of HDAC1, -2 and -3 expression with clinicopathological parameters was analyzed by χ2 test. The correlation among these HDACs was analyzed by Pearson's correlation test. Compared with distal normal tissues, ESCC samples had higher expression of HDAC1, but not HDAC2 or HDAC3 (P<0.05). The expression of HDACs was different between Kazak and Han ethnicities. The expression of HDAC2 was correlated with invasion depth (P<0.05), but not with sex, age, metastasis, or the degree of tumor differentiation (P>0.05). There was no association between HDAC1 or HDAC3 and clinicopathological parameters (P>0.05). For the Kazak and Han ethnicities, HDAC1 expression was present in male patients, patients with well/moderate differentiated ESCC and T3 and T4 ESCC (P<0.01). HDAC1 in patients aged <60 was associated with ethnicity (P<0.05). HDAC2 expression was different in positive LN metastasis, well/moderate differentiation and T3 and T4 ESCC (P<0.01). HDAC3 expression in male patients, patients with negative LN metastasis and well/moderate differentiation ESCC was associated with ethnicity (P<0.05). Additionally, the expression levels of HDAC1, -2 and -3 did not correlate with each other. Thus, HDAC1 expression may be used as a risk factor for ESCC and HDAC2 levels may be used to predict invasion depth. The expression of HDAC1, -2 and -3 has ethnic differences.

Histone deacetylase inhibitor pre-treatment enhances the efficacy of DNA-interacting chemotherapeutic drugs in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

The prognosis of gastric cancer continues to remain poor, and epigenetic drugs like histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been envisaged as potential therapeutic agents. Nevertheless, clinical trials are facing issues with toxicity and efficacy against solid tumors, which may be partly due to the lack of patient stratification for effective treatments.

AIM

To study the need of patient stratification before HDACi treatment, and the efficacy of pre-treatment of HDACi as a chemotherapeutic drug sensitizer.

METHODS

The expression activity of class 1 HDACs and histone acetylation was examined in human gastric cancer cells and tissues. The potential combinatorial regime of HDACi and chemotherapy drugs was defined on the basis of observed drug binding assays, chromatin remodeling and cell death.

RESULTS

In the present study, the data suggest that the differential increase in HDAC activity and the expression of class 1 HDACs are associated with hypo-acetylation of histone proteins in tumors compared to normal adjacent mucosa tissue samples of gastric cancer. The data highlights for the first time that pre-treatment of HDACi results in an increased amount of DNA-bound drugs associated with enhanced histone acetylation, chromatin relaxation and cell cycle arrest. Fraction-affected plots and combination index-based analysis show that pre-HDACi chemo drug combinatorial regimes, including valproic acid with cisplatin or oxaliplatin and trichostatin A with epirubicin, exhibit synergism with maximum cytotoxic potential due to higher cell death at low combined doses in gastric cancer cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Expression or activity of class 1 HDACs among gastric cancer patients present an effective approach for patient stratification. Furthermore, HDACi therapy in pre-treatment regimes is more effective with chemotherapy drugs, and may aid in predicting individual patient prognosis.

LncRNA HRCEG, regulated by HDAC1, inhibits cells proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal-transition in gastric cancer

Recently, a number of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported to play significant roles in human tumorigenesis. However, only few gastric cancer related lncRNAs have been well characterized. Here, we identified one lncRNA HRCEG, whose expression was decreased in the gastric cancer tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues. Overexpression of HRCEG significantly promoted cell apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation. Importantly, we demonstrated that HRCEG levels inversely correlated with EMT process and HRCEG was regulated by the histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) in gastric cancer. These findings suggest that HRCEG might be regulated by HDAC1 to inhibit gastric cancer progress and metastatic capability via EMT pathway.

Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) in Gastric Cancer: An Update of their Emerging Prognostic and Therapeutic Role

Chemotherapy resistance is a rising concern in Gastric Cancer (GC) and has led to the investigation of various cellular compounds. Α functional equilibrium of histone acetylation and deacetylation was discovered in all cells, regulated by Histone Acetyltransferases and Deacetylases (HDACs), controlling chromatin coiling status and changing gene expression appropriately. In accordance with recent research, this equilibrium can be dysregulated in cancer cells aiding in the process of carcinogenesis and tumor progression by altering histone and non-histone proteins affecting gene expression, cell cycle control, differentiation, and apoptosis in various malignancies. In addition, increased HDAC expression in GC cells has been associated with increased stage, tumor invasion, nodal metastases, increased distant metastatic potential, and decreased overall survival. HDAC inhibitors could be used as treatment regimens for GC patients and could develop important synergistic interactions with chemotherapy drugs. The aim of this article is to review the molecular identity and mechanism of action of HDAC inhibitors, as well as highlight their potential utility as anti-cancer agents in GC.

