In vitro antioxidant potentials of traditional Chinese medicine, Shengmai San and their relation to in vivo protective effect on cerebral oxidative damage in rats

Shengmai san-derived compound prescriptions: A review on chemical constituents, pharmacokinetic studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties

BACKGROUND

Shengmai San Formula (SMS), composed of Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix and Schisandra chinensis Fructus, was a famous formula in Tradition Chinese Medicine (TCM). With the expansion of clinical applications, SMS was developed to different dosage forms, including Shengmai Yin Oral liquid (SMY), Shengmai Capsule (SMC), Shengmai Granule (SMG), Shengmai Injection (SMI) and Dengzhan Shengmai Capsule (DZSMC). These above SMS-derived compound prescriptions (SSCPs) play an important role in the clinical treatment. This review is aimed to providing a comprehensive perspective of SSCP.

METHODS

The relevant literatures were collected from classical TCM books and a variety of databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Springer Link, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data.

RESULTS

The chemical constituents of SSCPs, arrived from the individual medicinal materials including Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix, Schisandra chinensis Fructus, Erigerontis Herba, were firstly summarized respectively. Then the pharmacokinetics studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties of SSCPs were all reviewed. The active compounds, pharmacokinetics characterizes, quality control markers, the effects and mechanisms of pharmacology of the different dosage forms of SSCPs were summarized. Furthermore, the research deficiencies of SSCPs and an innovative research paradigm for Chinese materia medica (CMM) formula were proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

SMS, as a famous CMM formula, has great values in drug research and in clinical treatment especially for cardiocerebrovascular diseases. This article firstly make a comprehensive and systematic review on SMS.

cep-1 mediated the mitohormesis effect of Shengmai formula in regulating Caenorhabditis elegans lifespan

Ageing is one of the major causes of many diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. It has been found that mitochondrion acts as a crucial regulator of healthy lifespan. In this work, traditional Chinese medicine Shengmai formula (SMH) was used to treat mitochondrial mutants of Caenorhabditis elegans. The results showed that SMH shortened the lifespan of short-lived mev-1 mutant, but lengthened the lifespan of long-lived isp-1 mutant. Acute SMH treatment has benefit effect by increasing resistance capacity and motion activity in both ETC mutants and wild type N2. Compared with N2, the genome-wide transcriptome profile of ETC mutants showed on a similar pattern after SMH treatment. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis addressed that SMH-induced genes mainly enriched in metabolic process and oxidation-reduction process. The ROS levels in ETC mutants and N2 firstly rose then fell after SMH treatment, in company with the elevation of SOD-1, SOD-3 and GST-4, the increment of HSP-16.2 combined with heat shock. SMH increased oxygen consumption and ATP content, improved the restoration of mitochondrial homeostasis. SMH-induced opposed lifespan outcomes were markedly counteracted by cep-1 RNAi, together with the mitochondrial dynamics. Western blot assay also demonstrated a SMH-induced CEP-1 expression. Collectively, SMH acts as a prooxidant to regulate mitochondrial homeostasis and causes mitohormesis to exert therapeutic effect based on the redox background of the recipients, and cep-1 was required for the mitochondrial hormetic responses. The results shed a light on the rational clinical anti-ageing applications of SMH in the future.

Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax.

RESULTS

Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.

LncRNA PVT1 regulates ferroptosis through miR-214-mediated TFR1 and p53

AIM

The study aims to investigate the roles of LncRNA and miRNA in ferroptosis in brain ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) in vivo and in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

qPCR assay was used to analyze lncRNA PVT1 and miR-214 expressions in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients. Then, we established brain I/R mice models and OGD/R PC12 cell models to analyze the mechanism of ferroptosis. I/R mice were treated by lncRNA PVT silencing or miR-214 overexpressing lentivirus via lateral ventricles. Infarct size was analyzed by TTC staining, accompanied by the detection of ferroptosis indicators through Perls'Prussian blue staining, iron kit, MDA kit, glutathione kit, GPx activities kit and Western blotting (WB). Dual luciferase reporter assay was used to assess whether miR-214 bound to PVT1, TP53 or TFR1. Co-IP analyzed the interplay of p53 with SLC7A11.

KEY FINDINGS

We found that the levels of PVT1 were upregulated and miR-214 levels were downregulated in plasma of AIS patients. NIHSS score was positively correlated with PVT1 levels but was negatively with miR-214 levels. PVT1 silencing or miR-214 overexpression significantly reduced infarct size and suppressed ferroptosis in vivo. miR-214 overexpression markedly decreased PVT1 levels. Specifically, miR-214 could bind to 3'untranslated region (3'UTR) of PVT1, TP53 or TFR1. PVT1 overexpression or miR-214 silencing markedly abolished the effects of Ferrostatin-1 on ferroptosis indicators except for TFR1 expression. Besides, miR-214 silencing counteracted the effects of PVT1 knockdown on the ferroptosis-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

PVT1 regulated ferroptosis through miR-214-mediated TFR1 and TP53 expression. There was a positive feedback loop of lncRNA PVT1/miR-214/p53 possibly.

