Gender differences in anaerobic power of the arms and legs--a scaling issue

Sex differences in anaerobic performance in CrossFit® athletes: a comparison of three different all-out tests

Background

Athletic performance can be influenced by various factors, including those related to biological sex. Various scientific disciplines have studied the observed differences in athletic performance between men and women. Moreover, anaerobic performance refers to the capacity of the human body to generate energy quickly and efficiently during high-intensity and short-duration activities. It is associated with the ability to perform explosive actions and the capacity for rapid recovery between repeated efforts. Anaerobic performance is a determining factor for performance in high-intensity sports and those with predominantly lower intensity but intermittent peaks of higher intensity. One high-intensity sport that has experienced exponential growth and attracts increasing numbers of participants yearly is commercially known as CrossFit® (CF). Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to determine the anaerobic performance differences between sexes in CF athletes in terms of absolute and relative values.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted over 2 weeks. Fifty CrossFit® athletes (25 men and 25 women) voluntarily participated in the study. They were subjected to body composition analysis and three maximal effort tests to measure anaerobic performance: a cycle ergometer test, a continuous jump test and a squat test.

Results

Significant differences were found in all the variables of absolute peak power and relative to body mass in the three tests. In values adjusted to lean and muscle mass, significant differences were only found in the cycle ergometer test but not in the other two. In mean power variables, significant differences were found in all the variables studied, except for the mean power adjusted to muscle mass in the squat test. In conclusion, this study's results indicate that differences between sexes in absolute and relative peak powers measured in all tests evaluated are explained by the amount of lean and muscle mass. However, mean powers show significant differences in all variables except for the one related to muscle mass in the squat test.

Evaluation of rest interval following a series of tuck jumps on anaerobic performance

Background/objective

This study assessed the influence of rest interval duration after tuck jumps on 10-s Wingate outcomes and countermovement jump height.

Methods

Eighteen resistance trained individuals (males: n = 10, 21.3 ± 3.6 years; females: n = 8, 22.1 ± 2.2 years) volunteered to participate in four sessions: familiarization, 3-min rest interval with no jumps (CON), and two randomized experimental sessions with a rest interval of either 1-min (ER1) or 5-min (ER5) after a series of tuck jumps. Countermovement jump (CMJ) height was assessed at baseline (PRE) and after (POST) the CON, ER1, and ER5 conditions, and 10-s Wingate cycling testing. Wingate relative peak power (RPP) and mean peak power (RMP) were measured. Separate mixed-factorial repeated measures analyses of variance assessed changes across conditions and sex for the Wingate variables and conditions, sex, and time for CMJ height at an alpha of p ≤ 0.05.

Results

RPP and RMP were significantly greater than CON for ER1 by 0.92 ± 0.23 W kg-1 and 0.41 ± 0.14 W kg-1, respectively, and ER5 by 0.77 ± 0.23 W kg-1 and 0.36 ± 0.10 W kg-1, respectively. ER1 and ER5 RPP and RMP were similar (p > 0.05). For CMJ height, there was only a main effect for sex as males jumped higher than females by 31.3 % (p = 0.002).

Conclusion

Performing tuck jumps prior to anaerobic exercise may increase performance for up to 5-min.

Sex differences in human performance

Sex as a biological variable is an underappreciated aspect of biomedical research, with its importance emerging in more recent years. This review assesses the current understanding of sex differences in human physical performance. Males outperform females in many physical capacities because they are faster, stronger and more powerful, particularly after male puberty. This review highlights key sex differences in physiological and anatomical systems (generally conferred via sex steroids and puberty) that contribute to these sex differences in human physical performance. Specifically, we address the effects of the primary sex steroids that affect human physical development, discuss insight gained from an observational study of 'real-world data' and elite athletes, and highlight the key physiological mechanisms that contribute to sex differences in several aspects of physical performance. Physiological mechanisms discussed include those for the varying magnitude of the sex differences in performance involving: (1) absolute muscular strength and power; (2) fatigability of limb muscles as a measure of relative performance; and (3) maximal aerobic power and endurance. The profound sex-based differences in human performance involving strength, power, speed and endurance, and that are largely attributable to the direct and indirect effects of sex-steroid hormones, sex chromosomes and epigenetics, provide a scientific rationale and framework for policy decisions on sex-based categories in sports during puberty and adulthood. Finally, we highlight the sex bias and problem in human performance research of insufficient studies and information on females across many areas of biology and physiology, creating knowledge gaps and opportunities for high-impact studies.

Sex Differences in the Energy System Contribution during Sprint Exercise in Speed-Power and Endurance Athletes

Background/Objectives: A high level of specific metabolic capacity is essential for maximal sprinting in both male and female athletes. Various factors dictate sex differences in maximal power production and energy utilization. This study aims to compare the contribution of energy systems between male and female athletes with similar sport-specific physiological adaptations during a 15-s sprint exercise. Methods: The endurance group consisted of 17 males (23 ± 7 y) and 17 females (20 ± 2 y). The speed-power group included 14 males (21.1 ± 2.6 y) and 14 females (20 ± 3 y). The contribution of phosphagen, glycolytic, and aerobic systems was determined using the three-component PCr-LA-O2 method. Results: Significant differences were observed in the energy expenditure for all systems and total energy expenditure between males and females in both groups (p = 0.001-0.013). The energy expenditure in kJ for individual systems (phosphagen-glycolytic-aerobic) was 35:25:7 vs. 20:16:5 in endurance males vs. female athletes, respectively. In the speed-power group, male athletes expended 33:37:6 kJ and female athletes expended 21:25:4 kJ, respectively. The percentage proportions did not differ between males and females in any system. The contribution of the phosphagen-glycolytic-aerobic systems was 52:37:11 vs. 48:39:13 in endurance male and female athletes, respectively. For speed-power males vs. female athletes, the proportions were 42:50:8 vs. 41:50:9, respectively. Conclusions: Despite the differences in body composition, mechanical output, and absolute energy expenditure, the energy system contribution appears to have a similar metabolic effect between male and female athletes engaged in sprint exercises with similar sport-related adaptations. The magnitude and profile of sex differences are related to sports discipline.

Sex Differences in the Ergogenic Response of Acute Caffeine Intake on Muscular Strength, Power and Endurance Performance in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the impact of acute caffeine intake on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance between resistance-trained male and female individuals according to load in upper- and lower-body exercises.

METHODS

Here, 76 resistance-trained individuals (38 females, 38 males) participated in a study comparing caffeine and a placebo. Each received either 3 mg/kg of caffeine or a placebo 60 min before tests measuring muscular strength and power through bench press and back squat exercises at different intensities (25%, 50%, 75%, 90% 1RM). Muscular endurance at 65% 1RM was also assessed by performing reps until reaching task failure.

RESULTS

Compared to placebo, caffeine increased mean, peak and time to reach peak velocity and power output (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.242-0.293) in the muscular strength/power test in males and females. This effect was particularly observed in the back squat exercise at 50%, 75% and 90% 1RM (2.5-8.5%, p < 0.05, g = 1.0-2.4). For muscular endurance, caffeine increased the number of repetitions, mean velocity and power output (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.177-0.255) in both sexes and exercises (3.0-8.9%, p < 0.05, g = 0.15-0.33).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute caffeine intake resulted in a similar ergogenic effect on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance in upper- and lower-body exercises for male and female resistance-trained participants.

Neuromechanical Differences between Pronated and Supinated Forearm Positions during Upper-Body Wingate Tests

Arm-cycling is a versatile exercise modality with applications in both athletic enhancement and rehabilitation, yet the influence of forearm orientation remains understudied. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the impact of forearm position on upper-body arm-cycling Wingate tests. Fourteen adult males (27.3 ± 5.8 years) underwent bilateral assessments of handgrip strength in standing and seated positions, followed by pronated and supinated forward arm-cycling Wingate tests. Electromyography (EMG) was recorded from five upper-extremity muscles, including anterior deltoid, triceps brachii lateral head, biceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, and brachioradialis. Simultaneously, bilateral normal and propulsion forces were measured at the pedal-crank interface. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), power output, and fatigue index were recorded post-test. The results showed that a pronated forearm position provided significantly (p < 0.05) higher normal and propulsion forces and triceps brachii muscle activation patterns during arm-cycling. No significant difference in RPE was observed between forearm positions (p = 0.17). A positive correlation was found between seated handgrip strength and peak power output during the Wingate test while pronated (dominant: p = 0.01, r = 0.55; non-dominant: p = 0.03, r = 0.49) and supinated (dominant: p = 0.03, r = 0.51; don-dominant: p = 0.04, r = 0.47). Fatigue changed the force and EMG profile during the Wingate test. In conclusion, this study enhances our understanding of forearm position's impact on upper-body Wingate tests. These findings have implications for optimizing training and performance strategies in individuals using arm-cycling for athletic enhancement and rehabilitation.

