Oxidation-reduction reactions of metal ions

Genetic response analysis of Beauveria bassiana Z1 under high concentration Cd(II) stress

Cadmium (Cd(II)) has carcinogenic and teratogenic toxicity, which can be accumulated in the human body through the food chain, endangering human health and life. In this study, a highly Cd(II)-tolerant fungus named Beauveria bassiana Z1 was studied, and its Cd(Ⅱ) removal efficiency was 71.2% when the Cd(II) concentration was 10 mM. Through bioanalysis and experimental verification of the transcriptome data, it was found that cadmium entered the cells through calcium ion channels, and then complexed with intracellular glutathione (GSH) and stored in vacuoles or excluded extracellular by ABC transporters. Cytochrome P450 was significantly upregulated in many pathways and actively participated in detoxification related reactions. The addition of cytochrome inhibitor taxifolin reduced the removal efficiency of Cd(II) by 45%. In the analysis, it demonstrated that ACOX1 gene and OPR gene of jasmonic acid (JA) synthesis pathway were significantly up-regulated, and were correlated with bZIP family transcription factors cpc-1_0 and pa p1_0. The results showed that exogenous JA could improve the removal efficiency of Cd(II) by strain Z1.

Ferroptosis As a Mechanism for Health Effects of Essential Trace Elements and Potentially Toxic Trace Elements

Ferroptosis is a unique form of programmed cell death driven by iron-dependent phospholipid peroxidation that was proposed in recent years. It plays an important role in processes of various trace element-related diseases and is regulated by redox homeostasis and various cellular metabolic pathways (iron, amino acids, lipids, sugars), as well as disease-related signaling pathways. Some limited pioneering studies have demonstrated ferroptosis as a mechanism for the health effects of essential trace elements and potentially toxic trace elements, with crosstalk among them. The aim of this review is to bring together research articles and identify key direct and indirect evidence regarding essential trace elements (iron, selenium, zinc, copper, chromium, manganese) and potentially toxic trace elements (arsenic, aluminum, mercury) and their possible roles in ferroptosis. Our review may help determine future research priorities and opportunities.

In vitro effect of ferrous sulphate on bovine spermatozoa motility parameters, viability and Annexin V-labeled membrane changes

The aim of this study was to assess the dose- and time-dependent in vitro effects of ferrous sulphate (FeSO₄.7H₂O) on the motility parameters, viability, structural and functional activity of bovine spermatozoa. Spermatozoa motility parameters were determined after exposure to concentrations (3.90, 7.80, 15.60, 31.20, 62.50, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 μM) of FeSO₄.7H₂O using the SpermVision^TM CASA (Computer Assisted Semen Analyzer) system in different time periods. Cell viability was assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, and the Annexin V-Fluos was applied to detect the membrane integrity of spermatozoa. The initial spermatozoa motility showed increased average values at all experimental concentrations compared to the control group (culture medium without FeSO₄.7H₂O). After 2 h, FeSO₄.7H₂O stimulated the overall percentage of spermatozoa motility at the concentrations of ≤ 125 μM. However, experimental administration of 250 μM of FeSO₄.7H₂O significantly (P < 0.001) decreased the spermatozoa motility but had no negative effect on the cell viability (P < 0.05) (Time 2 h). The lowest viability was noted after the addition of ≥ 500 μM of FeSO₄.7H₂O (P < 0.001). The concentrations of ≤ 62.50 μM of FeSO₄.7H₂O markedly stimulated (P < 0.001) spermatozoa activity after 24 h of exposure, while at high concentrations of ≥ 500 μM of FeSO₄.7H₂O the overall percentage of spermatozoa motility was significantly inhibited (P < 0.001) and it elicited cytotoxic action. Fluorescence analysis confirmed that spermatozoa incubated with higher concentrations (≥ 500 μM) of FeSO₄.7H₂O displayed apoptotic changes, as detected in head membrane (acrosomal part) and mitochondrial portion of spermatozoa. Moreover, the highest concentration and the longest time of exposure (1000 μM of FeSO₄.7H₂O; Time 6 h) induced even necrotic alterations to spermatozoa. These results suggest that high concentrations of FeSO₄.7H₂O are able to induce toxic effects on the structure and function of spermatozoa, while low concentrations may have the positive effect on the fertilization potential of spermatozoa.

