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Jawaharlal S, Subramanian S, Palanivel V, Devarajan G, Veerasamy V. Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges as promising carriers for active pharmaceutical ingredient. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2024; 38:e23597. [PMID: 38037252 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.23597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Effective drug distribution at the intended or particular location is a critical issue that researchers are now dealing. Nanosponges have significantly increased in importance in medication delivery using nanotechnology in recent years. An important step toward solving these problems has been the development of nanosponges. Recently created and proposed for use in drug delivery, nanosponge is a unique type of hyper-crosslinked polymer-based colloidal structures made up of solid nanoparticles with colloidal carriers. Nanosponges are solid porous particles that may hold pharmaceuticals and other actives in their nanocavities. They can be made into dosage forms for oral, parenteral, topical, or inhalation use. The targeted distribution of drugs in a regulated manner is greatly aided by nanosponge. The utilization of nanosponges, their benefits, their production processes, the polymers they are made of, and their characterization have all been covered in this review article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saranya Jawaharlal
- Department of Biochemistry & Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Venkatesan Palanivel
- Department of Pharmacy, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Geetha Devarajan
- Department of Physics, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Vinothkumar Veerasamy
- Department of Biochemistry & Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India
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Chopra H, Verma R, Kaushik S, Parashar J, Madan K, Bano A, Bhardwaj R, Pandey P, Kumari B, Purohit D, Kumar M, Bhatia S, Rahman MH, Mittal V, Singh I, Kaushik D. Cyclodextrin-Based Arsenal for Anti-Cancer Treatments. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst 2023; 40:1-41. [PMID: 36734912 DOI: 10.1615/critrevtherdrugcarriersyst.2022038398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Anti-cancer drugs are mostly limited in their use due to poor physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties. Their lower solubility is the most common hurdle limiting their use upto their potential. In the recent years, the cyclodextrin (CD) complexation have emerged as existing approach to overcome the problem of poor solubility. CD-based nano-technological approaches are safe, stable and showed well in vivo tolerance and greater payload for encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs for the targeted delivery. They are generally chosen due to their ability to get self-assembled to form liposomes, nanoparticles, micelles and nano-sponges etc. This review paper describes a birds-eye view of the various CD-based nano-technological approaches applied for the delivery of anti-cancer moieties to the desired target such as CD based liposomes, niosomes, niosoponges, micelles, nanoparticles, monoclonal antibody, magnetic nanoparticles, small interfering RNA, nanorods, miscellaneous formulation of anti-cancer drugs containing CD. Moreover, the author also summarizes the various shortcomings of such a system and their way ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitesh Chopra
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India
| | - Ravinder Verma
- Department of Pharmacy, G.D. Goenka University, Sohna Road, Gurugram 122103, India
| | - Sakshi Kaushik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
| | - Jatin Parashar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
| | - Kumud Madan
- Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology (Pharm), Knowledge Park, Greater Noida, U.P., India
| | - Afsareen Bano
- Centre for Medical Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
| | - Rashmi Bhardwaj
- Centre for Medical Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
| | - Parijat Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurugram University, Gurugram 122413, India
| | - Beena Kumari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur, Rewari, India
| | - Deepika Purohit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur, Rewari, India
| | - Manish Kumar
- M.M. College of Pharmacy, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala 133207, Haryana, India
| | - Saurabh Bhatia
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman; School of Health Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
| | - Md Habibur Rahman
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh
| | - Vineet Mittal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
| | - Inderbir Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India
| | - Deepak Kaushik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
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Zhao B, Gu Z, Zhang Y, Li Z, Cheng L, Li C, Hong Y. Starch-based carriers of paclitaxel: A systematic review of carriers, interactions, and mechanisms. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 291:119628. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Veselov VV, Nosyrev AE, Jicsinszky L, Alyautdin RN, Cravotto G. Targeted Delivery Methods for Anticancer Drugs. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14030622. [PMID: 35158888 PMCID: PMC8833699 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The current main technological strategies for the delivery of anticancer drugs are discussed herein. This comprehensive review may help researchers design suitable delivery systems. Abstract Several drug-delivery systems have been reported on and often successfully applied in cancer therapy. Cell-targeted delivery can reduce the overall toxicity of cytotoxic drugs and increase their effectiveness and selectivity. Besides traditional liposomal and micellar formulations, various nanocarrier systems have recently become the focus of developmental interest. This review discusses the preparation and targeting techniques as well as the properties of several liposome-, micelle-, solid-lipid nanoparticle-, dendrimer-, gold-, and magnetic-nanoparticle-based delivery systems. Approaches for targeted drug delivery and systems for drug release under a range of stimuli are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valery V. Veselov
- Center of Bioanalytical Investigation and Molecular Design, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 8 Trubetskaya ul, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.V.V.); (A.E.N.)