A Review on the Effect of Traditional Chinese Medicine Against Anthracycline-Induced Cardiac Toxicity

Anthracyclines are effective agents generally used to treat solid-tumor and hematologic malignancies. The use of anthracyclines for over 40 years has improved cancer survival statistics. Nevertheless, the clinical utility of anthracyclines is limited by its dose-dependent cardiotoxicity that adversely affects 10-30% of patients. Anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity may be classified as acute/subacute or chronic/late toxicity and leads to devastating adverse effects resulting in poor quality of life, morbidity, and premature mortality. Traditional Chinese medicine has a history of over 2,000 years, involving both unique theories and substantial experience. Several studies have investigated the potential of natural products to decrease the cardiotoxic effects of chemotherapeutic agents on healthy cells, without negatively affecting their antineoplastic activity. This article discusses the mechanism of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity, and summarizes traditional Chinese medicine treatment for anthracycline-induced heart failure (HF), cardiac arrhythmia, cardiomyopathy, and myocardial ischemia in recent years, in order to provide a reference for the clinical prevention and treatment of cardiac toxicity.

Shengmai Formula suppressed over-activated Ras/MAPK pathway in C. elegans by opening mitochondrial permeability transition pore via regulating cyclophilin D

Since about 30% of all human cancers contain mutationally activated Ras, down regulating the over-activation of Ras/MAPK pathway represents a viable approach for treating cancers. Over-activation of Ras/MAPK pathway is accompanied by accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). One approach for developing anti-cancer drugs is to target ROS production and their accumulation. To test this idea, we have employed C. elegans of let-60 (gf) mutant, which contain over-activated let-60 (the homolog of mammalian ras) and exhibit tumor-like symptom of multivulva phenotype, to determine whether anti-oxidants can affect their tumor-like phenotype. Specifically we studied the effect of Shengmai formula (SM), a traditional Chinese medicine that has strong anti-oxidant activity, on the physiology of let-60 (gf) mutants. Unexpectedly, we found that SM treatment led to the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore by regulating cyclophilin D and then triggered oxidative stress and related signaling pathway activation, including p53, JNK, and p38/MAPK pathways. Finally, SM induced mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis and inhibited the tumor-like symptom of the multivulva phenotype of let-60(gf) mutants. Our results provide evidences to support that SM act as a pro-oxidant agent and could serve as a potential drug candidate for combating over-activated Ras-related cancer.

Shengmai Formula Ameliorates Pathological Characteristics in AD C. elegans

Shengmai (SM) formula, a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula, is composed of Panax ginseng (Pg), Ophiopogon japonicus (Oj), and Schisandra Chinesis (Sc). SM has been clinically used to treat heart failure and ischemic heart disease. Although SM formula has been reported to be potential for fighting against Alzheimer's disease (AD) by previous works, there are many gaps in our knowledge on its usage in AD treatment on an organism level and will then need to be further clarified. In this study, transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans expressing human Aβ1-42 are used to evaluate SM formula efficacy to treat AD phenotype and to investigate its underlying mechanism. The results showed that SM formula ameliorated AD pathological characteristics of paralysis behavior and chemotaxis defect in transgenic C. elegans. With SM treatment, the number of Aβ deposits decreased, the levels of gene expressions of hsp16-2, hsp16-41, ace-1, ace-2, and TNFA1P1 homolog genes were down-regulated. Our results also showed that Oj exhibited more stronger effect on delaying paralysis in worms than Pg and Sc did, and synergistic action was observed between Pg and Oj, and Sc further enhanced the activity of Pg/Oj combination on delaying paralysis behavior. Further, SM with herbs of Pg, Oj, and Sc at a dose proportion of 9:9:6 exhibited superior therapeutic efficacy in comparison with herbs at other dose proportions. After SM formula extracted by ethanol, it delayed AD symptoms on a wider dose from 0.2 to 10.0 mg/mL with no toxic effect. These results provided more evidence for SM formula being potential to be used to treat AD.

Antioxidant Formulae, Shengmai San, and LingGuiZhuGanTang, Prevent MPTP Induced Brain Dysfunction and Oxidative Damage in Mice

The present study was designed to evaluate the preventive effect of antioxidative traditional oriental medicine formulae, Shengmai San (SMS) and LingGuiZhuGanTang (LGZGT), against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) (i.p 30 mg·kg⁻¹ for 5 consecutive days) induced neurotoxicity. In in vitro antioxidant assays measured with Trolox and butyl hydroxyl toluene as reference antioxidant revealed that SMS has higher scavenging potential against hydroxyl radical than superoxide anion radical, but LGZGT was the reverse. The neuroprotective effect of SMS and LGZGT against MPTP was evaluated in mice by behavioral, biochemical, and immunohistochemical studies. In the behavioral study, both SMS and LGZGT significantly reversed the locomotive impairment induced by MPTP. Simultaneously, both formulae significantly prevented the MPTP induced dopaminergic neuron loss assessed by tyrosine hydroxylase in the midbrain. Both SMS and LGZGT significantly attenuated the elevated lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyls levels by MPTP. The DNA damage induced by MPTP was also prevented by both formulae. Although a little difference in the protective functions was observed between the two formulae, such as in DNA damage and behavioral studies, the results indicate that both SMS and LGZGT with antioxidant property act as a good candidate applicable for the antioxidant based complementary therapies of neurodegenerative diseases.