Pathological and Clinical Pathological Changes Induced by Four-week, Repeated-dose, Oral Administration of the Wood Preservative Chromated Copper Arsenate in Wistar Rats

Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is used as a wood preservative worldwide. Exposure to it may adversely affect human health. Some events have increased human exposure to CCA, including the Great East Japan Earthquake, which generated a large amount of lumber debris from CCA-treated woods. We elucidated the toxicity due to daily exposure to CCA over a 4-week period at doses of 0, 8, 40, and 80 mg/kg/day in Wistar Hannover rats. Chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), but not copper, were detected in the plasma samples of rats treated with various doses of CCA. Males and females showed sedation, and males had poor body weight gain. The clinical pathologies observed in both sexes included hypochromic and microcytic anemia, hepatic and renal dysfunction, and changes in lipid and glucose levels. Histopathologically, males and females showed forestomach hyperkeratosis, mucosal epithelial hyperplasia in the small intestine, rectal goblet cell hypertrophy, and lipofuscin deposition in the proximal renal tubule. Females showed diffuse hepatocellular hypertrophy with increased 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels. These results indicated that oral administration of CCA mainly affected hematopoietic, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and renal systems owing to the toxic effects of As and/or Cr. Major toxic effects were observed in both sexes receiving 40 and 80 mg/kg/day.

Rat liver antioxidant response to iron and copper overloads

The rat liver antioxidant response to Fe and Cu overloads (0-60mg/kg) was studied. Dose- and time-responses were determined and summarized by t1/2 and C50, the time and the liver metal content for half maximal oxidative responses. Liver GSH (reduced glutathione) and GSSG (glutathione disulfide) were determined. The GSH content and the GSH/GSSG ratio markedly decreased after Fe (58-66%) and Cu (79-81%) loads, with t1/2 of 4.0 and 2.0h. The C50 were in a similar range for all the indicators (110-124μgFe/g and 40-50μgCu/g) and suggest a unique free-radical mediated process. Hydrophilic antioxidants markedly decreased after Fe and Cu (60-75%; t1/2: 4.5 and 4.0h). Lipophilic antioxidants were also decreased (30-92%; t1/2: 7.0 and 5.5h) after Fe and Cu. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (Cu,Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD) and protein expression were adaptively increased after metal overloads (Cu,Zn-SOD: t1/2: 8-8.5h and Mn-SOD: t1/2: 8.5-8.0h). Catalase activity was increased after Fe (65%; t1/2: 8.5h) and decreased after Cu (26%; t1/2: 8.0h), whereas catalase expression was increased after Fe and decreased after Cu overloads. Glutathione peroxidase activity decreased after metal loads by 22-39% with a t1/2 of 4.5h and with unchanged protein expression. GSH is the main and fastest responder antioxidant in Fe and Cu overloads. The results indicate that thiol (SH) content and antioxidant enzyme activities are central to the antioxidant defense in the oxidative stress and damage after Fe and Cu overloads.

Brain antioxidant responses to acute iron and copper intoxications in rats

The response of brain antioxidant system to the oxidative stress following Fe and Cu overloads involves: antioxidant consumption and an adaptive increase in antioxidant enzyme activities and protein expression.

SSH gene expression profile of Eisenia andrei exposed in situ to a naturally contaminated soil from an abandoned uranium mine

The effects of the exposure of earthworms (Eisenia andrei) to contaminated soil from an abandoned uranium mine, were assessed through gene expression profile evaluation by Suppression Subtractive Hybridization (SSH). Organisms were exposed in situ for 56 days, in containers placed both in a contaminated and in a non-contaminated site (reference). Organisms were sampled after 14 and 56 days of exposure. Results showed that the main physiological functions affected by the exposure to metals and radionuclides were: metabolism, oxireductase activity, redox homeostasis and response to chemical stimulus and stress. The relative expression of NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 and elongation factor 1 alpha was also affected, since the genes encoding these enzymes were significantly up and down-regulated, after 14 and 56 days of exposure, respectively. Also, an EST with homology for SET oncogene was found to be up-regulated. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that this gene was identified in earthworms and thus, further studies are required, to clarify its involvement in the toxicity of metals and radionuclides. Considering the results herein presented, gene expression profiling proved to be a very useful tool to detect earthworms underlying responses to metals and radionuclides exposure, pointing out for the detection and development of potential new biomarkers.