Effect of maturity status on force-velocity relationships in a ballistic lower limb test in high-level soccer players

This study aimed to investigate the effect of maturity status on force-velocity relationships in a ballistic lower limb (BLL) test in high-level soccer adolescents and young adults. The population was 61 adolescents (13.0-17.9 years) and 23 young adults (18.0-26.2 years). Subjects completed the BLL test on a ballistic ergometer equipped with two force plates and a linear encoder. Following Samozino's method, maximal power output (Pmax), force (F0) and velocity (v0) were determined. An allometric model was applied to Pmax and F0 with body mass (BM) and fat-free mass (FFM). Significant effects of maturity status were found for absolute Pmax, F0, relative Pmax to BM and FFM, relative F0 to FFM and F0 allometrically scaled to BM and FFM (p = 0.02 to p < 0.001; η  = 0.10 to η  = 0.49). There was no significant effect for Pmax allometrically scaled to BM and FFM, F0 relative to BM and v0. Body dimensions explain group differences in Pmax whereas for F0, qualitative factors explain the differences between the groups. As maturity status and body dimensions influence Pmax, these factors should be considered when assessing explosive short efforts. This could help to better identify potential athletic talent and adapt training content.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Performance Adaptations to High-Intensity Interval Training: Are There Differences Between Men and Women? A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses

BACKGROUND

It is important to consider biological sex as a variable that might influence exercise adaptation in order to optimize exercise prescription for men and women.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to quantify the impact of biological sex on maximal oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O2max) and performance outcomes after high-intensity interval training (HIIT).

METHODS

A systematic search and review was conducted by two independent reviewers up to 8 September 2022 using MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Sports Medicine & Education Index in ProQuest. Trials including healthy adults were included if they presented data for or compared male and female [Formula: see text]O2max or performance outcomes in response to HIIT. Performance outcomes included measures of exercise performance and concurrently measured physiological adaptations. Where appropriate, a random-effects, pre-post meta-analysis was undertaken. Data were sub-grouped for men and women, baseline training level, mean age, intervention type, and intervention length. Heterogeneity was assessed using Chi2, Cochran's Q, and Higgins I2 and sensitivity analyses, where required. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and publication bias was assessed through visual inspection of funnel plots.

RESULTS

Thirty-three references from 28 trials were included in the review (n = 965; 462 women and 503 men). Meta-analyses included 19 studies for [Formula: see text]O2max, eight for peak power output from [Formula: see text]O2max testing (PPO), and five for threshold power (powerAT). Meta-analyses revealed similar increases in [Formula: see text]O2max in women (g = 0.57; 95% CI 0.44-0.69) and men (g = 0.57; 95% CI 0.42-0.72), and powerAT in women (g = 0.38; 95% CI 0.13-0.64) and men (g = 0.38; 95% CI 0.11-0.64). Raw mean differences for change in [Formula: see text]O2max were Δ 0.32 L·min-1 and 3.50 mL·kg-1·min-1 in men, versus Δ 0.20 L·min-1 and 3.34 mL·kg-1·min-1 for women. No significant sex differences were present for the primary analysis of any outcome. After sub-grouping, significant differences were present for PPO where the effect size was higher for well-trained women (g = 0.37) compared with well-trained men (g = 0.17), and for [Formula: see text]O2max where interventions with a duration of 4 weeks or less had significantly smaller effect sizes compared with those longer than 4 weeks (p < 0.001). Unweighted mean percentage change in [Formula: see text]O2max, PPO, and powerAT across studies was 11.16 ± 7.39%, 11.16 ± 5.99%, and 8.07 ± 6.55% for women, and 10.90 ± 5.75%, 8.22 ± 5.09%, and 7.09 ± 7.17% for men, respectively. Significant heterogeneity was present for both [Formula: see text]O2max and PPO (I2, range: 62.06-78.80%). Sub-grouping by baseline training status and intervention length decreased heterogeneity in most groups. A qualitative synthesis of other outcomes indicated similar improvements in fitness and performance for men and women with some evidence suggesting differences in the mechanisms of adaptation.

LIMITATIONS AND RISK OF BIAS

Publication bias is unlikely to have significantly influenced results for [Formula: see text]O2max or powerAT, but the meta-analysis of PPO could have benefitted from additional study data to strengthen results. The overlap in age categories and sensitivity of the analysis limits the accuracy of the results of the sub-grouping by age.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicated no sex-specific differences for any fitness or performance outcomes. Baseline training status and intervention length accounted for most variability in outcomes. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021272615.

Physiological and molecular predictors of cycling sprint performance

The study aimed to identify novel muscle phenotypic factors that could determine sprint performance using linear regression models including the lean mass of the lower extremities (LLM), myosin heavy chain composition (MHC), and proteins and enzymes implicated in glycolytic and aerobic energy generation (citrate synthase, OXPHOS proteins), oxygen transport and diffusion (myoglobin), ROS sensing (Nrf2/Keap1), antioxidant enzymes, and proteins implicated in calcium handling. For this purpose, body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) and sprint performance (isokinetic 30-s Wingate test: peak and mean power output, Wpeak and Wmean ) were measured in young physically active adults (51 males and 10 females), from which a resting muscle biopsy was obtained from the musculus vastus lateralis. Although females had a higher percentage of MHC I, SERCA2, pSer16 /Thr17 -phospholamban, and Calsequestrin 2 protein expressions (all p < 0.05), and 18.4% lower phosphofructokinase 1 protein expression than males (p < 0.05), both sexes had similar sprint performance when it was normalized to body weight or LLM. Multiple regression analysis showed that Wpeak could be predicted from LLM, SDHB, Keap1, and MHC II % (R 2  = 0.62, p < 0.001), each variable contributing to explain 46.4%, 6.3%, 4.4%, and 4.3% of the variance in Wpeak , respectively. LLM and MHC II % explained 67.5% and 2.1% of the variance in Wmean , respectively (R 2  = 0.70, p < 0.001). The present investigation shows that SDHB and Keap1, in addition to MHC II %, are relevant determinants of peak power output during sprinting.

The Biological Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance: Consensus Statement for the American College of Sports Medicine

ABSTRACT

Biological sex is a primary determinant of athletic performance because of fundamental sex differences in anatomy and physiology dictated by sex chromosomes and sex hormones. Adult men are typically stronger, more powerful, and faster than women of similar age and training status. Thus, for athletic events and sports relying on endurance, muscle strength, speed, and power, males typically outperform females by 10%-30% depending on the requirements of the event. These sex differences in performance emerge with the onset of puberty and coincide with the increase in endogenous sex steroid hormones, in particular testosterone in males, which increases 30-fold by adulthood, but remains low in females. The primary goal of this consensus statement is to provide the latest scientific knowledge and mechanisms for the sex differences in athletic performance. This review highlights the differences in anatomy and physiology between males and females that are primary determinants of the sex differences in athletic performance and in response to exercise training, and the role of sex steroid hormones (particularly testosterone and estradiol). We also identify historical and nonphysiological factors that influence the sex differences in performance. Finally, we identify gaps in the knowledge of sex differences in athletic performance and the underlying mechanisms, providing substantial opportunities for high-impact studies. A major step toward closing the knowledge gap is to include more and equitable numbers of women to that of men in mechanistic studies that determine any of the sex differences in response to an acute bout of exercise, exercise training, and athletic performance.