Intravenous injection of saeng maek san - a safe method of treatment in rats

Objectives:

This study evaluated the single-dose toxicity of Saeng Maek San (SMS) in rats.

Methods:

All experiments were conducted at Biotoxtech (Chungwon, Korea), an institute authorized to perform non-clinical studies under the regulations of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP). A single-dose intravenous toxicity study was carried out on 40 6-week-old Sprague-Daley rats. The animals were randomly divided into the following four groups of ten animals each: Group 1 (G1) was the control group, with each animal receiving an intravenous injection of 1.0 mL of saline, and Groups 2, 3 and 4 (G2, G3 and G4) were the experimental groups, with the animals in the groups receiving an injection of 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mL of SMS, respectively. Mortality, clinical signs, body-weight changes and gross pathological findings were observed for 14 days following a single administration of SMS or saline. Organ weights, clinical chemistry and hematology were analyzed at 14 days. This study was conducted with the approval of the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee.

Results:

No deaths occurred in any of the four groups,indicating that the lethal dose of SMS in rats is greater than 1.0 mL/animal. Some changes in weights of male rats between the control group and the experimental groups were observed, but no significant changes in the weights of female rats were noted. To identify abnormalities in organs and tissues, we stained representative sections of each specified organ with hematoxylin and eosin for examination with a light microscope. No significant abnormalities were observed in any of the organs or tissues.

Conclusion:

The results suggest that intravenous injection of SMS is a safe method of treatment.

A combination of four active compounds alleviates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in correlation with inhibition of autophagy and modulation of AMPK/mTOR and JNK pathways

SMXZF is a combination of Rb1, Rg1, schizandrin, and DT-13 (6:9:5:4) derived from Sheng-mai San, a widely used Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebral diseases. The present study explores the inhibitory effects and signaling pathways of SMXZF on autophagy induced by cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to ischemia-reperfusion insult by right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 1 hr with subsequent 24 hr reperfusion. Three doses of SMXZF (4.5, 9, and 18 mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) after ischemia for 1 hr. An autophagic inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA; 300 μg/kg), was administered i.p. 20 min before ischemia as a positive drug. We found that SMXZF significantly increased cerebral blood flow and reduced the infarct volume, brain water content, and the neurological deficits in a dose-dependent manner. Similar to the positive control, SMXZF at 18 mg/kg also significantly inhibited autophagosome formation. Immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting demonstrated that SMXZF could significantly decrease the expression levels of beclin1 and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3. SMXZF also remarkably inhibited the phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as well as the expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and its phosphorylation induced by 24 hr reperfusion. Finally, we demonstrated that the optimal administration time of SMXZF was at the early period of reperfusion. This study reveals that SMXZF displays neuroprotective effect against focal ischemia-reperfusion injury, possibly associated with autophagy inactivation through AMPK/mTOR and JNK pathways.

Ginseng in traditional herbal prescriptions

Panax ginseng Meyer has been widely used as a tonic in traditional Korean, Chinese, and Japanese herbal medicines and in Western herbal preparations for thousands of years. In the past, ginseng was very rare and was considered to have mysterious powers. Today, the efficacy of drugs must be tested through well-designed clinical trials or meta-analyses, and ginseng is no exception. In the present review, we discuss the functions of ginseng described in historical documents and describe how these functions are taken into account in herbal prescriptions. We also discuss the findings of experimental pharmacological research on the functions of ginseng in ginseng-containing prescriptions and how these prescriptions have been applied in modern therapeutic interventions. The present review on the functions of ginseng in traditional prescriptions helps to demystify ginseng and, as a result, may contribute to expanding the use of ginseng or ginseng-containing prescriptions.

Sheng-Mai-San Reduces Adriamycin-Induced Cardiomyopathy in Rats

The traditional Chinese medicine prescription "Sheng-Mai-San (SMS)" has been used for treating patients with coronary heart disease for a long time and was found to have antioxidative effects. Here, we applied adriamycin (doxorubicin, ADR), a highly effective anticancer agent, as an inducer to establish the animal model of dose-related cardiomyopathy due to inhibition of nucleic acid as well as protein synthesis, formation of free radicals, and lipid peroxidation. The objective of this study was to investigate the protective effects of SMS on adriamycin-induced cardiomyopathy. Wistar rats were divided into four groups: CONT (control), ADR, SMS, and ADR + SMS. ADR (cumulative dose, 15 mg/kg) was administered to rats in six equal intraperitoneal injections over a period of 2 weeks and SMS was administered via a feeding tube throughout the mouth once a day for 30 days (cumulative dose, 150 g/kg). At the end of the 5-week post-treatment period, the hearts of the rats were surgically removed for the study of synthesis rates of DNA, RNA and proteins. Besides myocardial antioxidants, lipid peroxidation and morphological ultrastructure were also evaluated. Three weeks after the treatment, cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure were characterized according to assessment in ascites, congested liver, depressed cardiac function and myocardial cell damage. The results demonstrated that nucleic acid as well as protein synthesis was inhibited, while lipid peroxidation was increased. Myocardial glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) activity was decreased and electron microscopic examination revealed myocardial lesion indicative of ADR-induced cardiomyopathy. In contrast, administration of SMS before and concurrent with ADR significantly attenuated the myocardial effects. It also lowered mortality as well as the amount of ascites. In addition, indexes in myocardial GSHPx, macromolecular biosynthesis and superoxide dismutase activities were increasing, with a concomitant decrease in lipid peroxidation and preserved myocardial ultrastructure. These results indicated that SMS may be partially protective against ADR-induced cardiomyopathy.