| | - Alexander E. Nosyrev
- Center of Bioanalytical Investigation and Molecular Design, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 8 Trubetskaya ul, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.V.V.); (A.E.N.)
| | - László Jicsinszky
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy;
| | - Renad N. Alyautdin
- Department of Pharmacology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy;
- World-Class Research Center “Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare”, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 8 Trubetskaya ul, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-011-670-7183
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Adeoye O, Conceição J, Serra PA, Bento da Silva A, Duarte N, Guedes RC, Corvo MC, Aguiar-Ricardo A, Jicsinszky L, Casimiro T, Cabral-Marques H. Cyclodextrin solubilization and complexation of antiretroviral drug lopinavir: In silico prediction; Effects of derivatization, molar ratio and preparation method. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 227:115287. [PMID: 31590843 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Lopinavir (LPV) is currently used in combination with ritonavir for the clinical management of HIV infections due to its limited oral bioavailability. Herein, we report the application of an in silico method to study cyclodextrin (CyD) host-guest molecular interaction with LPV for the rational selection of the best CyD for developing a CyD based LPV delivery system. The predicted CyD, a (2-hydroxy)propyl-gamma derivative with high degree of substitution (HP17-γ-CyD) was synthesized and comparatively evaluated with γ-CyD and the commercially available HP-γ-CyD. All complexes were prepared by supercritical assisted spray drying (SASD) and co-evaporation (CoEva) at molar ratios (1:1 and 1:2); and afterwards fully characterized. Results indicate a higher LPV amorphization and solubilization ability of HP17-γ-CyD. The SASD processing technology also enhanced LPV solubilization and release from complexes. The application of in silico methodologies is a feasible approach for the rational and/or deductive development of CyD drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatomide Adeoye
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jaime Conceição
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, MedTech - Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Oporto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia A Serra
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Andreia Bento da Silva
- Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade de Lisboa (FFULisboa), Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Noélia Duarte
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rita C Guedes
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Marta C Corvo
- i3N|CENIMAT, Department of Materials Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, UNL, 2829-516, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Ana Aguiar-Ricardo
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516, Caparica, Portugal
| | - László Jicsinszky
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125, Turin, Italy
| | - Teresa Casimiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Helena Cabral-Marques
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
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Peñalva R, Esparza I, Morales-Gracia J, González-Navarro CJ, Larrañeta E, Irache JM. Casein nanoparticles in combination with 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin improves the oral bioavailability of quercetin. Int J Pharm 2019; 570:118652. [PMID: 31472219 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to optimize the preparative process of quercetin loaded casein nanoparticles as well as to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of this flavonoid when administered orally in Wistar rats. Nanoparticles were obtained by coacervation after the incubation of casein, 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) and quercetin in an aqueous environment. Then, nanoparticles were purified and dried. The resulting nanoparticles displayed a size of 200 nm with a negative zeta potential and a payload of about 32 μg/mg. Release studies showed a zero-order kinetic, suggesting a mechanism based on erosion of the nanoparticle matrix. For the pharmacokinetic study, quercetin was orally administered to rats as a single dose of 25 mg/kg. Animals treated with quercetin-loaded casein nanoparticles displayed higher plasma levels than those observed in animals receiving the solution of the flavonoid (control). Thus, the relative oral bioavailability of quercetin when administered as casein nanoparticles (close to 37%) was found to be about 9-times higher than the oral solution of the flavonoid in a mixture of PEG 400 and water. In summary, the combination of casein and 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin produces nanoparticles that may be a good option to load quercetin for both nutraceutical and pharmaceutical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Peñalva
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - Irene Esparza
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - Jorge Morales-Gracia
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - Carlos J González-Navarro
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - Eneko Larrañeta
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain
| | - Juan M Irache
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology, NANO-VAC Research Group, University of Navarra, Spain.