HDAC4 Levels Control Sensibility toward Cisplatin in Gastric Cancer via the p53-p73/BIK Pathway

Gastric cancer (GC) remains a health issue due to the low efficiency of therapies, such as cisplatin. This unsatisfactory situation highlights the necessity of finding factors impacting GC sensibility to therapies. We analyzed the cisplatin pangenomic response in cancer cells and found HDAC4 as a major epigenetic regulator being inhibited. HDAC4 mRNA repression was partly mediated by the cisplatin-induced expression of miR-140. At a functional level, HDAC4 inhibition favored cisplatin cytotoxicity and reduced tumor growth. Inversely, overexpression of HDAC4 inhibits cisplatin cytotoxicity. Importantly, HDAC4 expression was found to be elevated in gastric tumors compared to healthy tissues, and in particular in specific molecular subgroups. Furthermore, mutations in HDAC4 correlate with good prognosis. Pathway analysis of genes whose expression in patients correlated strongly with HDAC4 highlighted DNA damage, p53 stabilization, and apoptosis as processes downregulated by HDAC4. This was further confirmed by silencing of HDAC4, which favored cisplatin-induced apoptosis characterized by cleavage of caspase 3 and induction of proapoptotic genes, such as BIK, in part via a p53-dependent mechanism. Altogether, these results reveal HDAC4 as a resistance factor for cisplatin in GC cells that impacts on patients' survival.

Identification of HDAC9 as a viable therapeutic target for the treatment of gastric cancer

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) are a new class of anticancer drugs confirmed to have good therapeutic effects against gastric cancer (GC) in preclinical experiments, but most HDACis are non-selective (pan-HDACis), with highly toxic side effects. Therefore, it is necessary to screen HDAC family members that play key roles in GC as therapeutic targets to reduce toxic side effects. In this study, we evaluated the targeting specificity of the HDACi suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) for GC via fluorescence molecular imaging (FMI). In vitro FMI results showed that SAHA had higher binding affinity for GC cells than for normal gastric cells. In vivo FMI of gastric tumor-bearing mice confirmed that SAHA can be enriched in GC tissues. However, there was also a high-concentration distribution in normal organs such as the stomach and lungs, suggesting potential side effects. In addition, we found that among the HDAC family members, HDAC9 was the most significantly upregulated in GC cells, and we verified this upregulation in GC tissues. Further experiments confirmed that knockdown of HDAC9 inhibits cell growth, reduces colony formation, and induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. These results suggest that HDAC9 has an oncogenic role in GC. Moreover, HDAC9 siRNA suppressed GC tumor growth and enhanced the antitumor efficacy of cisplatin in GC treatment by inhibiting the proliferation and inducing the apoptosis of GC cells in vitro and in vivo. Our findings suggest that the development of HDAC9-selective HDACis is a potential approach to improve the efficacy of chemotherapy and reduce systemic toxicity.

Inhibiting histone deacetylase 9 (HDAC9), a protein that regulates gene expression, reduces stomach cancer cell growth. The efficacy of current treatments for stomach cancer is limited. Although HDACs have emerged as promising therapeutic targets, non-selective HDAC inhibitors can cause severe side effects. Shigang Ding at Peking University Third Hospital in Beijing, China, and colleagues found that human stomach cancer cells have significantly higher levels of HDAC9 than other members of the HDAC family and that high HDAC9 levels are associated with reduced patient survival. Interfering with the production of HDAC9 protein improved the efficacy of the chemotherapeutic drug cisplatin in mice with stomach cancer. The authors suggest that selective HDAC9 inhibitors could help to improve the survival of patients with this type of cancer.

Role of HDAC1 in the progression of gastric cancer and the correlation with lncRNAs

Gastric cancer (GC) is a common life-threatening cancer type worldwide, with an increasing prevalence and a high rate of mortality. Due to limitations in clinical treatment, surgery has become the most efficient strategy for the treatment of GC. It is urgent to identify novel biomarkers, which are useful for the diagnosis of GC and for improving the survival rate of patients with GC. HDACs are multi-functional proteins and are involved in regulating gene expression, cell proliferation and the epigenetic regulation. However, the precise role of HDACs in the progression of GC remains unknown. The present study demonstrated that HDAC1 is involved in the promotion of GC cell proliferation, possibly by upregulating the expression of the lncRNAs, BC01600 and AF116637, in the tissues of patients with GC. Abnormal expression profiles of lncRNAs were observed in the tissues of patients with GC. lncRNAs were analyzed in the GSE64951 and GSE19826 databases, and it was revealed that BC01600 and AF116637 were two typically upregulated lncRNAs. Furthermore, it was revealed that BC01600 and AF116637 are regulated by HDAC1, as evidenced by decreased expression of these two lncRNAs in HDAC1-knockout SC-M1 cell lines, and by reduced expression of HDAC1 in these two lncRNA-knockout SC-M1 cell lines. Silencing of HDAC1 decreased the proliferation and increased the apoptosis of SC-M1 cell lines, but had no effect on the migration of the SC-M1 cell lines. The present study provided evidence of the importance of HDAC1 in the progression of SC-M1, and the association between HDAC1 and the expression of lncRNAs. The results of the present study indicated that HDAC1 may be a promising target for the clinical treatment of GC.