Intra-Session Reliability of Sprint Performance on a Non-Motorised Treadmill for Healthy Active Males and Females

This study examined the intra-session reliability of sprint performance on a non-motorized treadmill amongst healthy, active male and female adults. One hundred and twenty participants (males n = 77; females n = 45) completed two familiarization sessions, followed by a third session that consisted of three trials (T1, T2, T3) of maximal sprints (4-s), interspersed by three minutes of recovery. Combining males and females exhibited moderate-to-excellent test-retest reliability (intra-class correlation coefficient, ICC), minimal measurement error (coefficient of variation, CV) and trivial differences between trials (effect size, ES) for speed, power, total work and acceleration (ICC = 0.82-0.98, CV = 1.31-8.45%, ES = 0.01-0.22). The measurement error was improved between comparisons of T1 vs. T2 (CV = 1.62-8.45%, ES = 0.12-0.22) to T2 vs. T3 (CV = 1.31-6.56%, ES = 0.01-0.07) and better for females (CV = 1.26-7.94%, ES = 0.001-0.26) than males (CV = 1.33-8.53%, ES = 0.06-0.31). The current study demonstrated moderate-to-excellent reliability and good-moderate measurement error during a 4-s sprint on a non-motorized treadmill. However, sex had a substantial impact with females exhibiting better values. Practitioners should employ at least two separate trials within a session, in addition to multiple familiarization sessions, to achieve reliable non-motorized treadmill sprint performances.

Sex-Specific Accumulated Oxygen Deficit During Short- and Middle-Distance Swimming Performance in Competitive Youth Athletes

INTRODUCTION

Since sex-specific accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) during high-intensity swimming remains unstudied, this study aimed to assess AOD during 50, 100, and 200 m front-crawl performances to compare the responses between sexes and analyse the effect of lean body mass (LBM).

METHODS

Twenty swimmers (16.2 ± 2.8 years, 61.6 ± 7.8 kg, and 48.8 ± 11.2 kg LBM-50% males) performed 50, 100, and 200 m to determine accumulated oxygen uptake (V̇O_2Ac). The swimmers also performed an incremental test from which five submaximal steps were selected to estimate the oxygen demand (V̇O_2demand) from the V̇O₂ versus velocity adjustment. V̇O₂ was sampled using a gas analyser coupled with a respiratory snorkel. AOD was the difference between V̇O_2demand and V̇O_2Ac, and LBM (i.e. lean mass not including bone mineral content) was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA).

RESULTS

A two-way ANOVA evidenced an AOD increase with distance for both sexes: 19.7 ± 2.5 versus 24.9 ± 5.5, 29.8 ± 8.0 versus 36.5 ± 5.8, and 41.5 ± 9.4 versus 5.2 ± 11.9 ml × kg^-1, respectively, for 50, 100, and 200 m (with highest values for females, P < 0.01). Inverse correlations were observed between LBM and AOD for 50, 100, and 200 m (r = - 0.60, - 0.38 and - 0.49, P < 0.05). AOD values at 10 and 30 s elapsed times in each trial decreased with distance for both sexes, with values differing when female swimmers were compared to males in the 200 m trial (at 10 s: 2.6 ± 0.6 vs. 3.4 ± 0.6; and at 30 s: 7.9 ± 1.7 vs. 10.0 ± 1.8 ml × kg^-1, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

LBM differences between sexes influenced AOD values during each trial, suggesting that reduced muscle mass in female swimmers plays a role on the higher AOD (i.e. anaerobic energy) demand than males while performing supramaximal trials.

Force-velocity profile in sprinting: sex effect

The ability to produce muscle power during sprint acceleration is a major determinant of physical performance. The comparison of the force-velocity (F-v: theoretical maximal force, F₀; velocity, v₀ and maximal power output, P_max) profile between men and women has attracted little attention. Most studies of sex differences have failed to apply a scaling ratio when reporting data. The present study investigated the sex effect on the F-v profile using an allometric model applied with body mass (BM), fat-free mass (FFM), fat-free mass of the lower limb (FFMLL), cross-sectional area (CSA) and leg length (LL) to mechanical parameters. Thirty students (15 men, 15 women) participated. Raw velocity-time data for three maximal 35 m sprints were measured with a radar. Mechanical parameters of the F-v relationship were calculated from the modelling of the velocity-time curve. When F₀ and P_max were allometrically scaled with BM (p = 0.538; ES = 0.23) and FFM (p = 0.176; ES = 0.51), there were no significant differences between men and women. However, when the allometric model was applied to P_max with FFMLL (p = 0.015; ES = 0.52), F₀ with CSA (p = 0.016; ES = 0.93) and v₀ with LL (p ≤ 0.001; ES = 1.98) differences between men and women persisted. FFM explained 83% of the sex differences in the F-v profile (p ≤ 0.001). After applying an allometric model, sex differences in the F-v profile are explained by other factors than body dimensions (i.e., physiological qualitative differences).

Influence of muscle volume on jumping performance in healthy male and female youth and young adults

BACKGROUND

Sex differences that appear throughout puberty have a substantial impact on the training process. It remains unclear what effect these sex differences should have on how training programs are planned and performed and what objectives should be established for boys and girls of different ages. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between vertical jump performance and muscle volume based on age and sex.

METHODS

One hundred eighty healthy males (n = 90) and females (n = 90) performed three different types of vertical jumps (VJ): squat jump (SJ), counter movement jump (CMJ), and counter movement jump with arms (CMJ with arms). We used the anthropometric method to measure muscle volume.

RESULTS

Muscle volume differed across age groups. There were significant effects of age, sex, and their interaction on the SJ, CMJ, and CMJ with arms heights. From the age of 14-15, males exhibited better performances than females, and large effect sizes became apparent in the SJ (d = 1.09, P = 0.04), CMJ (d = 2.18; P = 0.001) and CMJ with arms (d = 1.94; P = 0.004). For the 20-22-year-old age group, there was a significant difference in VJ performance between males and females. Extremely large effect sizes became apparent in the SJ (d = 4.44; P = 0.001), CMJ (d = 4.12; P = 0.001) and CMJ with arms (d = 5.16; P = 0.001). When performances were normalized to the lower limb length, these differences persisted. After normalization to muscle volume, males exhibited better performance when compared to females. This difference persisted only for the 20-22-year-old group on the SJ (p = 0.005), CMJ (p = 0.022) and CMJ with arms (p = 0.016). Among male participants, muscle volume was significantly correlated with SJ (r = 0.70; p < 0.01), CMJ (r = 0.70; p < 0.01) and CMJ with arms (r = 0.55; p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that muscle volume may be one of the major determining factors in sex differences in vertical jumping performance.

Physiological and molecular sex differences in human skeletal muscle in response to exercise training

Sex differences in exercise physiology, such as substrate metabolism and skeletal muscle fatigability, stem from inherent biological factors, including endogenous hormones and genetics. Studies investigating exercise physiology frequently include only males or do not take sex differences into consideration. Although there is still an underrepresentation of female participants in exercise research, existing studies have identified sex differences in physiological and molecular responses to exercise training. The observed sex differences in exercise physiology are underpinned by the sex chromosome complement, sex hormones and, on a molecular level, the epigenome and transcriptome. Future research in the field should aim to include both sexes, control for menstrual cycle factors, conduct large-scale and ethnically diverse studies, conduct meta-analyses to consolidate findings from various studies, leverage unique cohorts (such as post-menopausal, transgender, and those with sex chromosome abnormalities), as well as integrate tissue and cell-specific -omics data. This knowledge is essential for developing deeper insight into sex-specific physiological responses to exercise training, thus directing future exercise physiology studies and practical application.

Male-Female Differences in Push-up Test Performance at Various Cadences

ABSTRACT

Rozenek, R, Byrne, JJ, Crussemeyer, J, and Garhammer, J. Male-Female Differences in Push-up Test Performance at Various Cadences. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3324-3329, 2022-Push-up (PU) testing is widely used to assess upper-extremity muscular endurance. However, little information exists regarding the influence of cadence on PU performance. Forty-four healthy men and women (age range = 21-36 years) completed 4 PU test sessions on separate days in a randomized order using standard PUs. Cadences of 30, 45, and 60 PU·min -1 were used for 3 tests, whereas a fourth test was performed at a self-selected (SS) cadence. The total number of PUs completed, vertical ground reaction forces (vGRFs) acting on each hand and the feet, and the sum of the vGRFs were determined for each test. Results showed men performed more PU than women at any cadence ( p ≤ 0.05) and had a faster mean SS cadence (49.9 ± 11.4 PU·min -1 vs 42.8 ± 8.4 PU·min -1 ) ( p ≤ 0.05). The maximum number of PU were performed when using either the SS cadence or 60 PU·min -1 , with little difference observed between them ( p ≤ 0.05). The sum of vGRFs was greatest at 60 PU·min -1 and when scaled to body mass (BM) represented 1.58 ± 0.14x and 1.33 ± 0.08x BM for men and women, respectively. As cadence increased, men shifted more weight to the hand contact points compared with women ( p ≤ 0.05). Distinct differences in SS cadence and distribution of forces were observed between the sexes suggesting different strategies while performing the PU test. These differences should be considered when selecting a protocol for PU testing.