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7
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Shelley H, Babu RJ. Role of Cyclodextrins in Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems. J Pharm Sci 2018; 107:1741-1753. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Adeoye O, Cabral-Marques H. Cyclodextrin nanosystems in oral drug delivery: A mini review. Int J Pharm 2017; 531:521-531. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Abstract
The increasing number of new chemical entities is bringing new challenges to the field of drug delivery. These drugs present bioavailability issues that are frequently associated with intestinal metabolism or efflux mechanisms. Some excipients, particularly surfactants, have demonstrated a capacity to interfere with these mechanisms, improving drug bioavailability. Consequently, these excipients can no longer be considered as inert and should be subject to special considerations from a regulatory perspective. In the present manuscript, the state-of-the-art research related to these abilities of excipients to interfere with intestinal metabolism and efflux mechanisms are presented and discussed. Here, a biopharmaceutical classification system of excipients is proposed for the first time as a tool in the development of new products and for regulatory purposes.
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Penalva R, González-Navarro CJ, Gamazo C, Esparza I, Irache JM. Zein nanoparticles for oral delivery of quercetin: Pharmacokinetic studies and preventive anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse model of endotoxemia. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 2017; 13:103-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2016.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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11
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Moreno LCGEI, Puerta E, Suárez-Santiago JE, Santos-Magalhães NS, Ramirez MJ, Irache JM. Effect of the oral administration of nanoencapsulated quercetin on a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Int J Pharm 2016; 517:50-57. [PMID: 27915007 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.11.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Quercetin has been identified as a promising compound with a neuroprotective potential against age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nevertheless, the clinical application of quercetin is hampered by its low oral bioavailability. The aim of this work was to evaluate the capability of nanoencapsulated quercetin in zein nanoparticles (NPQ), that significantly improves the oral absorption and bioavailability of the flavonoid, as potential oral treatment for AD. For this purpose, SAMP8 mice were orally treated for two months with either NPQ (25mg/kg every 48h) or a solution of quercetin (Q; 25mg/kg daily). NPQ displayed a size of 260nm and a payload of about 70μg/mg. For Q, no significant effects were observed in animals. On the contrary, the oral administration of NPQ improved the cognition and memory impairments characteristics of SAMP8 mice. These observations appeared to be related with a decreased expression of the hippocampal astrocyte marker GFAP. Furthermore, significant levels of quercetin were quantified in the brain of mice treated with nanoparticles. These findings highlight the potential of zein nanoparticles to promote the oral absorption of quercetin as well as the therapeutic potential of this flavonoid in AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Clara Gayoso E Ibiapina Moreno
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Immunopathology Keizo-Asami Laboratory, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Elena Puerta
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | | | | | - Maria J Ramirez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Juan M Irache
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
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12
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Huarte J, Espuelas S, Lai Y, He B, Tang J, Irache JM. Oral delivery of camptothecin using cyclodextrin/poly(anhydride) nanoparticles. Int J Pharm 2016; 506:116-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Abstract
20S-Hydroxyvitamin D3 [20(OH)D3] is the biologically active major product of the action of CYP11A1 on vitamin D3 and is present in human plasma. 20(OH)D3 displays similar therapeutic properties to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3], but without causing hypercalcaemia and therefore has potential for development as a therapeutic drug. CYP24A1, the kidney mitochondrial P450 involved in inactivation of 1,25(OH)2D3, can hydroxylate 20(OH)D3 at C24 and C25, with the products displaying more potent inhibition of melanoma cell proliferation than 20(OH)D3. CYP3A4 is the major drug-metabolising P450 in liver endoplasmic reticulum and can metabolise other active forms of vitamin D, so we examined its ability to metabolise 20(OH)D3. We found that CYP3A4 metabolises 20(OH)D3 to three major products, 20,24R-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [20,24R(OH)2D3], 20,24S-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [20,24S(OH)2D3] and 20,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [20,25(OH)2D3]. 20,24R(OH)2D3 and 20,24S(OH)2D3, but not 20,25(OH)2D3, were further metabolised to trihydroxyvitamin D3 products by CYP3A4 but with low catalytic efficiency. The same three primary products, 20,24R(OH)2D3, 20,24S(OH)2D3 and 20,25(OH)2D3, were observed for the metabolism of 20(OH)D3 by human liver microsomes, in which CYP3A4 is a major CYP isoform present. Addition of CYP3A family-specific inhibitors, troleandomycin and azamulin, almost completely inhibited production of 20,24R(OH)2D3, 20,24S(OH)2D3 and 20,25(OH)2D3 by human liver microsomes, further supporting that CYP3A4 plays the major role in 20(OH)D3 metabolism by microsomes. Since both 20,24R(OH)2D3 and 20,25(OH)2D3 have previously been shown to display enhanced biological activity in inhibiting melanoma cell proliferation, our results show that CYP3A4 further activates, rather than inactivates, 20(OH)D3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Y S Cheng