Role of histone acetylation in gastric cancer: implications of dietetic compounds and clinical perspectives

Histone modifications regulate the structural status of chromatin and thereby influence the transcriptional status of genes. These processes are controlled by the recruitment of different enzymes to a specific genomic site. Furthermore, obtaining an understanding of these mechanisms could help delineate alternative treatment and preventive strategies for cancer. For example, in gastric cancer, cholecalciferol, curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, garcinol and sodium butyrate are natural regulators of acetylation and deacetylation enzyme activity that exert chemopreventive and anticancer effects. Here, we review the recent findings on histone acetylation in gastric cancer and discuss the effects of nutrients and bioactive compounds on histone acetylation and their potential role in the prevention and treatment of this type of cancer.

Expression profiles of histone modification genes in gastric cancer progression

Gastric cancer (GC) development can be attributed to several risk factors including atrophic gastritis (AG), intestinal metaplasia (IM), and the presence of Helicobacter pylori (HP). Also, histone modification is an epigenetic mechanism that plays a pivotal role in GC carcinogenesis. In this preliminary study, we aimed to describe the expression profiles of histone modification in the AG, IM, and GC patient groups. A total of 80 patients with AG (n = 27), IM (n = 25), and GC (n = 28) with an additional 20 control subjects were included in the study. Expression profiles of three histone phosphorylation genes (PAK1, NEK6, and AURKA) and five histone deacetylation genes (HDACs 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7) were examined based on the results of Real Time qPCR method. It was observed that AURKA and HDAC2 genes were significantly overexpressed in all groups compared to the control (P < 0.05). In GC patients, overexpression of HDAC2 gene was detected in the absence of metastasis, and overexpression of AURKA, HDAC2, and NEK6 genes was detected in the presence of metastasis. When cancer involvements were compared, significant overexpression of the HDAC2 gene was noted in overall and corpus involvements (P < 0.05). In addition, overexpression of AURKA, NEK6, HDAC1, and HDAC2 genes and underexpression of HDAC5 gene were detected in the antrum involvement (P < 0.05). In conclusion, decreased expression of HDAC5 in GC is reported for the first time in this study, while supporting the existing literature in AURKA, NEK6, HDAC1, and HDAC2 up regulations during GC development.

The expression of histone deacetylase HDAC1 correlates with the progression and prognosis of gastrointestinal malignancy

Gastrointestinal malignancy is a severe public health threat worldwide, and survival for most types of gastrointestinal cancer is very poor. Therefore, finding better cancer biomarkers to diagnose gastrointestinal malignancy and predict patient survival is essential. HDAC1 has been reported to be closely associated with several types of cancer, but the precise role of HDAC1 in gastrointestinal cancer is not clear. Recently, quite a few studies have investigated the correlation between HDAC1 expression and clinical features or prognosis in multiple types of gastrointestinal malignancies, but the results were inconsistent. In this study, we systematically reviewed the association between HDAC1 and gastrointestinal malignancy using meta-analysis methods, and 28 eligible studies were analyzed. We found that the expression level of HDAC1 in gastrointestinal malignancies, especially in colorectal cancer (OR = 10.84, 95% CI = 5.33-22.07, P< 0.00001), was higher than that in noncancerous tissue, and HDAC1 expression was closely associated with some clinical features of gastrointestinal cancer patients, such as tumor stage (OR = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.28-2.05, P < 0.0001) and tumor grade (OR = 1.75, 95% CI = 1.03-2.95, P = 0.04). In addition, we also found that patients with low HDAC1 expression showed better overall survival than those with high HDAC1 expression in gastrointestinal malignancy, especially in gastric cancer (HR = 1.88, 95% CI = 1.14-3.12, P = 0.01). Our results strongly suggest that HDAC1 may serve as a good diagnostic and prognostic marker for gastrointestinal malignancy.

The role of REST and HDAC2 in epigenetic dysregulation of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 expression in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Increased expression of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) have been implicated with strong metastatic potential of human breast cancer in vitro and in vivo where the main culprits are cardiac isoform Nav1.5 and its 'neonatal' splice variant, nNav1.5. Several factors have been associated with Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 gain of expression in breast cancer mainly hormones, and growth factors.