The acute toxicity of iron and copper: biomolecule oxidation and oxidative damage in rat liver

The transition metals iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) are needed at low levels for normal health and at higher levels they become toxic for humans and animals. The acute liver toxicity of Fe and Cu was studied in Sprague Dawley male rats (200 g) that received ip 0-60 mg/kg FeCl(2) or 0-30 mg/kg CuSO(4). Dose and time-responses were determined for spontaneous in situ liver chemiluminescence, phospholipid lipoperoxidation, protein oxidation and lipid soluble antioxidants. The doses linearly defined the tissue content of both metals. Liver chemiluminescence increased 4 times and 2 times after Fe and Cu overloads, with half maximal responses at contents (C(50%)) of 110 μgFe/g and 42 μgCu/g liver, and with half maximal time responses (t(1/2)) of 4h for both metals. Phospholipid peroxidation increased 4 and 1.8 times with C(50%) of 118 μg Fe/g and 45 μg Cu/g and with t(1/2) of 7h and 8h. Protein oxidation increased 1.6 times for Fe with C(50%) at 113 μg Fe/g and 1.2 times for Cu with 50 μg Cu/g and t(1/2) of 4h and 5h respectively. The accumulation of Fe and Cu in liver enhanced the rate of free radical reactions and produced oxidative damage. A similar free radical-mediated process, through the formation HO(•) and RO(•) by a Fenton-like homolytic scission of H(2)O(2) and ROOH, seems to operate as the chemical mechanism for the liver toxicity of both metals.

Effect of chromium on vertebrae, femur and calvaria of adult male rats

Alloys of chromium have a long history of success in the surgical treatment of many orthopaedic defects. Nonetheless, prostheses loosening are commonly found around arthoplasties due to corrosion of metals. On this basis, it is hypothesized that chromium accumulation interferes with remodeling of bone. The present study aims to analyse the toxic effects of chromium on bone phosphatases in various regions of the bone in rats. Rats were treated with chromium intraperitoneally (0.5 mg/kg) in the form of potassium dichromate for 5 days. The accumulation of chromium is approximately 5.2-fold in the vertebrae, 8.9-fold in the femur and 8.7-fold in the calvaria, when compared to control. Chromium administration significantly reduced the activity of enzymes, eg, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP). The study revealed a significant increase in the concentration of calcium, altered bone formation rate and bone morphology in the femur, vertebrae and calvaria. The interesting findings of the current study suggest altered bone turnover.

Iron and copper metabolism

Iron and copper are essential nutrients, excesses or deficiencies of which cause impaired cellular functions and eventually cell death. The metabolic fates of copper and iron are intimately related. Systemic copper deficiency generates cellular iron deficiency, which in humans results in diminished work capacity, reduced intellectual capacity, diminished growth, alterations in bone mineralization, and diminished immune response. Copper is required for the function of over 30 proteins, including superoxide dismutase, ceruloplasmin, lysyl oxidase, cytochrome c oxidase, tyrosinase and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. Iron is similarly required in numerous essential proteins, such as the heme-containing proteins, electron transport chain and microsomal electron transport proteins, and iron-sulfur proteins and enzymes such as ribonucleotide reductase, prolyl hydroxylase phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase and aconitase. The essentiality of iron and copper resides in their capacity to participate in one-electron exchange reactions. However, the same property that makes them essential also generates free radicals that can be seriously deleterious to cells. Thus, these seemingly paradoxical properties of iron and copper demand a concerted regulation of cellular copper and iron levels. Here we review the most salient characteristics of their homeostasis.