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, USA; VA Medical Center, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Robert C Tuckey
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
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Gidwani B, Vyas A. A Comprehensive Review on Cyclodextrin-Based Carriers for Delivery of Chemotherapeutic Cytotoxic Anticancer Drugs. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015:198268. [PMID: 26582104 PMCID: PMC4637021 DOI: 10.1155/2015/198268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Most of the cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents have poor aqueous solubility. These molecules are associated with poor physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties, which makes the formulation difficult. An important approach in this regard is the use of combination of cyclodextrin and nanotechnology in delivery system. This paper provides an overview of limitations associated with anticancer drugs, their complexation with cyclodextrins, loading/encapsulating the complexed drugs into carriers, and various approaches used for the delivery. The present review article aims to assess the utility of cyclodextrin-based carriers like liposomes, niosomes, nanoparticles, micelles, millirods, and siRNA for delivery of antineoplastic agents. These systems based on cyclodextrin complexation and nanotechnology will camouflage the undesirable properties of drug and lead to synergistic or additive effect. Cyclodextrin-based nanotechnology seems to provide better therapeutic effect and sustain long life of healthy and recovered cells. Still, considerable study on delivery system and administration routes of cyclodextrin-based carriers is necessary with respect to their pharmacokinetics and toxicology to substantiate their safety and efficiency. In future, it would be possible to resolve the conventional and current issues associated with the development and commercialization of antineoplastic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bina Gidwani
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur 492010, India
| | - Amber Vyas
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur 492010, India
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15
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Calleja P, Espuelas S, Vauthier C, Ponchel G, Irache JM. Controlled Release, Intestinal Transport, and Oral Bioavailablity of Paclitaxel Can be Considerably Increased Using Suitably Tailored Pegylated Poly(Anhydride) Nanoparticles. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:2877-86. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Zhang D, Pan X, Wang S, Zhai Y, Guan J, Fu Q, Hao X, Qi W, Wang Y, Lian H, Liu X, Wang Y, Sun Y, He Z, Sun J. Multifunctional Poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride)-graft-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin Amphiphilic Copolymer as an Oral High-Performance Delivery Carrier of Tacrolimus. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:2337-51. [PMID: 26024817 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In order to improve oral bioavailability of tacrolimus (FK506), a novel poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride)-graft-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin amphiphilic copolymer (CD-PVM/MA) is developed, combining the bioadhesiveness of PVM/MA, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and cytochrome P450-inhibitory effect of CD into one. The FK506-loaded nanoparticles (CD-PVM/MA-NPs) were obtained by solvent evaporation method. The physiochemical properties and intestinal absorption mechanism of FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs were characterized, and the pharmacokinetic behavior was investigated in rats. FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs exhibited nanometer-sized particles of 273.7 nm, with encapsulation efficiency as high as 73.3%. FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs maintained structural stability in the simulated gastric fluid, and about 80% FK506 was released within 24 h in the simulated intestinal fluid. The permeability of FK506 was improved dramatically by CD-PVM/MA-NPs compared to its solution, probably due to the synergistic inhibition effect of P-gp and cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). The intestinal biodistribution of fluorescence-labeled CD-PVM/MA-NPs confirmed its good bioadhesion to the rat intestinal wall. Two endocytosis pathways, clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis, were involved in the cellular uptake of CD-PVM/MA-NPs. The important role of lymphatic transport in nanoparticles' access to the systemic circulation, about half of the contribution to oral bioavailability, was observed in mesenteric lymph duct ligated rats. The AUC0-24 of FK506 loaded in nanoparticles was enhanced up to 20-fold compared to FK506 solutions after oral administration. The present study suggested that the novel multifunctional CD-PVM/MA is a promising efficient oral delivery carrier for FK506, due to its ability in solubilization, inhibitory effects on both P-gp and CYP 3A, high bioadhesion, and sustained release capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Zhang