Antioxidant Activity of Extracts of Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao in a Cell Free System

In traditional Chinese medicine preparations, Hedyotis diffusa (HD), Hedyotis corymbosa (HC) and Mollugo pentaphylla (MP) are often used interchangeably under the name of "Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao (PHJCC)." Although studies have been conducted to characterize the therapeutic activities of these different plant species, their antioxidant activity has never been investigated. In this study, our aim was to evaluate the antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of these three different plant materials. At a concentration of 10 mg/ml, results showed that HD possesses the strongest inhibition on the FeCl2-ascorbic acid induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenate, followed by HC and MP. MP showed a weak anti-lipid peroxidation activity at 1 and 3 mg/ml. Using Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) analysis, the order of superoxide anion scavenging activity was HC>HD>MP. However, MP was found to have the greatest hydroxyl radical scavenging activity compared to HC and HD. In conclusion, all three species used as PHJCC in Taiwan exhibited different antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities; these differences could explain, at least in part, the variation in therapeutic properties of PHJCC products in the market.

Rapid and global detection and characterization of the constituents in ShengMai San by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-high-definition mass spectrometry

An ultra-performance liquid chromatography-high definition mass spectrometry (UPLC-HDMS) method was developed for detection and characterization of the chemical constituents in ShengMai San (SMS), a traditional Chinese medical formula (TCMF). The full-scan LC-MS/MS data sets combined with extra mass were acquired within 14 min using UPLC-HDMS in the MS(E) mode in a single injection. As a result, 92 compounds were identified by comparing the accurate mass and fragments information with that of the authentic standards as well as by MS analysis and the correlative references data. These constituents included ginsenosides, lignans, steroidal saponins and homoisoflavanones. Among them, 25-hydroxyginsenosides were discovered in SMS for the first time. Compare with the previous studies, our research detected more compounds and presented more rapid by applying UPLC-HDMS. It is concluded that a rapid and effective method has been established based on UPLC-HDMS with the utilization of MS(E) , which shows high sensitivity and resolution that is suitable for identifying the constituents of SMS, and this method could be applied to other TCMF.

Effect of Shengmai-san on cognitive performance and cerebral oxidative damage in BALB/c mice

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of Shengmai-san (SMS) on learning and memory impairment induced by scopolamine (1 mg/kg, i.p.) in mice. The passive avoidance task (PAT) and Morris water maze (MWM) test served as the behavioral models for testing memory. To elucidate the mechanism of its cognitive-enhancing activity, the effects of SMS (2, 4, or 8 g/kg) on activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and antioxidant enzymes and levels of acetylcholine (ACh) and nitrite were evaluated in brain homogenate. Tacrine (THA) (10 mg/kg, p.o.) was used as a reference drug. SMS (4 or 8 g/kg) significantly prevented scopolamine-induced impairments as measured by the PAT and MWM (probe trial session). SMS (4 or 8 g/kg) also significantly reduced the oxidative-nitrative stress, as evidenced by decreased malondialdehyde and nitrite levels and by its prevention of decreases in glutathione and superoxide dismutase levels. The activity of AChE was decreased in scopolamine-treated mice but was inhibited significantly by SMS treatment (4 or 8 g/kg) in both salt- and detergent-soluble fractions of brain homogenates. Further SMS treatment (4 or 8 g/kg) significantly increased the ACh levels in the brain homogenate to a level similar to that observed in THA treatment. Thus, the significant cognitive enhancement observed after 7 days of administration of SMS is closely related to the strong antioxidant properties of SMS in addition to its inhibition of brain AChE activity. These findings stress the critical impact of SMS on higher brain functions such as learning and memory.

Long-term treatment with shengmai san-derived herbal supplement (Wei Kang Su) enhances antioxidant response in various tissues of rats with protection against carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity

Wei Kang Su (WKS) is a commercial herbal product based on a Chinese herbal formula, Shengmai San. Here, we investigated the effects of long-term treatment with WKS on mitochondrial antioxidant status and functional ability, as well as heat shock protein (Hsp) 25/70 production, in various tissues of rats. WKS treatment enhanced mitochondrial antioxidant status and ATP generation capacity, as well as Hsp 25/70 production in various rat tissues. WKS treatment suppressed plasma reactive oxygen metabolite levels and protected against carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity in rats. Long-term WKS treatment may prevent diseases by enhancing the resistance of mitochondria to oxidative stress.