Gender Differences and the Influence of Body Composition on Land and Pool-Based Assessments of Anaerobic Power and Capacity

Consistent differences between males and females have been shown in land-based measurements of anaerobic power and capacity. However, these differences have not been investigated for a tethered 30-s maximal swimming test (TST). The purpose of this study is to explore gender differences in land and pool-based assessments of anaerobic power (Fpeak) and capacity (Fmean), as well as the influence of body composition. Thirteen males and fifteen females completed land (Wingate (WAnT)) and pool-based (TST) measures of anaerobic power and capacity previously described in the literature. Additionally, the subjects completed assessments of body composition via air displacement plethysmography. The males produced higher force than the females for Fpeak (p < 0.001) and Fmean (p = 0.008) during the TST. However, linear regression analysis determined that lean mass significantly predicted Fpeak (p = 0.002) and Fmean (p < 0.001) during the TST, while gender was no longer significant (p = 0.694 and p = 0.136, respectively). In conclusion, increases in anaerobic power and capacity (Fpeak and Fmean) may be a function of increased lean mass in males and females, warranting future research on the impact of resistance training programs on force production and swimming performance.

Upper Limb Anaerobic Metabolism Capacity is Reduced in Mild and Moderate COPD Patients

Limited information is available regarding the role of anaerobic metabolism capacity on GOLD 1 and 2 COPD patients during upper limb exercise. We aimed to compare the upper limb anaerobic power capacity, blood lactate concentration, cardiovascular and respiratory responses, in male COPD patients versus healthy subjects during the 30-s Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT). The rate of fatigue and time constant of the power output decay (τ, tau) were also calculated and a regression analysis model was built to assess the predictors of τ in these patients. Twenty-four male COPD patients (post-bronchodilator FEV₁ 73.2 ± 15.3% of predicted) and 17 healthy subjects (FEV₁ 103.5 ± 10.1% of predicted) underwent the WAnT. Measurements were performed at rest, at the end of the WAnT, and during 3' and 5' of recovery time. Peak power (p = 0.04), low power (p = 0.002), and mean power output (p = 0.008) were significantly lower in COPD patients than in healthy subjects. Power output decreased exponentially in both groups, but at a significantly faster rate (p = 0.007) in COPD patients. The time constant of power decay was associated with resistance (in ohms) and fat-free mass (r² = 0.604, adjusted r² = 0.555, and p = 0.002). Blood lactate concentration was significantly higher in healthy subjects at the end of the test, as well as during 3' and 5' of recovery time (p < 0.01). Compared with healthy subjects, COPD patients with GOLD 1 and 2 presented lower upper limb anaerobic capacity and a faster rate of power output decrease during a maximal intensity exercise. Also, the WAnT proved to be a valid tool to measure the upper limb anaerobic capacity in these patients.

Are Young Swimmers Short and Middle Distances Energy Cost Sex-Specific?

This study assessed the energy cost in swimming (C) during short and middle distances to analyze the sex-specific responses of C during supramaximal velocity and whether body composition account to the expected differences. Twenty-six swimmers (13 men and 13 women: 16.7 ± 1.9 vs. 15.5 ± 2.8 years old and 70.8 ± 10.6 vs. 55.9 ± 7.0 kg of weight) performed maximal front crawl swimming trials in 50, 100, and 200 m. The oxygen uptake (V˙O₂) was analyzed along with the tests (and post-exercise) through a portable gas analyser connected to a respiratory snorkel. Blood samples were collected before and after exercise (at the 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th min) to determine blood lactate concentration [La^–]. The lean mass of the trunk (LM_Trunk), upper limb (LM_UL), and lower limb (LM_LL) was assessed using dual X-ray energy absorptiometry. Anaerobic energy demand was calculated from the phosphagen and glycolytic components, with the first corresponding to the fast component of the V˙O₂ bi-exponential recovery phase and the second from the 2.72 ml × kg^–1 equivalent for each 1.0 mmol × L^–1 [La^–] variation above the baseline value. The aerobic demand was obtained from the integral value of the V˙O₂ vs. swimming time curve. The C was estimated by the rate between total energy releasing (in Joules) and swimming velocity. The sex effect on C for each swimming trial was verified by the two-way ANOVA (Bonferroni post hoc test) and the relationships between LM_Trunk, LM_UL, and LM_LL to C were tested by Pearson coefficient. The C was higher for men than women in 50 (1.8 ± 0.3 vs. 1.3 ± 0.3 kJ × m^–1), 100 (1.4 ± 0.1 vs. 1.0 ± 0.2 kJ × m^–1), and 200 m (1.0 ± 0.2 vs. 0.8 ± 0.1 kJ × m^–1) with p < 0.01 for all comparisons. In addition, C differed between distances for each sex (p < 0.01). The regional LM_Trunk (26.5 ± 3.6 vs. 20.1 ± 2.6 kg), LM_UL (6.8 ± 1.0 vs. 4.3 ± 0.8 kg), and LM_LL (20.4 ± 2.6 vs. 13.6 ± 2.5 kg) for men vs. women were significantly correlated to C in 50 (R²_adj = 0.73), 100 (R²_adj = 0.61), and 200 m (R²_adj = 0.60, p < 0.01). Therefore, the increase in C with distance is higher for men than women and is determined by the lean mass in trunk and upper and lower limbs independent of the differences in body composition between sexes.

The effect of body composition on strength and power in male and female students

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to determine and to compare the effect of sex differences in percentage of body fat on the strength and power performances of the legs and arms during short maximal exercise.

METHODS

72 male and 64 female students aged 20 to 23 years were enrolled in this study. After assessing their morphological characteristics (body mass, height and percentage of fat mass), a squat jump test (SJ), a 5 successive jump test (5JT), a hand gripping (HG) and back strength (BS) tests have been conducted for each subject. Male students were re-tested after being weighed down with a weight equivalent to the mean differences in body fat recorded between the two sexes in the form of a loaded worn vest.

RESULTS

Male are 15.7% heavier and 7.4% taller and presented a percentage of fat mass (17.2 ± 1.8%) significantly (p < 0.001) lower than that of women subject (25.0 ± 2.5%) (difference male vs female for fat mass: -45.5%). HG, BS, 5JT and SJ performances were significantly higher in males (44 ± 5 kg, 141 ± 2 kg, 11 ± 1 m and 32.4 ± 2,7 cm, respectively) than in females (31.0 ± 4 kg, 81.6 ± 13 kg, 8.7 ± 0.7 m and 21.1 ± 1.9 cm, respectively). In the control (unloaded) condition, the relative difference between males and females represented 23.5% and 34.7% of the male performances for 5JT and SJ, respectively. In the weighted condition, the relative difference between weighted males and females still represented 11.7% and 23.8% of the weighted male performances for 5JT and SJ, respectively. Cancelling the sex difference in fat mass by adding weight in males reduced by 50.1% the sex difference during 5JT and 31.4% and 71.7% for hight and power results, respectively during SJ test.

CONCLUSION

During short and maximal exercise, male performed better with their hands, back and legs than female students. Excess fat for female students has a disadvantageous effect on vertical and horizontal jumps performances. The persistence of sex differences after weighting of male students indicates that body fat is responsible for 30 to 70% of the observed differences between sexes performances and power outcomes during jump tests.