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Xiaolei Pan
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China.,‡Department of Pharmaceutics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2526, United States
| | - Shang Wang
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yinglei Zhai
- ∥School of Medical Devices, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Jibin Guan
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Qiang Fu
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Xiaoli Hao
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Wanpeng Qi
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yingli Wang
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - He Lian
- ∥School of Medical Devices, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Xiaohong Liu
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yongjun Wang
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yinghua Sun
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Zhonggui He
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Jin Sun
- †Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China.,⊥Municipal Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
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Sjögren E, Abrahamsson B, Augustijns P, Becker D, Bolger MB, Brewster M, Brouwers J, Flanagan T, Harwood M, Heinen C, Holm R, Juretschke HP, Kubbinga M, Lindahl A, Lukacova V, Münster U, Neuhoff S, Nguyen MA, Peer AV, Reppas C, Hodjegan AR, Tannergren C, Weitschies W, Wilson C, Zane P, Lennernäs H, Langguth P. In vivo methods for drug absorption – Comparative physiologies, model selection, correlations with in vitro methods (IVIVC), and applications for formulation/API/excipient characterization including food effects. Eur J Pharm Sci 2014; 57:99-151. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bézière N, Hardy M, Poulhès F, Karoui H, Tordo P, Ouari O, Frapart YM, Rockenbauer A, Boucher JL, Mansuy D, Peyrot F. Metabolic stability of superoxide adducts derived from newly developed cyclic nitrone spin traps. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 67:150-8. [PMID: 24161442 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.10.812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species are by-products of aerobic metabolism involved in the onset and evolution of various pathological conditions. Among them, the superoxide radical is of special interest as the origin of several damaging species such as H2O2, hydroxyl radical, or peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)). Spin trapping coupled with ESR is a method of choice to characterize these species in chemical and biological systems and the metabolic stability of the spin adducts derived from reaction of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals with nitrones is the main limit to the in vivo application of the method. Recently, new cyclic nitrones bearing a triphenylphosphonium or permethylated β-cyclodextrin moiety have been synthesized and their spin adducts demonstrated increased stability in buffer. In this article, we studied the stability of the superoxide adducts of four new cyclic nitrones in the presence of liver subcellular fractions and biologically relevant reductants using an original setup combining a stopped-flow device and an ESR spectrometer. The kinetics of disappearance of the spin adducts were analyzed using an appropriate simulation program. Our results highlight the interest of the new spin trapping agents CD-DEPMPO and CD-DIPPMPO for specific detection of superoxide with high stability of the superoxide adducts in the presence of liver microsomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Bézière
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques (UMR CNRS 8601), Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Micael Hardy
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Florent Poulhès
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Hakim Karoui
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Paul Tordo
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Olivier Ouari
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Yves-Michel Frapart
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques (UMR CNRS 8601), Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Antal Rockenbauer
- Institute of Molecular Pharmacology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jean-Luc Boucher
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques (UMR CNRS 8601), Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Daniel Mansuy
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques (UMR CNRS 8601), Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Fabienne Peyrot
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques (UMR CNRS 8601), Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France; IUFM de Paris, Université Paris Sorbonne, 75016 Paris, France.