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the role of epigenetics via transcription repressor, repressor element silencing transcription factor (REST) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) in enhancing Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 expression in human breast cancer by assessing the effect of HDAC inhibitor, trichostatin A (TSA).

METHODS

The less aggressive human breast cancer cell line, MCF-7 cells which lack Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 expression was treated with TSA at a concentration range 10-10,000 ng/ml for 24 h whilst the aggressive MDA-MB-231 cells was used as control. The effect of TSA on Nav1.5, nNav1.5, REST, HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, MMP2 and N-cadherin gene expression level was analysed by real-time PCR. Cell growth (MTT assay) and metastatic behaviors (lateral motility and migration assays) were also measured.

RESULTS

mRNA expression level of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 were initially very low in MCF-7 compared to MDA-MB-231 cells. Inversely, mRNA expression level of REST, HDAC1, HDAC2, and HDAC3 were all greater in MCF-7 compared to MDA-MB-231 cells. Treatment with TSA significantly increased the mRNA expression level of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 in MCF-7 cells. On the contrary, TSA significantly reduced the mRNA expression level of REST and HDAC2 in this cell line. Remarkably, despite cell growth inhibition by TSA, motility and migration of MCF-7 cells were enhanced after TSA treatment, confirmed with the up-regulation of metastatic markers, MMP2 and N-cadherin.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified epigenetics as another factor that regulate the expression level of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 in breast cancer where REST and HDAC2 play important role as epigenetic regulators that when lacking enhances the expression of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 thus promotes motility and migration of breast cancer. Elucidation of the regulatory mechanisms for gain of Nav1.5 and nNav1.5 expression may be helpful for seeking effective strategies for the management of metastatic diseases.

Inhibiting histone deacetylases suppresses glucose metabolism and hepatocellular carcinoma growth by restoring FBP1 expression

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in the world. Elevated glucose metabolism in the availability of oxygen, a phenomenon called the Warburg effect, is important for cancer cell growth. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP1) is a rate-limiting enzyme in gluconeogenesis and is frequently lost in various types of cancer. Here, we demonstrated that expression of FBP1 was downregulated in HCC patient specimens and decreased expression of FBP1 associated with poor prognosis. Low expression of FBP1 correlated with high levels of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and HDAC2 proteins in HCC patient tissues. Treatment of HCC cells with HDAC inhibitors or knockdown of HDAC1 and/or HDAC2 restored FBP1 expression and inhibited HCC cell growth. HDAC-mediated suppression of FBP1 expression correlated with decreased histone H3 lysine 27 acetylation (H3K27Ac) in the FBP1 enhancer. Restored expression of FBP1 decreased glucose reduction and lactate secretion and inhibited HCC cell growth in vitro and tumor growth in mice. Our data reveal that loss of FBP1 due to histone deacetylation associates with poor prognosis of HCC and restored FBP1 expression by HDAC inhibitors suppresses HCC growth. Our findings suggest that repression of FBP1 by HDACs has important implications for HCC prognosis and treatment.

TACC3 overexpression in cholangiocarcinoma correlates with poor prognosis and is a potential anti-cancer molecular drug target for HDAC inhibitors

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have been implicated in multiple malignant tumors, and HDAC inhibitors (HDACIs) exert anti-cancer effects. However, the expression of HDACs and the anti-tumor mechanism of HDACIs in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) have not yet been elucidated. In this study, we found that expression of HDACs 2, 3, and 8 were up-regulated in CCA tissues and those patients with high expression of HDAC2 and/or HDAC3 had a worse prognosis. In CCA cells, two HDACIs, trichostatin (TSA) and vorinostat (SAHA), suppressed proliferation and induced apoptosis and G2/M cycle arrest. Microarray analysis revealed that TACC3 mRNA was down-regulated in CCA cells treated with TSA. TACC3 was highly expressed in CCA tissues and predicted a poor prognosis in CCA patients. TACC3 knockdown induced G2/M cycle arrest and suppressed the invasion, metastasis, and proliferation of CCA cells, both in vitro and in vivo. TACC3 overexpression reversed the effects of its knockdown. These findings suggest TACC3 may be a useful prognostic biomarker for CCA and is a potential therapeutic target for HDACIs.