Energetics contribution during no-gi Brazilian jiu jitsu sparring and its association with regional body composition

We used measurements of metabolic perturbation obtained after sparring to estimate energetics contribution during no-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Ten advanced grapplers performed two six-minute sparring bouts separated by 24 hours. Kinetics of recovery rate of oxygen uptake was modelled and post-combat-sparring blood-lactate concentration measured to estimate oxygen equivalents for phospholytic and glycolytic components of anaerobic energetics, respectively. Linear regression was used to estimate end-combat-sparring rate of oxygen uptake. Regional and whole-body composition were assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry with associations between these measurements and energy turnover explored using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (significance, P < 0.05). Estimated oxygen equivalents for phospholytic and glycolytic contributions to anaerobic metabolism were 16.9 ± 8.4 (~28%) and 44.6 ± 13.5 (~72%) mL∙kg^-1, respectively. Estimated end-exercise rate of oxygen uptake was 44.2 ± 7.0 mL∙kg^-1∙min^-1. Trunk lean mass was positively correlated with both total anaerobic and glycolytic-specific energetics (total, R = 0.645, p = 0.044; glycolytic, R = 0.692, p = 0.027) and negatively correlated with end-exercise rate of oxygen uptake (R = -0.650, p = 0.042). There were no correlations for any measurement of body composition and phospholytic-specific energetics. Six minutes of no-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu sparring involves high relative contribution from the glycolytic component to total anaerobic energy provision and the link between this energetics profile and trunk lean mass is consistent with the predominance of ground-based combat that is unique for this combat sport. Training programs for Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners should be designed with consideration given to these specific energetics characteristics.

Modeling Energy Expenditure Estimation in Occupational Context by Actigraphy: A Multi Regression Mixed-Effects Model

The accurate prediction of energy requirements for healthy individuals has many useful applications. The occupational perspective has also been proven to be of great utility for improving workers' ergonomics, safety, and health. This work proposes a statistical regression model based on actigraphy and personal characteristics to estimate energy expenditure and cross-validate the results with reference standardized methods. The model was developed by hierarchical mixed-effects regression modeling based on the multitask protocol data. Measurements combined actigraphy, indirect calorimetry, and other personal and lifestyle information from healthy individuals (n = 50) within the age of 29.8 ± 5 years old. Results showed a significant influence of the variables related to movements, heart rate and anthropometric variables of body composition for energy expenditure estimation. Overall, the proposed model showed good agreement with energy expenditure measured by indirect calorimetry and evidenced a better performance than the methods presented in the international guidelines for metabolic rate assessment proving to be a reliable alternative to normative guidelines. Furthermore, a statistically significant relationship was found between daily activity and energy expenditure, which raised the possibility of further studies including other variables, namely those related to the subject's lifestyle.

Sex-Based Performance Responses to an Acute Sprint Interval Cycling Training Session in Collegiate Athletes

There are limited data pertaining to the effects of sex on sprint interval cycling (SIC) training session performance. Purpose: We investigated sex-based differences on sprint interval cycling (SIC) performance in collegiate soccer players. Methods: Twelve men and twelve women completed two identical lab trials, 7-14 days apart. The first lab session served as familiarization, "dry run," trial. Reported data were collected and analyzed during the second, "testing" SIC training trial. Each SIC training session was comprised of a warm-up, at 50 revolutions per min (RPM) with no resistance, and six repeated 30-s Wingate Anaerobic Tests (WAnT) separated by a 4-min recovery period between each sprint. Results: Significant (P ≤ .05) sex differences were observed in peak power (PP), peak power relative to body mass (RPP), mean power (MP), mean power relative to body mass (RMP) but not in peak power relative to fat free mass (FFMPP). When WAnT bouts 2-6 were expressed as %Δ of WAnT1, there were no significant (P > .05) differences between the sexes across all performance variables. Further, Cohen's d statistics demonstrated only trivial and small effect size between the groups. Average HR and RPE were not significantly (P > .05) different between the sexes. Correlational analysis revealed a significant (P ≤ .05) relationship between FFM, and PP and MP. Conclusion: Although overall performance may be affected by a number of physiological mechanisms, the results of the current study indicate that differences between men and women soccer players performing SIC training, are likely attributed to differences in body composition.

Age- and Sex-Related Differences in Recovery From High-Intensity and Endurance Exercise: A Brief Review

Postexercise recovery is a fundamental component for continuous performance enhancement. Due to physiological and morphological changes in aging and alterations in performance capacity, athletes of different ages may recover at different rates from physical exercise. Differences in body composition, physiological function, and exercise performance between men and women may also have a direct influence on restoration processes.

PURPOSE

This brief review examines current research to indicate possible differences in recovery processes between male and female athletes of different age groups. The paper focuses on postexercise recovery following sprint and endurance tests and tries to identify determinants that modulate possible differences in recovery between male and female subjects of different age groups.

RESULTS

The literature analysis indicates age- and sex-dependent differences in short- and long-term recovery. Short-term recovery differs among children, adults, and masters. Children have shorter lactate half-life and a faster cardiac and respiratory recovery compared to adults. Additionally, children and masters require shorter recovery periods during interval bouts than trained adults. Trained women show a slower cardiac and respiratory recovery compared to trained men. Long-term recovery is strongly determined by the extent of muscle damage. Trained adults tend to have more extensive muscle damage compared to masters and children.

CONCLUSION

The influence of age and sex on the recovery process varies among the different functional systems and depends on the time of the recovery processes. Irrespective of age and sex, the performance capacity of the individual determines the recovery process after high-intensity and endurance exercise.

V ˙ O 2 kinetics and energy contribution in simulated maximal performance during short and middle distance-trials in swimming

PURPOSE

This study aims to analyze swimmers' oxygen uptake kinetics (V ˙ O 2 K) and bioenergetic profiles in 50, 100, and 200 m simulated swimming events and determine which physiological variables relate with performance.

METHODS

Twenty-eight well-trained swimmers completed an incremental test for maximal oxygen uptake (Peak-V ˙ O 2 ) and maximal aerobic velocity (MAV) assessment. Maximal trials (MT) of 50, 100, and 200-m in front crawl swimming were performed forV ˙ O 2 K and bioenergetic profile.V ˙ O 2 K parameters were calculated through monoexponential modeling and by a new growth rate method. The recovery phase was used along with the blood lactate concentration for bioenergetics profiling.

RESULTS

Peak-V ˙ O 2 (57.47 ± 5.7 ml kg-1 min-1 for male and 53.53 ± 4.21 ml kg-1 min-1 for female) did not differ fromV ˙ O 2 peak attained at the 200-MT for female and at the 100 and 200-MT for male. From the 50-MT to 100-MT and to the 200-MT theV ˙ O 2 K presented slower time constants (8.6 ± 2.3 s, 11.5 ± 2.4 s and 16.7 ± 5.5 s, respectively), the aerobic contribution increased (~ 34%, 54% and 71%, respectively) and the anaerobic decreased (~ 66%, 46% and 29%, respectively), presenting a cross-over in the 100-MT. Both energy systems, MAV, Peak-V ˙ O 2 , andV ˙ O 2 peak of the MT's were correlated with swimming performance.

DISCUSSION

The aerobic energy contribution is an important factor for performance in 50, 100, and 200-m, regardless of the time taken to adjust the absolute oxidative response, when considering the effect on a mixed-group regarding sex.V ˙ O 2 K speeding could be explained by a faster initial pacing strategy used in the shorter distances, that contributed for a more rapid increase of the oxidative contribution to the energy turnover.

Maximal lactate accumulation rate and post-exercise lactate kinetics in handcycling and cycling

The aim of this study was to assess lactate kinetics, maximal lactate accumulation rate (⩒La_max) and peak power output (PO_max) in a 15-s all-out exercise in handcycling (HC) and cycling (C) in terms of (1) reliability, (2) differences and (3) correlations between HC and C. Eighteen female and male competitive triathletes performed two trials (separated by one week) of a 15-s all-out sprint test in HC and C. Tests were performed in a recumbent racing handcycle and on the participants' own road bike that were attached to an ergometer. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). PO_max and ⩒La_max demonstrated high reliability in HC (ICC = 0.972, ICC = 0.828) and C (ICC = 0.937, ICC = 0.872). PO_max (d = -2.54, P < 0.0005) and ⩒La_max (d = -1.62, P < 0.0005) were lower in HC compared to C. PO_max and ⩒La_max correlated in HC (r = 0.729, P = 0.001) and C (r = 0.710, P = 0.001). There was no significant correlation between HC and C in PO_max (r = 0.442, P = 0.066) and ⩒La_max (r = 0.455, P = 0.058). Whereas the exchange velocity of lactate (k₁) was similar in HC and C, the removal velocity (k₂) was significantly higher in HC. ⩒La_max and PO_max during sprint exercise are highly reliable and demonstrate a correlation in both HC and C. However, since ⩒La_max and PO_max are significantly higher in C and not correlated between HC and C, ⩒La_max and PO_max seem to be extremity-specific.