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Calleja P, Espuelas S, Corrales L, Pio R, Irache JM. Pharmacokinetics and antitumor efficacy of paclitaxel-cyclodextrin complexes loaded in mucus-penetrating nanoparticles for oral administration. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2014; 9:2109-21. [PMID: 24471503 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.13.199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM The authors report a novel approach for enhancing the oral absorption of paclitaxel (PTX) by encapsulation in poly(anhydride) nanoparticles (NPs) containing cyclodextrins and poly(ethylene glycol). MATERIALS & METHODS Formulations were prepared using the solvent displacement method. Subsequently, pharmacokinetics and organ distribution assays were evaluated after oral administration into C57BL/6J mice. In addition, antitumor efficacy studies were performed in a subcutaneous tumor model of Lewis lung carcinoma. RESULTS PTX-loaded NPs displayed sizes between 190-300 nm. Oral NPs achieved drug plasma levels for at least 24 h, with an oral bioavailability of 55-80%. Organ distribution studies revealed that PTX, orally administered in NPs, underwent a similar distribution to intravenous Taxol(®) (Bristol-Myers Squibb, NJ, USA). For in vivo antitumor assays, oral strategy maintained a slower tumor growth than intravenous Taxol. CONCLUSION PTX orally administered in poly(anhydride) NPs, combined with cyclodextrins and poly(ethylene glycol), displayed sustained plasma levels and significant antitumor effect in a syngenic tumor model of carcinoma in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Calleja
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, University of Navarra, Calle de Irunlarrea, 1, 31080, Pamplona, Spain
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Huang P, Yang C, Liu J, Wang W, Guo S, Li J, Sun Y, Dong H, Deng L, Zhang J, Liu J, Dong A. Improving the oral delivery efficiency of anticancer drugs by chitosan coated polycaprolactone-grafted hyaluronic acid nanoparticles. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:4021-4033. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb00273c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Stuurman FE, Nuijen B, Beijnen JH, Schellens JHM. Oral anticancer drugs: mechanisms of low bioavailability and strategies for improvement. Clin Pharmacokinet 2013; 52:399-414. [PMID: 23420518 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-013-0040-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The use of oral anticancer drugs has increased during the last decade, because of patient preference, lower costs, proven efficacy, lack of infusion-related inconveniences, and the opportunity to develop chronic treatment regimens. Oral administration of anticancer drugs is, however, often hampered by limited bioavailability of the drug, which is associated with a wide variability. Since most anticancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic window and are dosed at or close to the maximum tolerated dose, a wide variability in the bioavailability can have a negative impact on treatment outcome. This review discusses mechanisms of low bioavailability of oral anticancer drugs and strategies for improvement. The extent of oral bioavailability depends on many factors, including release of the drug from the pharmaceutical dosage form, a drug's stability in the gastrointestinal tract, factors affecting dissolution, the rate of passage through the gut wall, and the pre-systemic metabolism in the gut wall and liver. These factors are divided into pharmaceutical limitations, physiological endogenous limitations, and patient-specific limitations. There are several strategies to reduce or overcome these limitations. First, pharmaceutical adjustment of the formulation or the physicochemical characteristics of the drug can improve the dissolution rate and absorption. Second, pharmacological interventions by combining the drug with inhibitors of transporter proteins and/or pre-systemic metabolizing enzymes can overcome the physiological endogenous limitations. Third, chemical modification of a drug by synthesis of a derivative, salt form, or prodrug could enhance the bioavailability by improving the absorption and bypassing physiological endogenous limitations. Although the bioavailability can be enhanced by various strategies, the development of novel oral products with low solubility or cell membrane permeability remains cumbersome and is often unsuccessful. The main reasons are unacceptable variation in the bioavailability and high investment costs. Furthermore, novel oral anticancer drugs are frequently associated with toxic effects including unacceptable gastrointestinal adverse effects. Therefore, compliance is often suboptimal, which may negatively influence treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik E Stuurman
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Mei L, Zhang Z, Zhao L, Huang L, Yang XL, Tang J, Feng SS. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology for oral delivery of anticancer drugs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:880-90. [PMID: 23220325 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2012] [Revised: 10/28/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Oral chemotherapy is an important topic in the 21st century medicine, which may radically change the current regimen of chemotherapy and greatly improve the quality of life of the patients. Unfortunately, most anticancer drugs, especially those of high therapeutic efficacy such as paclitaxel and docetaxel, are not orally bioavailable due to the gastrointestinal (GI) drug barrier. The molecular basis of the GI barrier has been found mainly due to the multidrug efflux proteins, i.e. P-type glycoproteins (P-gp), which are rich in the epithelial cell membranes in the GI tract. Medical solution for oral chemotherapy is to apply P-gp inhibitors such as cyclosporine A, which, however, suppress the body's immune system either, thus causing medical complication. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology, which is to apply and further develop nanotechnology to solve the problems in drug delivery, may provide a better solution and thus change the way we make drug and the way we take drug. This review is focused on the problems encountered in oral chemotherapy and the pharmaceutical nanotechnology solutions such as prodrugs, nanoemulsions, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanoparticles of biodegradable polymers. Proof-of-concept in vitro and in vivo results for oral delivery of anticancer drugs by the various nanocarriers, which can be found so far from the literature, are provided.
