Anabolic and antiresorptive actions of locally delivered bisphosphonates for bone repair: A review

Integrating Micro- and Nanostructured Platforms and Biological Drugs to Enhance Biomaterial-Based Bone Regeneration Strategies

Bone defects resulting from congenital anomalies and trauma pose significant clinical challenges for orthopedics surgeries, where bone tissue engineering (BTE) aims to address these challenges by repairing defects that fail to heal spontaneously. Despite numerous advances, BTE still faces several challenges, i.e., difficulties in detecting and tracking implanted cells, high costs, and regulatory approval hurdles. Biomaterials promise to revolutionize bone grafting procedures, heralding a new era of regenerative medicine and advancing patient outcomes worldwide. Specifically, novel bioactive biomaterials have been developed that promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation and have osteoconductive and osteoinductive characteristics, stimulating tissue regeneration and repair, particularly in complex skeletal defects caused by trauma, degeneration, and neoplasia. A wide array of biological therapeutics for bone regeneration have emerged, drawing from the diverse spectrum of gene therapy, immune cell interactions, and RNA molecules. This review will provide insights into the current state and potential of future strategies for bone regeneration.

Exploring the In Vitro Effects of Zingerone on Differentiation and Signalling Pathways in Bone Cell Lines

OBJECTIVE

Ensuring adequate bone health is crucial for preventing conditions such as osteoporosis and fractures. Zingerone, a phytonutrient isolated from cooked ginger, has gained attention for its potential benefits in bone health. This study evaluated the osteoprotective potential of zingerone and its effects on differentiation and signalling pathways in vitro using SAOS-2 osteosarcoma and RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines, aiming to elucidate its mechanism of action in bone remodelling.

METHODS

SAOS-2 osteosarcoma and RAW264.7 macrophage cells were treated with zingerone at concentrations of 200 µM. Osteoblast differentiation was assessed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, bone mineralisation via Alizarin Red S stain, and gene expression markers (ALP, runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), and osteocalcin) via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR). Osteoclast differentiation was evaluated by tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining, TRAP activity, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways.

RESULTS

Treatment with zingerone was non-toxic at 200 µM. Zingerone (200 µM) significantly stimulated the gene expression of ALP and Runx2 in SAOS-2 cells (p < 0.05) without statistically significantly enhancing SAOS-2 mineralisation via calcium deposits. Moreover, zingerone significantly inhibited osteoclast differentiation in RAW264.7 cells as evidenced by reduced TRAP staining and activity (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Zingerone shows promise in reducing osteoclast activity and supporting early osteoblast differentiation, suggesting its potential as a dietary supplement for bone health. Further in vivo and clinical studies are needed to confirm its role in managing osteoporosis.

Systemically administered zoledronic acid activates locally implanted synthetic hydroxyapatite particles enhancing peri-implant bone formation: A regenerative medicine approach to improve fracture fixation

Fracture fixation in an ageing population is challenging and fixation failure increases mortality and societal costs. We report a novel fracture fixation treatment by applying a hydroxyapatite (HA) based biomaterial at the bone-implant interface and biologically activating the biomaterial by systemic administration of a bisphosphonate (zoledronic acid, ZA). We first used an animal model of implant integration and applied a calcium sulphate (CaS)/HA biomaterial around a metallic screw in the tibia of osteoporotic rats. Using systemic ZA administration at 2-weeks post-surgery, we demonstrated that the implant surrounded by HA particles showed significantly higher peri‑implant bone formation compared to the unaugmented implants at 6-weeks. We then evaluated the optimal timing (day 1, 3, 7 and 14) of ZA administration to achieve a robust effect on peri‑implant bone formation. Using fluorescent ZA, we demonstrated that the uptake of ZA in the CaS/HA material was the highest at 3- and 7-days post-implantation and the uptake kinetics had a profound effect on the eventual peri‑implant bone formation. We furthered our concept in a feasibility study on trochanteric fracture patients randomized to either CaS/HA augmentation or no augmentation followed by systemic ZA treatment. Radiographically, the CaS/HA group showed signs of increased peri‑implant bone formation compared with the controls. Finally, apart from HA, we demonstrated that the concept of biologically activating a ceramic material by ZA could also be applied to β-tricalcium phosphate. This novel approach for fracture treatment that enhances immediate and long-term fracture fixation in osteoporotic bone could potentially reduce reoperations, morbidity and mortality. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: • Fracture fixation in an ageing population is challenging. Biomaterial-based augmentation of fracture fixation devices has been attempted but lack of satisfactory biological response limits their widespread use. • We report the biological activation of locally implanted microparticulate hydroxyapatite (HA) particles placed around an implant by systemic administration of the bisphosphonate zoledronic acid (ZA). The biological activation of HA by ZA enhances peri‑implant bone formation. •Timing of ZA administration after HA implantation is critical for optimal ZA uptake and consequently determines the extent of peri‑implant bone formation. • We translate the developed concept from small animal models of implant integration to a proof-of-concept clinical study on osteoporotic trochanteric fracture patients. • ZA based biological activation can also be applied to other calcium phosphate biomaterials.