Load-Power Relationships for High-Speed Knee Extension Exercise

Chen, L, Davison, SW, Selimovic, EA, Mueller, RE, Beatty, SR, Carter, KA, Parmar, PJ, Symons, TB, Pantalos, GM, and Caruso, JF. Load-power relationships for high-speed knee extension exercise. J Strength Cond Res 33(6): 1480-1487, 2019-Seventy subjects did 4 knee extensor workouts with their left legs to assess load-power relationships produced on a high-speed trainer (HST; Newnan, GA, USA). Each workout is composed of 4 sets done on the HST at a different load (1, 4.4, 6.7, 9 kg). A Latin Squares Design determined load sequence per workout. Average power (AP) and peak power (PP) and those same values normalized to body mass (BM) and fat-free mass (AP/BM, PP/BM, AP/FFM, PP/FFM) were each analyzed with 2 (gender) × 4 (load) analysis of variances, with repeated measures for load. We assessed relationships between normalized loads and AP and PP values with correlation coefficients. Average power results revealed a significant interaction, with men > women at 9 kg. Peak power/body mass also yielded an interaction, with women > men at 6.7 and 9 kg. Average power/fat-free mass and PP/FFM each produced interactions, with women > men at 4.4, 6.7, and 9 kg. Correlation coefficients showed significant (r = 0.80-0.82) relationships between normalized loads and AP and PP values. In conclusion, the very low inertial resistance to initiate each repetition on this novel device may in part explain our PP/BM, AP/FFM, PP/FFM results, in which higher values were achieved by women. Our practical applications imply that the low inertial resistance for HST repetitions negates male size and strength advantages typically seen when power is measured.

What About the Girls? Exploring the Gender Data Gap in Talent Development

Although there is an extensive literature about talent development, the lack of data pertaining to females is problematic. Indeed, the gender data gap can be seen in practically all domains including sport and exercise medicine. Evidence-based practice is the systematic reviewing of the best evidence in order to make informed choices about practice. Unfortunately, it may be that the data collected in sport is typically about male experiences, and not female; a rather unfortunate omission given that approximately half of the population is made up of women. When female athletes are underrepresented in research there are issues when making inferences about data collected in male dominated research domains to inform practice and policy for female athletes. In parallel, female sport participation is continually increasing worldwide. Recognizing the importance of evidence-based practice in driving policy and practice, and reflecting the gender data gap that is a consistent feature of (almost) all other domains, we were interested in examining whether a gender data gap exists in talent development research. The results suggest that a gender data gap exists in talent development research across all topics. Youth athlete development pathways may be failing to recognize the development requirements of females, particularly where female sports may be borrowing systems that are perceived to work for their male counterparts. In order to ensure robust evidence based practice in female youth sport there is a need to increase the visibility of female athletes in talent development literature.

Do biological maturity and performance influence the training load of track and field athletes?

Abstract It is necessary to clarify if BM and track and field performance can modulate the perception about RPE-session. The purpose of the present study was to verify if biological maturity and track and field-specific performance can be associated with training load (RPE-session method). Seventy-five young athletes (13-15 years old) of both genders participated in the present study. The experimental protocol lasted seven consecutive days. Performance tests (75-m running, long jump, 250-m running, shot put and 1000-m running) were made on the first day. After 48 hours, five days of track and field training it was prescribed, each day represents a training of each performance test. All training sessions had the same duration (120 min). The value of the training load was obtained multiplying the RPE value with training session duration (in minutes). For girls, the training load of 250-m training was correlated with biological maturity (r = -0.36, p = 0.02, n = 37) and specific performance (r = 0.33, p = 0.04, n = 37). All other analyzes indicate that biological maturity and track and field-specific performance do not influence the training load based on RPE-session method. Training load based on RPE-session is not influenced by biological maturity and track and field-specific performance, therefore can be used to control the training load of young track and field athletes. To girls it is necessary a care to control the training sessions intensity of 250-m running.

Effect of Match Factors on the Running Performance of Elite Female Soccer Players

Trewin, J, Meylan, C, Varley, MC, Cronin, J, and Ling, D. Effect of match factors on the running performance of elite female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 32(7): 2002-2009, 2018-The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of match factors on the match running of elite female soccer players. Players from the same women's national team (n = 45) were monitored during 47 international fixtures (files = 606) across 4 years (2012-2015) using 10-Hz global positioning system devices. A mixed model was used to analyze the effects of altitude, temperature, match outcome, opposition ranking, and congested schedules. At altitude (>500 m), a small increase in the number of accelerations (effect size [ES] = 0.40) and a small decrease in total distance (ES = -0.54) were observed, whereas at higher temperatures, there were decreases in all metrics (ES = -0.83 to -0.16). Playing a lower ranked team in a draw resulted in a moderate increase in high-speed running (ES = 0.89), with small to moderate decreases in total distance and low-speed running noted in a loss or a win. Winning against higher ranked opponents indicated moderately higher total distance and low-speed running (ES = 0.75), compared with a draw. Although the number of accelerations were higher in a draw against lower ranked opponents, compared with a win and a loss (ES = 0.95 and 0.89, respectively). Practitioners should consider the effect of match factors on match running in elite female soccer.

Adding muscle where you need it: non-uniform hypertrophy patterns in elite sprinters

Sprint runners achieve much higher gait velocities and accelerations than average humans, due in part to large forces generated by their lower limb muscles. Various factors have been explored in the past to understand sprint biomechanics, but the distribution of muscle volumes in the lower limb has not been investigated in elite sprinters. In this study, we used non-Cartesian MRI to determine muscle sizes in vivo in a group of 15 NCAA Division I sprinters. Normalizing muscle sizes by body size, we compared sprinter muscles to non-sprinter muscles, calculated Z-scores to determine non-uniformly large muscles in sprinters, assessed bilateral symmetry, and assessed gender differences in sprinters' muscles. While limb musculature per height-mass was 22% greater in sprinters than in non-sprinters, individual muscles were not all uniformly larger. Hip- and knee-crossing muscles were significantly larger among sprinters (mean difference: 30%, range: 19-54%) but only one ankle-crossing muscle was significantly larger (tibialis posterior, 28%). Population-wide asymmetry was not significant in the sprint population but individual muscle asymmetries exceeded 15%. Gender differences in normalized muscle sizes were not significant. The results of this study suggest that non-uniform hypertrophy patterns, particularly large hip and knee flexors and extensors, are advantageous for fast sprinting.

How 100-m event analyses improve our understanding of world-class men's and women's sprint performance

This study aimed to compare the force (F)-velocity (v)-power (P)-time (t) relationships of female and male world-class sprinters. A total of 100 distance-time curves (50 women and 50 men) were computed from international 100-m finals, to determine the acceleration and deceleration phases of each race: (a) mechanical variables describing the velocity, force, and power output; and (b) F-P-v relationships and associated maximal power output, theoretical force and velocity produced by each athlete (P_max , F₀ , and V₀ ). The results showed that the maximal sprint velocity (V_max ) and mean power output (W/kg) developed over the entire 100 m strongly influenced 100-m performance (r > -0.80; P ≤ 0.001). With the exception of mean force (N/kg) developed during the acceleration phase or during the entire 100 m, all of the mechanicals variables observed over the race were greater in men. Shorter acceleration and longer deceleration in women may explain both their lower V_max and their greater decrease in velocity, and in turn their lower performance level, which can be explained by their higher V₀ and its correlation with performance. This highlights the importance of the capability to keep applying horizontal force to the ground at high velocities.