Puerarin protects against ischemic brain injury in a rat model of transient focal ischemia

OBJECTIVES

This study examines the efficacy of puerarin, a drug used in traditional Chinese medicine, in attenuating ischemic brain injury after cerebral ischemia and reperfusion, and explores possible mechanisms underlying neuroprotective effects.

METHODS

The animal model of ischemia/reperfusion injury was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 hours followed by up to 72 hour reperfusion. The rats were randomly assigned into four groups (n=6/group): puerarin at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg or saline, administered intraperitoneally. Neurological outcome and infarct volume by 2% triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining were determined 72 hours after reperfusion. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling staining was used to detect the cell damage of brains (n=5/group). Erythropoietin activation was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (n=5/group).

RESULTS

Compared with the vehicle saline group, puerarin decreased infarction volume at doses of 200 mg/kg (p=0.045) and 400 mg/kg (p=0.0002), but not at 100 mg/kg (p=0.387). Functional neurological outcome was improved with puerarin at 400 mg/kg (p=0.015), but not at 100 mg/kg (p=0.68) or 200 mg/kg (p=0.056). Puerarin significantly decreased the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling staining cells compared with the vehicle group 4, 24 and 72 hours after reperfusion. The erythropoietin activity was higher in puerarin treated group compared with the vehicle group.

DISCUSSION

Puerarin has neuroprotection effects in rats at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion which may be partly due to activation of erythropoietin activity.

Brain oxidative stress as basic target of antioxidant traditional oriental medicines

Prevention and amelioration of Mibyou (sub-healthy condition) is the critical target for disease prevention including age-related diseases and cancer although the Mibyou condition is not yet pathologically defined. Since the oxidative stress is an underlying basic etiology associated with many diseases and aging, the psychologically induced oxidative stress, especially in the brain was supposed as one of the pathology of Mibyou. Several traditional herbal prescriptions applied for the brain disorder were found effective to prevent cerebral oxidative stress induced by ischemia/reperfusion and also under psychological distress produced by whiskers cut in mice. Shengmai San comprising three herbs, Panax ginseng, Ophiopogon japonicus and Schisandra chinensis is a traditional herbal medicine formula having a long history of using as a remedy and clinical prescription to treat coronal heart diseases. Multifunctional aspect of traditional herbal prescription was discussed in terms of preventing oxidative injury in the brain using Shengmai San as a typical prescription.

Schisandrin B enhances cerebral mitochondrial antioxidant status and structural integrity, and protects against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Schisandrin B (Sch B), a dibenzocyclooctadiene derivative isolated from the fruit of Schisandra chinensis, has been shown to enhance mitochondrial antioxidant status in liver, heart and brain tissues in rodents. Whether or not long-term Sch B treatment can protect against oxidative stress-induced cerebral damage remains unclear. In the present study, the effect of long-term Sch B treatment (1-30 mg/kg/dx15) on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury was examined in rats. Sch B treatment protected against I/R-induced cerebral damage, as evidenced by the significant increase in the percentage of 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC)-stained tissues in representative brain slices, when compared with the Sch B-untreated and I/R control. The cerebroprotection was associated with an enhancement in cerebral mitochondrial antioxidant status, as assessed by the level/activity of reduced glutathione, alpha-tocopherol and Mn-superoxide dismutase, as well as the improvement/preservation of mitochondrial structural integrity, as assessed by the extents of malondialdehyde production, Ca(2+) loading and cytochrome c release, as well as the sensitivity to Ca(2+)-induced permeability transition, in control and I/R-challenged rats. In conclusion, long-term Sch B treatment could enhance cerebral mitochondrial antioxidant status as well as improve mitochondrial structural integrity, thereby protecting against I/R injury.

High-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry for the simultaneous determination of multiple active components in Sheng-Mai San, a prescription of traditional Chinese medicine

An advanced and reliable HPLC-MS method was developed for the simultaneous quantification of eight active components (ginsenosides Rf, Rg(2), Rg(3), Rh(1) and Rh(2), gomisin A, methylophioponanone B and schizandrin) in Sheng-Mai San, a traditional Chinese medicine. The elution of multiple components was performed using a C(18) column with stepwise gradient elution. The detection of individual analytes was monitored by electrospray MS scanning from 300 to 1000 m/z in the positive ion mode, with the limits of detection of these components ranging from 0.06 to 1 microg/mL at a signal-to-noise ratio of > or =5. The intra- and inter-day accuracies ranged from 95.1 to 104.4%, and the overall precision was less than 9.3%. The recoveries of the analytes were > or =96.6%. The method was validated and found suitable for the determination of active components present in Sheng-Mai San preparation.