Organic-inorganic composite of polypropylene fumarate and nanohydroxyapatite as carrier of antibiotics for the treatment of bone infections

Current treatment approaches in clinics to treat the infectious lesions have partial success thus demanding the need for development of advanced treatment modalities. In this study we fabricated an organic-inorganic composite of polypropylene fumarate (PPF) and nanohydroxyapatite (nHAP) by photo-crosslinking as a carrier of two clinically used antibiotics, ciprofloxacin (CIP) and rifampicin (RFP) for the treatment of bone infections. Carboxy terminal-PPF was first synthesized by cis-trans isomerization of maleic anhydride which was then photo-crosslinked using diethylfumarate (DEF) as crosslinker and bis-acylphosphine oxide (BAPO) as photo-initiator under UV lights (P). A composite of PPF and nHAP was fabricated by incorporating 40 % of nHAP in the polymeric matrix of PPF (PH) which was then characterized for different physicochemical parameters. CIP was added along with nHAP to fabricated CIPloaded composite scaffolds (PHC) which was then coated with RFP to synthesize RFP coated CIP-loaded scaffolds (PHCR). It was observed that there was a temporal separation in the in vitro release of two antibiotics after coating PHC with RFP with 80.48 ± 0.40 % release of CIP from PHC and 62.43 ± 0.21 % release of CIP from PHCR for a period of 60 days. Moreover, in vitro protein adsorption was also found to be maximum in PHCR (154.95 ± 0.07 μg/mL) as observed in PHC (75.42 ± 0.06 μg/mL), PH (24.47 ± 0.08 μg/mL) and P alone (4.47 ± 0.02 μg/mL). The scaffolds were also evaluated using in vivo infection model to assess their capacity in reducing the bacterial burden at the infection site. The outcome of this study suggests that RFP coated CIP-loaded PPF composite scaffolds could reduce bacterial burden and simultaneously augment bone healing during infection related fractures.

Biofunctionalization with Cissus quadrangularis Phytobioactives Accentuates Nano-Hydroxyapatite Based Ceramic Nano-Cement for Neo-Bone Formation in Critical Sized Bone Defect

Developing biofunctionalized ceramic bone substitutes with phytobioactives for their sustained delivery is highly desired to enhance the osteo-active potential of ceramic bone substitutes, reduce the systemic toxicity of synthetic drugs, and increase the bioavailability of phytobioactives. The present work highlights the local delivery of phytobioactives of Cissus quadrangularis (CQ) through nano-hydroxyapatite (nHAP) based ceramic nano-cement. The phytoconstituent profiling represented the optimized CQ fraction to be rich in osteogenic polyphenols and flavonoids like quercetin, resveratrol, and their glucosides. Further, CQ phytobioactives-based formulation was biocompatible, increased bone formation, calcium deposition, proliferation, and migration of cells with simultaneous alleviation of cellular oxidative stress. In the in vivo critical-sized bone defect model, enhanced formation of highly mineralized tissue (BV mm³) in CQ phytobioactives functionalized nano-cement (10.5 ± 2 mm³) were observed compared to the control group (6.5 ± 1.2 mm³). Moreover, the addition of CQ phytobioactives to the bone nano-cement increased the fractional bone volume (BV/TV%) to 21 ± 4.2% compared to 13.1 ± 2.5% in non-functionalized nano-cement. The results demonstrated nHAP-based nano-cement as a carrier for phytobioactives which could be a promising approach for neo-bone formation in different bone defect conditions.

Osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells in a bisphosphonate-functionalized polycaprolactone/gelatin scaffold

Recent trends in bone tissue engineering have focused on the development of biomimetic constructs with appropriate mechanical and physiochemical properties. Here, we report the fabrication of an innovative biomaterial scaffold based on a new bisphosphonate-containing synthetic polymer combined with gelatin. To this end, zoledronate (ZA)-functionalized polycaprolactone (PCL-ZA) was synthesized by a chemical grafting reaction. After adding gelatin to the PCL-ZA polymer solution, the porous PCL-ZA/gelatin scaffold was fabricated by the freeze-casting method. A scaffold with aligned pores and a porosity of 82.04 % was obtained. During in vitro biodegradability test, 49 % of its initial weight lost after 5 weeks. The elastic modulus of the PCL-ZA/gelatin scaffold was 31.4 MPa, and its tensile strength was 4.2 MPa. Based on the results of MTT assay, the scaffold had good cytocompatibility with human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (hADMSCs). Furthermore, cells grown in PCL-ZA/gelatin scaffold showed the highest mineralization and ALP activity compared to other test groups. Results of the RT-PCR test revealed that RUNX2, COL 1A1, and OCN genes were expressed in PCL-ZA/gelatin scaffold at the highest level, suggesting its good osteoinductive capacity. These results revealed that PCL-ZA/gelatin scaffold could be considered a proper biomimetic platform for bone tissue engineering.