Epigenetically downregulated Semaphorin 3E contributes to gastric cancer

Axon guidance protein Semaphorin 3E (Sema3E) promotes tumor metastasis and suppresses tumor cell death. Here, we demonstrated that Sema3E was decreased in gastric cancer. Its levels were inversely associated with tumor progression. Levels of Sema3E were associated with low p300 and high class I histone deacetylase (class I HDAC). Ectopic expression of Sema3E inhibited proliferation and colony formation of gastric cancer cell lines in vitro and xenografts in vivo. Sema3E overexpression inhibited migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells, which was associated with induction of E-cadherin and reduction of Akt and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. We suggest that silencing of Sema3E contributes to the pathogenesis of gastric cancer.

Immediate tumor resection in patients with locally advanced gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma with nonresponse to chemotherapy after 4 weeks of treatment versus resection after completion of chemotherapy (OPTITREAT trial, DRKS00004668): study protocol for a randomized controlled pilot trial

Background

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is a standard of care for patients with adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and stomach in Europe, but still only 20–40 % respond to therapy and the critical issue; how to treat nonresponding patients is still unclear. So far, there is no randomized trial evaluating the impact of early termination of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and immediate tumor resection in nonresponding patients with locally advanced gastroesophageal cancer on postoperative outcome. With this exploratory pilot trial, we want to get first estimates about the effect of discontinuation of chemotherapy with the aim to plan and conduct a further definitive trial.

Methods/design

OPTITREAT is designed as a single-center, randomized controlled pilot trial with two parallel study groups. Four weeks after starting neoadjuvant chemotherapy in all patients, clinical response will be assessed by endoscopy and endosonographic ultrasound. Then, nonresponding patients (n = 84) will be randomized in a 1:1 ratio to intervention group with stopping chemotherapy and immediate tumor resection or control group with completion of chemotherapy before surgery. Outcome measures are overall survival, R0 resection rate, perioperative morbidity and mortality, histopathological response, and quality of life. Statistical analysis will be based on the intention-to-treat population. Due to the study design as an explorative pilot trial, no formal sample size calculation was performed. The planned total sample size of 120 patients is considered ethical and large enough to show the feasibility and safety of the concept. First data on differences between the study groups in the defined endpoints will also be generated.

Discussion

Individualized therapy is of utmost interest in the treatment of locally advanced gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma as less than half of the patients show objective response to current chemotherapy regimens. The findings of the OPTITREAT trial will help to get first data about clinical response evaluation followed by immediate tumor resection in nonresponding patients after 4 weeks of neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Based on the results of this pilot study, a future confirmatory trial will be planned to prove efficacy and evaluate significance.

Trial registration

German Clinical Trial Register number: DRKS00004668

Epigenomic regulation of oncogenesis by chromatin remodeling

Disruption of the intricate gene expression program represents one of major driving factors for the development, progression and maintenance of human cancer, and is often associated with acquired therapeutic resistance. At the molecular level, cancerous phenotypes are the outcome of cellular functions of critical genes, regulatory interactions of histones and chromatin remodeling complexes in response to dynamic and persistent upstream signals. A large body of genetic and biochemical evidence suggests that the chromatin remodelers integrate the extracellular and cytoplasmic signals to control gene activity. Consequently, widespread dysregulation of chromatin remodelers and the resulting inappropriate expression of regulatory genes, together, lead to oncogenesis. We summarize the recent developments and current state of the dysregulation of the chromatin remodeling components as the driving mechanism underlying the growth and progression of human tumors. Because chromatin remodelers, modifying enzymes and protein-protein interactions participate in interpreting the epigenetic code, selective chromatin remodelers and bromodomains have emerged as new frontiers for pharmacological intervention to develop future anti-cancer strategies to be used either as single-agent or in combination therapies with chemotherapeutics or radiotherapy.

Targeting Histone Deacetylases in Diseases: Where Are We?

SIGNIFICANCE

Epigenetic inactivation of pivotal genes involved in cell growth is a hallmark of human pathologies, in particular cancer. Histone acetylation balance obtained through opposing actions of histone deacetylases (HDACs) and histone acetyltransferases is one epigenetic mechanism controlling gene expression and is, thus, associated with disease etiology and progression. Interfering pharmacologically with HDAC activity can correct abnormalities in cell proliferation, migration, vascularization, and death.

RECENT ADVANCES

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) represent a new class of cytostatic agents that interfere with the function of HDACs and are able to increase gene expression by indirectly inducing histone acetylation. Several HDACi, alone or in combination with DNA-demethylating agents, chemopreventive, or classical chemotherapeutic drugs, are currently being used in clinical trials for solid and hematological malignancies, and are, thus, promising candidates for cancer therapy.

CRITICAL ISSUES

(i) Non-specific (off-target) HDACi effects due to activities unassociated with HDAC inhibition. (ii) Advantages/disadvantages of non-selective or isoform-directed HDACi. (iii) Limited number of response-predictive biomarkers. (iv) Toxicity leading to dysfunction of critical biological processes.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Selective HDACi could achieve enhanced clinical utility by reducing or eliminating the serious side effects associated with current first-generation non-selective HDACi. Isoform-selective and pan-HDACi candidates might benefit from the identification of biomarkers, enabling better patient stratification and prediction of response to treatment.

Trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, suppresses proliferation and promotes apoptosis of esophageal squamous cell lines

Histone deacetylase (HDAC)‑mediated epigenetic modification plays crucial roles in numerous biological processes, including cell cycle regulation, cell proliferation and apoptosis. HDAC inhibitors demonstrate antitumor effects in various cancers, including glioblastoma and breast cancer. HDAC inhibitors are therefore promising antitumor drugs for these tumors. The tumorigenesis and development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) involve genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. However, the effects of the HDAC inhibitor on ESCC are not fully investigated. In the present study, ESCC cells were treated with trichostatin A (TSA) and its antitumor effects and related mechanisms were investigated. The results indicated that TSA suppressed the proliferation of ESCCs and caused G1 phase arrest by inducing the expression of p21 and p27. TSA also induced cell apoptosis by enhancing the expression of pro‑apoptotic protein Bax and decreasing the expression of anti‑apoptotic protein Bcl‑2. Furthermore, TSA inhibited the expression of phosphatidylinositol‑3‑kinase (PI3K) and reduced the phosphorylation of Akt and extracellular signal‑regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 in EC9706 and EC1 cell lines. High levels of acetylated histone H4 were detected in TSA‑treated ESCC cell lines. Overall, these results indicate that TSA suppresses ESCC cell growth by inhibiting the activation of the PI3K/Akt and ERK1/2 pathways. TSA also promotes cell apoptosis through epigenetic regulation of the expression of apoptosis‑related protein.

Cancer type-specific epigenetic changes: gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) remains a major cause of mortality despite declining rate in the world. Epigenetic alterations contribute significantly to the development and progression of gastric tumors. Epigenetic refers to the number of modifications of the chromatin structure that affect gene expression without altering the primary sequence of DNA, and these changes lead to transcriptional activation or silencing of the gene. Over the years, the study of epigenetic processes has increased, and novel therapeutic approaches have emerged. This chapter summarizes the main epigenomic mechanisms described recently involved in gastric carcinogenesis, focusing on the roles that aberrant DNA methylation, histone modifications (histone acetylation and methylation), and miRNAs (oncogenic and tumor suppressor function of miRNA) play in the onset and progression of gastric tumors. Clinical implications of these epigenetic alterations in GC are also discussed.

Epigenetics of gastric cancer

Epigenetic changes frequently occur in human gastric cancer. Gene promoter region hypermethylation, genomic global hypomethylation, histone modifications, and alterations of noncoding RNAs are major epigenetic changes in gastric cancer. As a key risk factor of gastric cancer, H. pylori infection is an independent predictive indicator of gene methylation. A growing number of epigenetic studies in gastric cancer have provided lots of potential diagnostic and prognostic markers and therapeutic targets.

Effects of suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) combined with paclitaxel (PTX) on paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells and insights into the underlying mechanisms

Background

Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) is a member of the hydroxamic acid class of the newly developed histone deacetylase inhibitors. Recently, Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid has attracted increasing attention because of its antitumor activity and synergistic effects in combination with a variety of traditional chemotherapeutic drugs. Paclitaxel (PTX), is a natural anticancer drugs; however, resistance to paclitaxel has become a major challenge to the efficacy of this agent. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the combined application of these two drugs on the paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer OC3/P cell line.

Methods

In the present study, the effects of Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid or/and paclitaxel on OC3/P cells cultured in vitro were analyzed in terms of cell viability, migration, cell-cycle progression and apoptosis by CCK-8, wound healing and flow cytometry assays. Changes in cell ultrastructure were observed by transmission electron microscopy. The expression of genes and proteins related to proliferation, apoptosis and drug resistance were analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analyses.

Results

There was no cross-resistance of the paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer OC3/P cells to Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid combined with paclitaxel significantly inhibited cell growth and reduced the migration of OC3/P cells compared with the effects of Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid or paclitaxel alone. Q-PCR showed the combination of Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid and paclitaxel reduced intracellular bcl-2 and c-myc gene expression and increased bax gene expression more distinctly than the application of SAHA or paclitaxel alone. Moreover, the level of mdr1 gene expression in cells treated with Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid was lower than that of the control group (P <0.05). Western blot analysis showed that Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid alone or in combination with paclitaxel enhanced caspase-3 protein expression and degraded ID1 protein expression in OC3/P cells.