Antioxidant small phenolic ingredients in Inonotus obliquus (persoon) Pilat (Chaga)

Inonotus obliquus (persoon) Pilat (Chaga, in Russia, kabanoanatake in Japan) is a fungus having been used as a folk medicine in Russia and said to have many health beneficial functions such as immune modulating and anti-cancer activities. In the present study, the antioxidant activity of hot water extract (decoction) of Chaga was precisely compared with those of other medicinal fungi (Agaricus blazei Mycelia, Ganoderma lucidum and Phellinus linteus) showing Chaga had the strongest antioxidant activity among fungi examined in terms of both superoxide and hydroxyl radicals scavenging activities. Further determination of the antioxidant potential of isolated fruiting body (brown part) and Sclerotium (black part) revealed the 80% MeOH extract of fruiting body had the highest potential as high as that of Chaga decoction. Finally, seven antioxidant components were isolated and purified from the 80% MeOH extract of Chaga fruiting body, and their chemical structures were determined as small phenolics as follows: 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy benzoic acid 2-hydroxy-1-hydroxymethyl ethyl ester (BAEE), protocatechic acid (PCA), caffeic acid (CA), 3,4-dihybenzaladehyde (DB), 2,5-dihydroxyterephtalic acid (DTA), syringic acid (SA) and 3,4-dihydroxybenzalacetone (DBL). Notably, BAEE was assigned as the new compound firstly identified from the natural source in the present study.

Antioxidant activity of 45 Chinese herbs and the relationship with their TCM characteristics

Here, 45 Chinese herbs that regulate blood circulation were analyzed for antioxidant activity using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay. A recent publication by Ou et al. identified a close relationship between in vitro antioxidant activity and classification of Chinese herbs as yin or yang. The 45 Chinese herbs in this study could be assigned the traditional characteristics of natures (cold, cool, hot and warm), flavors (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter and salty) and functions (arresting bleeding, promoting blood flow to relieve stasis, nourishing blood and clearing away heat from blood). These characteristics are generalized according to the theory of yin and yang. We identified a broad range, 40-1990 micromol Trolox Equivalent/g herbs, of antioxidant activity in water extracts. There was no significant correlation between ORAC values and natures or functions of the herbs. There was a significant relationship between flavors and ORAC values. Bitter and/or sour herbs had the highest ORAC values, pungent and/or sweet herbs the lowest. Other flavors had intermediate values. Flavors also correspond with the yin/yang relationship and our results are supportive of the earlier publication. We reported for the first time antioxidant properties of many Chinese herbs. High antioxidant herbs were identified as Spatholobus suberectus vine (1990 micromol TE/g), Sanguisorba officinalis root (1940 micromol TE/g), Agrimonia pilosa herb (1440 micromol TE/g), Artemisia anomala herb (1400 micromol TE/g), Salvia miltiorrhiza root (1320 micromol TE/g) and Nelembo nucifera leaf (1300 micromol TE/g). Antioxidant capacity appears to correlate with the flavors of herbs identified within the formal TCM classification system and may be a useful guide in describing their utility and biochemical mechanism of action.

Effects of Edaravone in Heart of Aged Rats after Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Edaravone (3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one) has potent effects in the brain as a free radical scavenger in ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injuries. However, whether this free radical scavenger can prevent myocardial injury after cerebral IR is not clear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of edaravone against oxidative damage in brain-to-heart signaling triggered by IR injury and its possible mechanism. In this study, the expression of glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) and protein carbonyl content was examined to evaluate oxidative stress. The activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) was also examined. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick-end labeling (TUNEL) analysis was performed to estimate cardiomyocytes cell death. After edaravone treatment there was a mild increase in activities of GSHPx in cardiomyocytes; however, there was a decrease in protein carbonyl content. p38 MAPK activity was inhibited by edaravone treatment in comparison with the vehicle group in myocardium. These results were further complemented by a significant reduction of TUNEL-positive cells in the heart sections. Our results demonstrate that edaravone provides ameliorative effects in the myocardium after cerebral IR injury by differentially modulating MAPK's activity, thus reducing the oxidative stress state.

Psychological stress-induced oxidative stress as a model of sub-healthy condition and the effect of TCM

Distress-mediated tissue oxidative stress was examined as a model of sub-healthy condition defined in traditional Chinese medicine theory. Mice were subjected to psychologically stressful conditions by whiskers removal. Under this condition, spontaneous locomotive activity was significantly enhanced in the dark (P < 0.05 versus the control mice in three different movements), and granulocytes/lymphocytes balance shifted to granulocytes. At the same time, peroxynitrite level in blood plasma increased to ∼180% from that of the control mice at 6 h after removal of the whiskers (P < 0.01), and was maintained even after 12 h. Both protein carbonyl formation and lipid peroxidation were significantly increased under this condition in brain, heart, liver and spleen at 6 h after removal of whiskers (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01), and these levels were maximized after 12 h (increased to 120–160%, P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). The oxidative tissue injuries observed at 12 h after the removal of the whiskers were effectively prevented by two traditional Chinese medicine formula: Shengmai San (SMS) and Ling Gui Zhu Gan Tang (LGZGT), when administered for 5 days before the removal of the whiskers. Therefore, this stress model is considered useful in assessing the preventive potential of antioxidants and antioxidant-based herbal mixtures in treating the pathophysiology associated with psychological or emotional distress.