Effects of load on wingate test performances and reliability

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 2 braking forces (8.7 and 11% of body mass, BM) on Wingate test performance, peak lactate ([La]pk), peak heart rate (HRpk), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE). Sixteen male physical education students (age: 22.7 ± 1.3 years, height: 1.81 ± 0.07 m, BM: 74.3 ± 9.6 kg) performed, in a randomized order, 2 Wingate tests at 8.7% BM and 2 Wingate tests at 11% BM on a Monark cycle ergometer on 4 separate sessions. The results showed that the reliability level of mechanical measures was not affected by the braking force and was relatively similar for each variable in both braking forces (0.886 < ICC < 0.985). In addition, peak power, mean power, fatigue slope, and RPE were significantly higher (8.2, 7.0, 11.9, and 4.1%, respectively, all < 0.05) using a braking force of 11% BM compared with 8.7% BM, whereas there was no significant effect of braking force on [La]pk and HRpk. In conclusion, the results of this study suggested that the reliability of the Wingate test does not depend on the used load, and a braking force of 11% BM is more optimal for power output during Wingate test in active adults.

Are gender differences in upper-body power generated by elite cross-country skiers augmented by increasing the intensity of exercise?

In the current study, we evaluated the impact of exercise intensity on gender differences in upper-body poling among cross-country skiers, as well as the associated differences in aerobic capacity, maximal strength, body composition, technique and extent of training. Eight male and eight female elite skiers, gender-matched for level of performance by FIS points, carried out a 4-min submaximal, and a 3-min and 30-sec maximal all-out test of isolated upper-body double poling on a Concept2 ski ergometer. Maximal upper-body power and strength (1RM) were determined with a pull-down exercise. In addition, body composition was assessed with a DXA scan and training during the previous six months quantified from diaries. Relative to the corresponding female values (defined as 100%), the power output produced by the men was 88%, 95% and 108% higher during the submaximal, 3-min and 30-sec tests, respectively, and peak power in the pull-down strength exercise was 118% higher (all P<0.001). During the ergometer tests the work performed per cycle by the men was 97%, 102% and 91% greater, respectively, and the men elevated their cycle rate to a greater extent at higher intensities (both P<0.01). Furthermore, men had a 61% higher VO2peak, 58% higher 1RM, relatively larger upper-body mass (61% vs 56%) and reported considerably more upper-body strength and endurance training (all P<0.05). In conclusion, gender differences in upper-body power among cross-country skiers augmented as the intensity of exercise increased. The gender differences observed here are greater than those reported previously for both lower- and whole-body sports and coincided with greater peak aerobic capacity and maximal upper-body strength, relatively more muscle mass in the upper-body, and more extensive training of upper-body strength and endurance among the male skiers.

Effect of 8 weeks of pre-season training on body composition, physical fitness, anaerobic capacity, and isokinetic muscle strength in male and female collegiate taekwondo athletes

The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of 8 weeks pre-season training on body composition, physical fitness, anaerobic capacity, and isokinetic strength in collegiate taekwondo athletes. Thirty-four collegiate athletes (male: 22, female: 12) participated. Body composition, bone mineral density, physical fitness, anaerobic capacity, and isokinetic muscle strength were tested. After statistical analysis was performed the results indicated that there were significant decreases in body weight, percent body fat, and fat tissue after 8 weeks of pre-season training. Bone mineral density increased significantly only in males. There were significant improvements in the 50 m shuttle run and 20 m multistage endurance run in both males and females. The sit & reach test and standing long jump were not significantly changed after 8 weeks. Relative peak power and anaerobic capacity were significantly improved in males. Significant increases in angular velocity were observed for knee extension at both % BW 60°/sec and 180°/sec in both males and females. A significant increase in angular velocity was seen for right knee flexion at % BW 60°/sec for males, but it decreased at % BW 180°/sec for both males and females. In conclusion, this study suggests that 8 weeks of pre-season training has a positive effect on body composition, physical fitness, anaerobic capacity, isokinetic muscular strength, and endurance. Nevertheless, an exercise approach with the goal of increasing lean tissue, and improving power in knee flexors and flexibility of athletes, should be included in the training program.

Oxygen uptake during upper body and lower body Wingate anaerobic tests

The aim of this study was to determine the aerobic contribution to upper body and lower body Wingate Anaerobic tests (WAnT). Eight nonspecifically trained males volunteered to take part in this study. Participants undertook incremental exercise tests for peak oxygen uptake and two 30-s WAnT (habituation and experimental) for both the upper and lower body. The resistive loadings used were 0.040 and 0.075 kg·kg body mass−1, respectively. Peak power output (PPO) and mean power output (MPO) were calculated for each WAnT. The aerobic contribution of each WAnT was assessed using breath by breath expired gas analysis. Peak oxygen uptake was lower for the upper body when compared with the lower body (P = 0.001). Similarly, PPO and MPO were greater for the lower body (both P < 0.001). Absolute oxygen uptake during the upper body WAnT was lower than for the lower body (P = 0.013), whereas relative oxygen uptake (% peak oxygen uptake) was similar (P = 0.997). The mean aerobic contribution for the upper body WAnT (43.5% ± 29.3%) was greater than for the lower body (29.4% ± 15.8%; P < 0.001). The greater aerobic contribution to the WAnT observed for the upper body in comparison with the lower body is likely due to methodological differences in upper and lower body WAnT protocols and potentially differences in anaerobic power production and exercise efficiency. The results of this study suggest that differences may exist for the aerobic contribution of upper and lower body Wingate anaerobic tests.

Allometric scaling of Wingate anaerobic power test scores in men

This study examined the appropriate magnitude of allometric scaling of the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) power data for body mass (BM) and established normative data for the WAnT for adult men. Eighty-three men completed a standard WAnT using 0.1 kg·kg(-1) BM resistance. Allometric exponents and percentile ranks for 1-second peak power (PP), 5-second PP, and mean power (MP) were established. The Predicted Residual Sum of Squares (PRESS) procedure was used to assess external validity while avoiding data splitting. The mean 1-second PP, 5-second PP, and MP were 1,049.1 ± 168.8 W, 1,013.4 ± 158.6 W, and 777.9 ± 105.0 W, respectively. Allometric exponents for 1-second PP, 5-second PP, and MP scaled for BM were b = 0.89, 0.88, and 0.86, respectively. Correlations between allometrically scaled 1-second PP, 5-second PP, and MP, and BM were r = -0.03, -0.03, and -0.02, respectively, suggesting that the allometric exponents derived were effective in partialling out the effect of BM on WAnT values. The PRESS procedure values resulted in small decreases in R² (0.03, 0.04, and 0.02 for 1-second PP, 5-second PP, and MP, respectively) suggesting acceptable levels of external validity when applied to independent samples. The allometric exponents and normative values provide a useful tool for comparing WAnT scores in college-aged females without the confounding effect of BM. It is suggested that exponents of b = 0.89 (1-second PP), b = 0.88 (5-second PP), and b = 0.86 (MP) be used for allometrically scaling WAnT power values in healthy adult men and that the confidence limits for these allometric exponents be considered as 0.66-1.0 for PP and 0.69-1.0 for MP. The use of these exponents in allometric scaling of male WAnT power values provide coaches and practitioners with valid means for comparing power production between individuals without the confounding influence of BM.

The measurement of maximal (anaerobic) power output on a cycle ergometer: a critical review

The interests and limits of the different methods and protocols of maximal (anaerobic) power (Pmax) assessment are reviewed: single all-out tests versus force-velocity tests, isokinetic ergometers versus friction-loaded ergometers, measure of Pmax during the acceleration phase or at peak velocity. The effects of training, athletic practice, diet and pharmacological substances upon the production of maximal mechanical power are not discussed in this review mainly focused on the technical (ergometer, crank length, toe clips), methodological (protocols) and biological factors (muscle volume, muscle fiber type, age, gender, growth, temperature, chronobiology and fatigue) limiting Pmax in cycling. Although the validity of the Wingate test is questionable, a large part of the review is dedicated to this test which is currently the all-out cycling test the most often used. The biomechanical characteristics specific of maximal and high speed cycling, the bioenergetics of the all-out cycling exercises and the influence of biochemical factors (acidosis and alkalosis, phosphate ions…) are recalled at the beginning of the paper. The basic knowledge concerning the consequences of the force-velocity relationship upon power output, the biomechanics of sub-maximal cycling exercises and the study on the force-velocity relationship in cycling by Dickinson in 1928 are presented in Appendices.