Conclusion

Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid inhibited the growth of paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer OC3/P cells and reduced migration by the induction of cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy. These observations indicate the possible synergistic antitumor effects of sequential Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid and paclitaxel treatment.

Histone deacetylase 2 controls p53 and is a critical factor in tumorigenesis

Histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) regulates biological processes by deacetylation of histones and non-histone proteins. HDAC2 is overexpressed in numerous cancer types, suggesting general cancer-relevant functions of HDAC2. In human tumors the TP53 gene encoding p53 is frequently mutated and wild-type p53 is often disarmed. Molecular pathways inactivating wild-type p53 often remain to be defined and understood. Remarkably, current data link HDAC2 to the regulation of the tumor suppressor p53 by deacetylation and to the maintenance of genomic stability. Here, we summarize recent findings on HDAC2 overexpression in solid and hematopoietic cancers with a focus on mechanisms connecting HDAC2 and p53 in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we present an evidence-based model that integrates molecular pathways and feedback loops by which p53 and further transcription factors govern the expression and the ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation of HDAC2 and of p53 itself. Understanding the interactions between p53 and HDAC2 might aid in the development of new therapeutic approaches against cancer.

Histone deacetylase HDAC4 promotes gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells progression via p21 repression

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the leading causes of cancer death in the world. The role of histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) in specific cell and tissue types has been identified. However, its biological roles in the development of gastric cancer remain largely unexplored. Quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot were used to analyze the expression of HDAC4 in the clinical samples. siRNA and overexpression of HDAC4 and siRNA p21 were used to study functional effects in a proliferation, a colony formation, a adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) assay and reactive oxygen species(ROS) generation, cell cycle, cell apoptosis rates, and autophagy assays. HDAC4 was up-regulated in gastric cancer tissues and several gastric cancer cell lines. The proliferation, colony formation ability and ATP level were enhanced in HDAC4 overexpression SGC-7901 cells, but inhibited in HDAC4 knockdown SGC-7901 cells. HDAC4 knockdown led to G0/G1 phase cell arrest and caused apoptosis and ROS increase. Moreover, HDAC4 was found to inhibit p21 expression in gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells. p21 knockdown dramatically attenuated cell proliferation inhibition, cell cycle arrest, cell apoptosis promotion and autophagy up-regulation in HDAC4-siRNA SGC-7901 cells. We demonstrated that HDAC4 promotes gastric cancer cell progression mediated through the repression of p21. Our results provide an experimental basis for understanding the pro-tumor mechanism of HDAC4 as treatment for gastric cancer.

Differential expression of histone deacetylase and acetyltransferase genes in gastric cancer and their modulation by trichostatin A

Gastric cancer is still the second leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, even though its incidence and mortality have declined over the recent few decades. Epigenetic control using histone deacetylase inhibitors, such as trichostatin A (TSA), is a promising cancer therapy. This study aimed to assess the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of three histone deacetylases (HDAC1, HDAC2, and HDAC3), two histone acetyltransferases (GCN5 and PCAF), and two possible targets of these histone modifiers (MYC and CDKN1A) in 50 matched pairs of gastric tumors and corresponding adjacent nontumors samples from patients with gastric adenocarcinoma, as well as their correlations and their possible associations with clinicopathological features. Additionally, we evaluated whether these genes are sensitive to TSA in gastric cancer cell lines. Our results demonstrated downregulation of HDAC1, PCAF, and CDKN1A in gastric tumors compared with adjacent nontumors (P < 0.05). On the other hand, upregulation of HDAC2, GCN5, and MYC was observed in gastric tumors compared with adjacent nontumors (P < 0.05). The mRNA level of MYC was correlated to HDAC3 and GCN5 (P < 0.05), whereas CDKN1A was correlated to HDAC1 and GCN5 (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively). In addition, the reduced expression of PCAF was associated with intestinal-type gastric cancer (P = 0.03) and TNM stages I/II (P = 0.01). The increased expression of GCN5 was associated with advanced stage gastric cancer (P = 0.02) and tumor invasion (P = 0.03). The gastric cell lines treated with TSA showed different patterns of histone deacetylase and acetyltransferase mRNA expression, downregulation of MYC, and upregulation of CDKN1A. Our findings suggest that alteration of histone modifier genes play an important role in gastric carcinogenesis, contributing to MYC and CDKN1A deregulation. In addition, all genes studied here are modulated by TSA, although this modulation appears to be dependent of the genetic background of the cell line.