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Williams HD, Trevaskis NL, Charman SA, Shanker RM, Charman WN, Pouton CW, Porter CJH. Strategies to address low drug solubility in discovery and development. Pharmacol Rev 2013; 65:315-499. [PMID: 23383426 DOI: 10.1124/pr.112.005660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 968] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs with low water solubility are predisposed to low and variable oral bioavailability and, therefore, to variability in clinical response. Despite significant efforts to "design in" acceptable developability properties (including aqueous solubility) during lead optimization, approximately 40% of currently marketed compounds and most current drug development candidates remain poorly water-soluble. The fact that so many drug candidates of this type are advanced into development and clinical assessment is testament to an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the approaches that can be taken to promote apparent solubility in the gastrointestinal tract and to support drug exposure after oral administration. Here we provide a detailed commentary on the major challenges to the progression of a poorly water-soluble lead or development candidate and review the approaches and strategies that can be taken to facilitate compound progression. In particular, we address the fundamental principles that underpin the use of strategies, including pH adjustment and salt-form selection, polymorphs, cocrystals, cosolvents, surfactants, cyclodextrins, particle size reduction, amorphous solid dispersions, and lipid-based formulations. In each case, the theoretical basis for utility is described along with a detailed review of recent advances in the field. The article provides an integrated and contemporary discussion of current approaches to solubility and dissolution enhancement but has been deliberately structured as a series of stand-alone sections to allow also directed access to a specific technology (e.g., solid dispersions, lipid-based formulations, or salt forms) where required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hywel D Williams
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Bhattacharya P, Saha A. Evaluation of reversible contraceptive potential of Cordia dichotoma leaves extract. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 2013. [DOI: 10.1590/s0102-695x2013005000020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Calleja P, Huarte J, Agüeros M, Ruiz-gatón L, Espuelas S, Irache JM. Molecular buckets: cyclodextrins for oral cancer therapy. Ther Deliv 2012; 3:43-57. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.11.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The oral route is preferred by patients for drug administration due to its convenience, resulting in improved compliance. Unfortunately, for a number of drugs (e.g., anticancer drugs), this route of administration remains a challenge. Oral chemotherapy may be an attractive option and especially appropriate for chronic treatment of cancer. However, this route of administration is particularly complicated for the administration of anticancer drugs ascribed to Class IV of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System. This group of compounds is characterized by low aqueous solubility and low intestinal permeability. This review focuses on the use of cyclodextrins alone or in combination with bioadhesive nanoparticles for oral delivery of drugs. The state-of-the-art technology and challenges in this area is also discussed.
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Agüeros M, Espuelas S, Esparza I, Calleja P, Peñuelas I, Ponchel G, Irache JM. Cyclodextrin-poly(anhydride) nanoparticles as new vehicles for oral drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2011; 8:721-34. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2011.572069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Agüeros M, Ruiz-Gatón L, Vauthier C, Bouchemal K, Espuelas S, Ponchel G, Irache J. Combined hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and poly(anhydride) nanoparticles improve the oral permeability of paclitaxel. Eur J Pharm Sci 2009; 38:405-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2009.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2009] [Revised: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 09/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Many new chemical entities are poorly soluble, requiring the use of co-solvents or excipients to produce suitable intravenous formulations for early pre-clinical development studies. There is some evidence in the literature that these formulation components can have significant physiological and physicochemical effects which may alter the distribution and elimination of co-administered drugs. Such effects have the potential to influence the results of pre-clinical pharmacokinetic studies, giving a false impression of a compound's intrinsic pharmacokinetics and frustrating attempts to predict the drug's ultimate clinical pharmacokinetics. This review describes the reported effects of commonly used co-solvents and excipients on drug pharmacokinetics and on physiological systems which are likely to influence drug disposition. Such information will be useful in study design and evaluating data from pharmacokinetic experiments, so that the potential influence of formulation components can be minimised.
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