Chromium stress in plants

The article presents an overview of the mechanism of chromium stress in plants. Chromium is known to be a toxic metal that can cause severe damage to plants and animals. Chromium-induced oxidative stress involves induction of lipid peroxidation in plants that causes severe damage to cell membranes. Oxidative stress induced by chromium initiates the degradation of photosynthetic pigments causing decline in growth. High chromium concentration can disturb the chloroplast ultrastructure thereby disturbing the photosynthetic process. Like copper and iron, chromium is also a redox metal and its redox behaviour exceeds that of other metals like Co, Fe, Zn, Ni, etc. The redox behaviour can thus be attributed to the direct involvement of chromium in inducing oxidative stress in plants. Chromium can affect antioxidant metabolism in plants. Antioxidant enzymes like SOD, CAT, POX and GR are found to be susceptible to chromium resulting in a decline in their catalytic activities. This decline in antioxidant efficiency is an important factor in generating oxidative stress in plants under chromium stress. However, both metallothioneins and organic acids are important in plants as components of tolerance mechanisms and are also involved in detoxification of this toxic metal.

Evaluation of the genotoxic, mutagenic and oxidant stress potentials of municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash leachates

Triplicate aqueous leachates of a municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (MSWIBA) were produced according to a European standardised method. Leachates analysis showed relatively low concentrations (less than 1 mg.l(-1)) for four metals (iron, cadmium, lead and copper). No mutagenic activity was revealed after performing the Salmonella/microsome assay with and without microsomal activation. With the Vicia root tip micronucleus assay, a significant increase in micronucleated cells was observed between 3.4% and 100% leachate concentration. Significant and elevated antioxidant stress enzyme activities, e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (PER) and glutathione reductase (GR), were detected in Vicia root tissues even at the lowest tested leachate concentration (i.e., 0.3%), whereas this was not always the case in leaf tissues, which showed tissue specificity for the tested enzymes. At the lowest concentration (i.e., 0.3%), a higher increase was observed (respectively 197% and 45% compared to the control) for root glutathione reductase and peroxidase activities over those of other enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase). Our results suggest that MSWIBA aqueous leachates need to be formally tested with genotoxic sensitive tests before recycling and support the hypothesis that plant genotoxicity is related to the cellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Reduction and precipitation of chromate by mixed culture sulphate-reducing bacterial biofilms

The ability of sulphate-reducing bacterial biofilms to reduce hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) to insoluble Cr(III), a process of environmental and biotechnological significance, was investigated. The reduction of chromate to insoluble form has been quantified and the effects of chromate on the carbon source utilization and sulphate-reducing activity of the bacterial biofilms evaluated. Using lactate as the carbon/energy source and in the presence of sulphate, reduction of 500 micromol l-1 Cr(VI) was monitored over a 48-h period where 88% of the total chromium was removed from solution. Mass balance calculations showed that ca 80% of the total chromium was precipitated out of solution with the bacterial biofilm retaining less than 10% of the chromium. Only ca 12% of the chromate added was not reduced to insoluble form. Although Cr(VI) did not have a significant effect on C source utilization, sulphate reduction was severely inhibited by 500 micromol-1 Cr(VI) and only ca 10% of the sulphate reducing activity detected in control biofilms occurred in the presence of Cr(VI). Low levels of sulphide were also produced in the presence of chromate, with control biofilms producing over 10-times more sulphide than Cr(VI)-exposed biofilms. Sulphide- or other chemically-mediated Cr(VI) reduction was not detected. The biological mechanism of Cr(VI) reduction is likely to be similar to that found in other sulphate-reducing bacteria.

Reduction and coordination of arsenic in Indian mustard

The bioaccumulation of arsenic by plants may provide a means of removing this element from contaminated soils and waters. However, to optimize this process it is important to understand the biological mechanisms involved. Using a combination of techniques, including x-ray absorption spectroscopy, we have established the biochemical fate of arsenic taken up by Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). After arsenate uptake by the roots, possibly via the phosphate transport mechanism, a small fraction is exported to the shoot via the xylem as the oxyanions arsenate and arsenite. Once in the shoot, the arsenic is stored as an As(III)-tris-thiolate complex. The majority of the arsenic remains in the roots as an As(III)-tris-thiolate complex, which is indistinguishable from that found in the shoots and from As(III)-tris-glutathione. The thiolate donors are thus probably either glutathione or phytochelatins. The addition of the dithiol arsenic chelator dimercaptosuccinate to the hydroponic culture medium caused a 5-fold-increased arsenic level in the leaves, although the total arsenic accumulation was only marginally increased. This suggests that the addition of dimercaptosuccinate to arsenic-contaminated soils may provide a way to promote arsenic bioaccumulation in plant shoots, a process that will be essential for the development of an efficient phytoremediation strategy for this element.