Prevention of cerebral oxidative injury by post-ischemic intravenous administration of Shengmai San

Shengmai San (SMS) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) comprising three different herbal components, Panax ginseng, Ohiopogon japonicus and Fructus schisandrae and has been used for treating coronary heart diseases (Bensky and Barolet, 1990). It was shown that SMS effectively prevented cerebral oxidative injury in rats when it administered into the duodenum before cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. In the present study, we examined whether post-ischemic administration of SMS can ameliorate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats as well. Results showed that SMS injected immediately after ischemia also prevented the ischemia-reperfusion injury, when the effect was evaluated by the formation of protein carbonyl and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), and the loss of glutathione peroxidase (GPX). The preventative potential of SMS was decreased rapidly dependent on the time lag until SMS was injected after ischemia. However, it was noted that intravenously administered SMS protected the oxidative injury approximately 30% even after 60 min of reperfusion in terms of protein carbonyl formation. It is thus suggested that SMS injection might be useful for preventing the progression of injury in cerebral infarction after stroke.

Edaravone inhibits JNK-c-Jun pathway and restores anti-oxidative defense after ischemia-reperfusion injury in aged rats

Edaravone, a potent antioxidant, is currently being used in the management of acute ischemic stroke in relatively high-aged populations. Mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways have been shown to play important roles in neuronal cell death. We examined the role of MAPK pathways and the effect of treatment with edaravone in the brain after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in a bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCAO) model with ischemia for 85 min followed by reperfusion for 45 min in aged rats. Western immunoblotting, immunostaining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), spectrophotometry, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick end labeling (TUNEL) and triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining were performed to evaluate various proteins in the homogenate, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) in the tissue sections, protein carbonyl, glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx), apoptosis and infarct size, respectively. Our results showed that I/R injury resulted in a reduction of GSHPx, but protein carbonyl content and inducible nitric oxide synthase were increased. The activation of JNK and its downstream molecule c-Jun was significantly increased after injury, whereas the activities of p38 MAPK and extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 were slightly but not significantly increased. Edaravone (3 mg/kg, i.v.) treatment significantly reduced all of these changes. Our findings suggest that the JNK pathway differentially mediates neuronal injury in aged rats after BCAO, and edaravone treatment significantly reduces the neuronal damage after I/R injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and the JNK-c-Jun pathway with concomitant inhibition of overall MAPK activity in the brains of aged rats.

Berberry Extract Reduces Neuronal Damage and N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor 1 Immunoreactivity in the Gerbil Hippocampus after Transient Forebrain Ischemia

In the present study, we studied the neuroprotective effects of berberry extract (BE) against ischemic damage and the temporal and spatial alterations of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor type 1 (NR1) and NR2A/2B immunoreactivities in the gerbil hippocampal CA1 region after transient ischemia to examine anti-ischemic effects and its role in transient forebrain ischemia. In the vehicle-treated group, the percentage of cresyl violet positive pyramidal cells in the CA1 region was about 11.4% compared to the sham-operated group 4 d after ischemic insult. BE showed neuroprotective effects against ischemic damage after ischemia-reperfusion. In the BE-treated groups, about 60-75% of CA1 pyramidal cells were stained with cresyl violet 4 d after ischemic insult. We observed the percentage of berberine (7.45+0.85 mg/g in BE) by HPLC, which is active ingredient of BE. NR1 immunoreactivity in the stratum pyramidale of the CA1 region in the vehicle-treated group was significantly increased at 30 min after transient forebrain ischemia, while at this time the NR1 immunoreactivity in the BE-treated groups was significantly low compared to the vehicle-treated group. The pattern of NR2A/B immunoreactivity in the stratum pyramidale of the BE-treated group and its protein levels were similar to that in the vehicle-treated group after ischemic insult. These results suggest that BE has potent neuroprotective effects against ischemic damage via the reduction of NR1 activity.

SHENG MAI SAN, A CHINESE HERBAL MEDICINE, PROTECTS AGAINST RENAL ISCHAEMIC INJURY DURING HEAT STROKE IN THE RAT

1. There is evidence that the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and peroxynitrite by ischaemia/reperfusion may lead to renal cell injury. Herein, we investigated whether Sheng mai san (SMS), a Chinese herbal medicine, protects against renal ischaemic injury during heat stroke by reducing iNOS-dependent nitric oxide (NO) and peroxynitrite formation. 2. Urethane-anaesthetized rats were exposed to heat stress (ambient temperature 43 degrees C) to induce heat stroke. Control rats were exposed to 24 degrees C. Mean arterial pressure and renal blood flow after the onset of heat stroke were significantly lower in heat stroke rats than in control rats. However, both colonic temperature and renal damage score were greater in heat stroke rats compared with control rats. Similarly, plasma NO, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), as well as the renal immunoreactivity of iNOS and peroxynitrite, were significantly higher in heat stroke rats compared with their normothermic controls. 3. Pretreatment with SMS (1.2 g/day per rat for 7 consecutive days before the initiation of heat stress) significantly attenuated the heat stroke-induced arterial hypotension, hyperthermia, renal ischaemia and damage, the increased renal immunoreactivity of iNOS and peroxynitrite and the increased plasma levels of NO, creatinine and BUN. Pretreatment with SMS resulted in a prolongation of survival time in heat stroke. 4. The results of the present study suggest that SMS protects against renal ischaemic damage by reducing iNOS-dependent NO and peroxynitrite production during heat stroke.