The contribution of energy systems during the upper body Wingate anaerobic test

The purpose of this study was to measure the contribution of the aerobic, anaerobic lactic, and alactic systems during an upper body Wingate Anaerobic test (WAnT). Oxygen uptake and blood lactate were measured before, during, and after the WAnT and body composition analyzed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The contribution of the energy systems was 11.4% ± 1.4%, 60.3% ± 5.6%, and 28.3% ± 4.9% for the aerobic, anaerobic lactic, and alactic systems, respectively.

Physical fitness factors to predict female Olympic wrestling performance and sex differences

To determine differences in anthropometric, body composition, physiological and neuromuscular markers between elite and amateur female wrestlers, 35 female wrestlers were assigned into 4 groups according to their body mass (light and middle weight) and their competitive level (elite and amateur): light weight (between 49 and 58 kg) in elite (n = 6) and amateur (n = 12) levels, and middle weight (between 58 and 67 kg) in elite (n = 7) and amateur (n = 10) levels. A binary logistic regression analysis was performed to identify which variables better predict female wrestling success. Elite female wrestlers were older (8-10%), had more training experience (27-29%), fat-free mass (3%), maximum strength in absolute and allometrically scaled values (13-33%), maximal muscle power (16-34%), mean and peak power during an arm crank Wingate testing in absolute and allometrically scaled values (17-23%), jumping height (2-9%) and grip (5-13%), and back isometric strength (10-13%) compared with amateur wrestlers (p < 0.05). When the results of the present research and those of a recent study performed in our laboratory with elite male wrestlers were compared, elite women presented lower (p < 0.05) maximum isometric and dynamic strength, muscle power output, and anaerobic metabolism values even when these data were normalized using allometric methods.

Fatiguing upper body aerobic exercise impairs balance

Douris, PC, Handrakis, JP, Gendy, J, Salama, M, Kwon, D, Brooks, R, Salama, N, and Southard, V. Fatiguing upper body aerobic exercise impairs balance. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3299-3305, 2011-There are many studies that have examined the effects of selectively fatiguing lower extremity muscle groups with various protocols, and they have all shown to impair balance. There is limited research regarding the effect of fatiguing upper extremity exercise on balance. Muscle fiber-type recruitment patterns may be responsible for the difference between balance impairments because of fatiguing aerobic and anaerobic exercise. The purpose of our study was to investigate the effect that aerobic vs. anaerobic fatigue, upper vs. lower body fatigue will have on balance, and if so, which combination will affect balance to a greater degree. Fourteen healthy subjects, 7 men and 7 women (mean age 23.5 ± 1.7 years) took part in this study. Their mean body mass index was 23.6 ± 3.2. The study used a repeated-measures design. The effect on balance was documented after the 4 fatiguing conditions: aerobic lower body (ALB), aerobic upper body (AUB), anaerobic lower body, anaerobic upper body (WUB). The aerobic conditions used an incremental protocol performed to fatigue, and the anaerobic used the Wingate protocol. Balance was measured as a single-leg stance stability score using the Biodex Balance System. A stability score for each subject was recorded immediately after each of the 4 conditions. A repeated-measures analysis of variance with the pretest score as a covariate was used to analyze the effects of the 4 fatiguing conditions on balance. There were significant differences between the 4 conditions (p = 0.001). Post hoc analysis revealed that there were significant differences between the AUB, mean score 4.98 ± 1.83, and the WUB, mean score 4.09 ± 1.42 (p = 0.014) and between AUB and ALB mean scores 4.33 ± 1.40 (p = 0.029). Normative data for single-leg stability testing for this age group are 3.9 ± 1.9. Higher scores reflect greater balance deficits. The AUB condition produced the greatest balance deficit. Our data provide evidence of the important role of the upper body in maintaining unilateral standing balance and supports its inclusion as part of rehabilitation and training protocols designed to improve balance.

Validation of a nonexercise prediction equation of anaerobic power

This study examined the validity of estimating anaerobic power in college-aged students using anthropometric data and a paper and pencil test. Peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) were determined for 157 subjects (92 men and 65 women) using a standard Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) at a resistance of 0.075 and 0.10 kg·body mass for women and men, respectively. Subjects completed previously established paper and pencil tests for assessing aerobic capacity and rated their ability to perform tasks related to anaerobic power, such as their vertical jump height relative to peers. Descriptive statistics were generated, and multiple regression was performed using SAS v9.1 to assess the ability of paper and pencil tests to predict PP and MP from the WAnT. Mean (±SD) age, height, body mass, body mass index, PP, and MP for subjects were 22.1 ± 2.5 years, 175.6 ± 7.5 cm, 78.5 ± 11.4 kg, 25.4 ± 3.0 kg·m, 1015.2 ± 169.7 W, and 784.5 ± 122.1 W and 22.0 ± 3.0 years, 163.6 ± 7.4 cm, 61.1 ± 10.4 kg, 22.8 ± 3.4 kg·m, 593.0 ± 102.4 W, and 478.8 ± 72.8 W, respectively. Mean estimated jump height (EJHt) rating values were 5.8 ± 1.5 and 4.7 ± 1.5 (on a 1-9 Likert-type scale) for men and women, respectively. The following multiple regression models were developed:PP = -34.5 + 249.6 (gender; female = 0, male = 1) + 8.1 (BMkg) + 27.8 (EJHt) (R = 0.82, SEE = 106.6 W);MP = -37.7 + 163.7 (gender) + 6.7 (BMkg) + 22.8 (EJHt) (R = 0.87, SEE = 65.5 W).It was concluded that valid estimates for PP and MP could be obtained from anthropometric data and a single question paper and pencil test asking subjects to estimate relative jumping ability, without the need for performing the Wingate anaerobic cycle test.

Age-related variation of anaerobic power after controlling for size and maturation in adolescent basketball players

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is characterized by increments in body size and physical performance. Short bursts of maximal intensity, requiring anaerobic metabolism, are important in many team sports including basketball.

AIM

Variation of anaerobic power of adolescent basketball players (n = 93, 14-16 years) in relation to years before and after estimated age at peak height velocity (PHV) and variation in body size was considered.

METHODS

The cross-sectional study included chronological age, estimated age at PHV, training experience; stature, body mass (BM), free-fat mass (FFM) and estimated lower-limb volume (LLV) by anthropometry; and short-term power outputs derived from the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). Based on proportional allometric modeling, power outputs were partitioned for biological maturity status and size variables. Pearson correlations were used to estimate the associations between distance to PHV (maturity offset) and training experience with absolute and scaled estimates of short-term power.

RESULTS

Absolute WAnT increased linearly (PP, r = 0.72; MP, r = 0.74) through the interval of rapid growth of the adolescent spurt. Increments were related mainly to BM and muscle mass. Nevertheless, a residual significant positive influence of chronological age per se on maximal short-term power outputs remained independent of body size.

CONCLUSION

Allometric modelling to partition size may reveal other potentially meaningful factors in the development of short-term performance in adolescent athletes.

A Comparison of Asynchronous and Synchronous Arm Cranking During the Wingate Test

Purpose:

The aim of this study was to compare asynchronous (AS Y) arm cranking (cranks at 180° relative to each other) with synchronous (SYN) arm cranking (parallel crank setting) during the 30 s Wingate anaerobic test.

Methods:

Thirty-two physically active men (aged 22.1 ± 2.4 y) completed two Wingate tests (one ASY and one SYN) separated by 4 d in a randomized counterbalanced order. The Wingate tests were completed on a modified electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer. Performance measures assessed during the two tests include peak power, mean power, minimum power, time to peak power, rate to fatigue and maximum cadence (RPMmax). Blood lactate concentration was also measured before and 5 min after the tests.

Results:

Peak and mean power (both absolute and relative to body weight) during SYN arm cranking were significantly (p < 0.001) less than during ASY arm cranking. Rate to fatigue and RPMmax were also significantly (p = 0.012) lower during SYN arm cranking compared with ASY arm cranking. No significant difference was found between test conditions for minimum power, time to peak power or blood lactate concentration.

Conclusions:

These findings demonstrate that ASY arm cranking results in higher peak and mean anaerobic power compared with SYN arm cranking during the Wingate test. Therefore, an ASY arm crank configuration should be used to assess anaerobic power in most individuals although specific population groups may require further testing to determine which crank configuration is most suitable for the Wingate test.