Evaluation of nickel-zinc interactions by means of bioassays with amphibian embryos

The nickel hazard was evaluated by means of a 7-day toxicity test with Bufo arenarum embryos. The LC(50) values for this metal from 24 to 168 h diminished from about 26 to 1.8 mg Ni(2+)/L, respectively, but from 96 h onward, the LC(50) varied very slightly. Although a noticeable difference among the LC(50) and LC(10) or LC(90) was observed at 24 h of exposure, these parameters tended to a similar value at 168 h of exposure while the confidence intervals of LC(50) overlapped all other confidence interval values. These results, plotted as toxicity profile curves, are useful for determining time and concentration thresholds for Ni. Nickel-zinc interactions on B. arenarum embryos were evaluated by means of simultaneous treatments with both cations (Ni: 5-35 mg Ni(2+)/L; Zn: 0.5-130 mg Zn(2+)/L). As a general pattern, low Zn concentrations (0.5 mg Zn(2+)/L) did not have a clear-cut effect on Ni toxicity, higher Zn concentrations (2-20 mg Zn(2+)/L) enhanced Ni toxicity, and concentrations of 30 mg Zn(2+)/L and higher had a beneficial effect in most cases. The metal interaction studies provide a scientific basis for the establishment of water quality criteria for wildlife protection purposes.

Are metals dietary carcinogens?

Humans have been in contact with metals almost since the beginning of our existence. In fact, one cannot even think on human evolution without considering the great role played by metals in mankind's development. Metals are common moieties of molecules involved in a wide variety of biological processes, and hence are found in virtually all living organisms. Some metals are essential for human nutrition; others are found as contaminants in foodstuffs. One feature of the normal human diet which is frequently found is the simultaneous presence of both essential and toxic metals. Other factors important in the risk-evaluation analysis of metals are their pharmacokinetics, interactions among them and with other major components of the diet, and, especially, the great differences in the dietary habits of different populations and in the regional distribution of metals. In attempting to understand the role which dietary metals could play in human carcinogenesis, we found that the many factors involved and the lack of specific information made it difficult to reach firm conclusions on the hazards of dietary metals. We hope that this paper will raise the interest of genetic toxicologists in the subject and will consequently facilitate a risk analysis of the carcinogenic potential of dietary metals.

Copper toxicity and copper-zinc interactions in amphibian embryos

The copper hazard was evaluated by means of a 7-day toxicity test with Bufo arenarum embryos. The LC50 and LC10 values from 24 to 168 h of exposure were approx. 0.085 and 0.05 mg Cu2+/1, respectively, while the LC90 resulted in 0.155 mg Cu2+/1 but in this case from 96 h onwards the LC90 diminished up to approx. 0.105 mg Cu2+/1. These data plotted as Toxicity Profiles (TOP) provide a better understanding of concentration and time-dependent thresholds. For instance, exposure threshold occurs within the first 24 h of treatment while for concentration thresholds LC10 and LC90 seem to be more meaningful than LC50 because the S.D. of this last value is overlapping those of LC10 and LC90 for most of the exposure period evaluated. Toxicity data corresponds to a pH of 6.8 which is normal for the maintaining media. Combined treatments of copper and zinc point out a beneficial effect of zinc proportional to the zinc concentration in the maintaining media, e.g. 100% of protection was achieved with 30 mg Zn2+/1 for a copper concentration exerting 90% of mortality. The presence of Cu2+ did not enhance Zn2+ toxicity. The results are discussed in terms of water quality criteria for wildlife and human health protection purposes.