Neuroprotective herbs for stroke therapy in traditional eastern medicine

Traditional Eastern Medicine (TEM) has a long history in stroke therapy and its therapeutic efficacy has been confirmed by clinical studies. Extensive experience and abundant clinical data on TEM in stroke treatment have been accumulated over the past thousand years. Basic and clinical research in TEM constitutes a potentially rich source for new drug discovery and development with the integration of TEM and Western pharmacology. In recent years, many attempts have been made to document research data from extracts of composite formulas, single herbs, or single compounds from TEM herbs, according to orthodox pharmacological actions. This article reviews herbs and prescriptions that have been documented to have a neuroprotective effect in in vitro and in vivo ischemic model systems, and the neuroprotective compounds isolated from them. I also discuss the neuroprotective mechanisms of prescriptions, herbs, and single compounds relevant to the treatment of brain ischemia, including anti-oxidant, anti-excitotoxic, and anti-inflammatory effects.

Protective effect of Khamira Abresham Uood Mastagiwala against free radical induced damage in focal cerebral ischemia

The effect of Khamira Abresham Uood Mastagiwala (KAUM) (a preparation of Indian System of Unani Medicine) on the activity of antioxidant enzymes, glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) and the content of glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was studied in the middle cerebral artery occluded (MCAO) rats after 15 days pretreatment (200 mg/kg body weight (b.wt.), orally) of Khamira Abresham Uood Mastagiwala. The rats were trained and assessed for neurobehavioral activity using Cook's climbing pole. The middle cerebral artery of adult male Wistar rats was occluded for 2 h and reperfused for 22 h. The activity of GPx, GST, GR, catalase and content of GSH was decreased significantly in MCAO group as compared with sham. The rats of MCAO + KAUM group have shown a significant protection in the activity of above-mentioned antioxidant enzymes and content of glutathione when compared with MCAO group. The significantly elevated level of TBARS in MCAO group was depleted significantly by the pretreatment of animals with KAUM in MCAO group. The neurobehavioral assessment has also strengthened the above biochemical data thereby indicating that the therapeutic intervention of KAUM, which is a potent cardiac and melancholic tonic, can be used to prevent or reduce the deterioration caused by free radicals thereby preventing subsequent pathological and biochemical changes which occur during cerebral ischemia.

Role of component herbs in antioxidant activity of shengmai san--a traditional Chinese medicine formula preventing cerebral oxidative damage in rat

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an attractive model for studying antioxidant-based composite therapy. We previously reported that Shengmai San (SMS), a TCM formulation for treating cardiac disorders, inhibited cerebral oxidative damage in rats when evaluated by both glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity loss and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) formation after forebrain ischemia-reperfusion. In the present study, we further examined the preventive effect of SMS and related decoctions composed of three component herbs (Panax ginseng, Ophiopogon japonicus and Schisandra chinensis) against oxidative brain injury to rationalize the complex formulation of SMS. Schisandra chinensis itself and decoctions containing it all inhibited TBARS formation in vivo. In contrast, Ophiopogon japonicus itself and formulations containing it had little effect on TBARS formation. GPX activity loss in vivo, on the other hand, was completely prevented only by SMS and Ophiopogon japonicus itself. A comparison of the in vitro antioxidant potential of SMS and related decoctions and in vivo effectiveness in preventing cerebral oxidative damage revealed that all the in vitro antioxidant indices examined here essentially correlated well with inhibition of TBARS formation in vivo. DPPH quenching and crocin bleaching activities showed particularly good correlation, and then, superoxide scavenging activity followed. However, none of them correlated with the inhibition of GPX activity loss in vivo. The role of each component herb is also discussed for the SMS effect.

Prevention of oxidative injury in PC12 cells by a traditional Chinese medicine, Shengmai San, as a model of an antioxidant-based composite formula

The protective effect of Shengmai San (SMS) on oxidative damage in cultured PC12 cells was studied as a model of an antioxidant-based composite formula usable for the treatment of oxidative stress-related complex disorders. SMS, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has previously been shown to prevent cerebral oxidative injury in rats. Neuronal model PC12 cells were incubated with SMS for defined periods, chased with H(2)O(2) for 30 min at 37 degrees C, and subjected to an ELISA-based assay for determining the protein carbonyl content, and a Comet assay for DNA single strand breaks (SSBs). The results showed that both protein carbonyl content and DNA SSBs increased in PC12 cells after the H(2)O(2) chase in a concentration-dependent manner. Both H(2)O(2)-dependent carbonyl formation and DNA damage were markedly prevented in the cells pretreated with SMS, and the SMS effects were dependent on both the SMS concentration and the period of pre-incubation with SMS before the H(2)O(2) abuse. At the same time, cell viability was enhanced in the SMS-pretreated cells after the H(2)O(2) abuse compared to the control cells as determined by an 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. It is concluded that SMS functions not only as a simple antioxidant but also as a modulator of cellular antioxidant defense.