Histone deacetylases and their inhibitors as potential therapeutic drugs for cholangiocarcinoma - cell line findings

Histone deacetylation mediated by histone deacetylases (HDACs) has been reported as one of the epigenetic mechanisms associated with tumorigenesis. The poor responsiveness of anticancer drugs found with cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) leads to short survival rate. We aimed to investigate mRNA expression of HDACs class I and II, and the effect of HDAC inhibitors, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) and valproic acid (VPA), in CCA in vitro. Expression of HDACs was studied in CCA cell lines (M213, M214 and KKU-100) and an immortal cholangiocyte (MMNK1) by semi-quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. SAHA and VPA, as well as a classical chemotherapeutic drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) were used in this study. Cell proliferation was determined by sulforhodamine assay. IC50 and IC20 were then analyzed for each agent and cell line. Moreover, synergistic potential of VPA or SAHA in combination with 5-FU at subtoxic dose (IC20) of each agent was also evaluated. Statistic difference of HDACs expression or cell proliferation in each experimental condition was analyzed by Student's t-test. The result demonstrated that HDACs were expressed in all studied cell types. Both SAHA and VPA inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, KKU-100 which was less sensitive to classical chemotherapeutic 5-FU was highly sensitive to HDAC inhibitors. Simultaneous combination of subtoxic doses of HDAC inhibitors and 5-FU significantly inhibited cell proliferation in CCA cell lines compared to single agent treatment (P ≤ 0.01), while sequentially combined treatments were less effective. The present study showed inhibitory effects of HDACIs on cell proliferation in CCA cell lines, with synergistic antitumor potential demonstrated by simultaneous combination of VPA or SAHA with 5-FU, suggesting a novel alternative therapeutic strategy in effective treatment of CCA.

RNH1 regulation of reactive oxygen species contributes to histone deacetylase inhibitor resistance in gastric cancer cells

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) are a promising class of anticancer epigenetic drugs, however, molecular factors influencing the responses of individual tumors to HDACi therapies remain obscure. Here, we sought to identify genes associated with HDACi resistance in gastric cancer. Treating a panel of 17 gastric cancer cell lines with multiple HDACi compounds (trichostatin A, SAHA and MS275), we identified two distinct classes of lines exhibiting either HDACi sensitivity or resistance. Genomic comparisons between the sensitive and resistant classes using two independent microarray platforms identified RNH1, encoding a ribonuclease inhibitor, as a gene highly expressed in HDACi-resistant lines. Using genetic knockdown and overexpression assays, we show that RNH1 is both necessary and sufficient to induce HDACi resistance, and that RNH1 is likely to mediate this resistance through the dampening of HDACi-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cancer cells. The discovery of RNH1 as a regulator of HDACi resistance in gastric cancer highlights a functional role for ROS induction in the cellular effects of this important drug class.

Molecular mechanism of SAHA on regulation of autophagic cell death in tamoxifen-resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cells

OBJECTIVE

Tamoxifen is currently used for the treatment of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer patients, but acquired resistance to tamoxifen is a critical problem in breast cancer therapy. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) is a prototype of the newly developed HDAC inhibitor. The aim of this study is to investigate the anticancer effects of SAHA in tamoxifen-resistant MCF-7 (TAMR/MCF-7) cells.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity, apoptosis and autophagic cell death induced by SAHA were studied. A TAMR/MCF-7 cells xenograft model was established to investigate the inhibitory effect of SAHA on tumor growth in vivo.

RESULTS

SAHA inhibited the proliferation of TAMR/MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. SAHA significantly reduced the expression of HDAC1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 and increased acetylated histone H3 and H4. Although SAHA induced G2/M phase arrest of cell cycle, apoptotic cell death was very low, which is correlated with the slight change in the activation of caspases and PARP cleavage. Interestingly, expression of the autophagic cell death markers, LC3-II and beclin-1, was significantly increased in TAMR/MCF-7 cells treated with SAHA. Autophagic cell death induced by SAHA was confirmed by acridine orange staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in TAMR/MCF-7 cells. In mice bearing the TAMR/MCF-7 cell xenografts, SAHA significantly reduced the tumor growth and weight, without apparent side effects.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that SAHA can induce caspase-independent autophagic cell death rather than apoptotic cell death in TAMR/MCF-7 cells. SAHA-mediated autophagic cell death is a promising new strategy to treatment of tamoxifen-resistant human breast cancer.

Epigenetic mechanisms in gastric cancer

Cancer is considered one of the major health issues worldwide, and gastric cancer accounted for 8% of total cases and 10% of total deaths in 2008. Gastric cancer is considered an age-related disease, and the total number of newly diagnosed cases has been increasing as a result of the higher life expectancy. Therefore, the basic mechanisms underlying gastric tumorigenesis is worth investigation. This review provides an overview of the epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling complex and miRNA, involved in gastric cancer. As the studies in gastric cancer continue, the mapping of an epigenome code is not far for this disease. In conclusion, an epigenetic therapy might appear in the not too distant future.