Breast Cancer Exosomal microRNAs Facilitate Pre-Metastatic Niche Formation in the Bone: A Mathematical Model

Pre-metastatic niche is a location where cancer cells, separating from a primary tumor, find "fertile soil" for growth and proliferation, ensuring successful metastasis. Exosomal miRNAs of breast cancer are known to enter the bone and degrade it, which facilitates cancer cells invasion into the bone interior and ensures its successful colonization. In this paper, we use a mathematical model to first describe, in health, the continuous remodeling of the bone by bone-forming osteoblasts, bone-resorbing osteoclasts and the RANKL-OPG-RANK signaling system, which keeps the balance between bone formation and bone resorption. We next demonstrate how breast cancer exosomal miRNAs disrupt this balance, either by increasing or by decreasing the ratio of osteoclasts/osteoblasts, which results in abnormal high bone resorption or abnormal high bone forming, respectively, and in bone weakening in both cases. Finally we consider the case of abnormally high resorption and evaluate the effect of drugs, which may increase bone density to normal level, thus protecting the bone from invasion by cancer cells.

Effects of Drugs and Chemotherapeutic Agents on Dental Implant Osseointegration: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Dental implants have been one of the most popular treatments for rehabilitating individuals with single missing teeth or fully edentulous jaws since their introduction. As more implant patients are well-aged and take several medications due to various systemic conditions, clinicians should take into consideration the possible drug implications on bone remodeling and osseointegration.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to examine and review some desirable and unwelcomed implications of medicine on osseointegration.

METHODS

A broad search for proper relevant studies was conducted in four databases, including Web of Science, Pubmed, Scopus, and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

Some commonly prescribed medicines, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), glucocorticoids, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), anticoagulants, metformin, and chemotherapeutic agents, may jeopardize osseointegration. On the contrary, some therapeutic agents, such as anabolic, anti-catabolic, or dual anabolic agents may enhance osseointegration and increase the treatment's success rate.

CONCLUSION

Systemic medications that enhance osseointegration include mineralization promoters and bone resorption inhibitors. On the other hand, medications often given to the elderly with systemic problems might interfere with osseointegration, leading to implant failure. However, to validate the research, more human studies with a higher level of evidence are required.

Augmentation of implant surfaces with BMP-2 in a revision setting : effects of local and systemic bisphosphonate

AIMS

We wanted to evaluate the effects of a bone anabolic agent (bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2)) on an anti-catabolic background (systemic or local zoledronate) on fixation of allografted revision implants.

METHODS

An established allografted revision protocol was implemented bilaterally into the stifle joints of 24 canines. At revision surgery, each animal received one BMP-2 (5 µg) functionalized implant, and one raw implant. One group (12 animals) received bone graft impregnated with zoledronate (0.005 mg/ml) before impaction. The other group (12 animals) received untreated bone graft and systemic zoledronate (0.1 mg/kg) ten and 20 days after revision surgery. Animals were observed for an additional four weeks before euthanasia.

RESULTS

No difference was detected on mechanical implant fixation (load to failure, stiffness, energy) between local or systemic zoledronate. Addition of BMP-2 had no effect on implant fixation. In the histomorphometric evaluation, implants with local zoledronate had more area of new bone on the implant surface (53%, p = 0.025) and higher volume of allograft (65%, p = 0.007), whereas implants in animals with systemic zoledronate had the highest volume of new bone (34%, p = 0.003). Systemic zoledronate with BMP-2 decreased volume of allograft by 47% (p = 0.017).

CONCLUSION

Local and systemic zoledronate treatment protects bone at different stages of maturity; local zoledronate protects the allograft from resorption and systemic zoledronate protects newly formed bone from resorption. BMP-2 in the dose evaluated with experimental revision implants was not beneficial, since it significantly increased allograft resorption without a significant compensating anabolic effect. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(8):488-497.

Synergistic use of biomaterials and licensed therapeutics to manipulate bone remodelling and promote non-union fracture repair

Disrupted bone metabolism can lead to delayed fracture healing or non-union, often requiring intervention to correct. Although the current clinical gold standard bone graft implants and commercial bone graft substitutes are effective, they possess inherent drawbacks and are limited in their therapeutic capacity for delayed union and non-union repair. Research into advanced biomaterials and therapeutic biomolecules has shown great potential for driving bone regeneration, although few have achieved commercial success or clinical translation. There are a number of therapeutics, which influence bone remodelling, currently licensed for clinical use. Providing an alternative local delivery context for these therapies, can enhance their efficacy and is an emerging trend in bone regenerative therapeutic strategies. This review aims to provide an overview of how biomaterial design has advanced from currently available commercial bone graft substitutes to accommodate previously licensed therapeutics that target local bone restoration and healing in a synergistic manner, and the challenges faced in progressing this research towards clinical reality.

Bone mineral as a drug-seeking moiety and a waste dump

Bone is a dynamic tissue with a quarter of the trabecular and a fifth of the cortical bone being replaced continuously each year in a complex process that continues throughout an individual's lifetime. Bone has an important role in homeostasis of minerals with non-stoichiometric hydroxyapatite bone mineral forming the inorganic phase of bone. Due to its crystal structure and chemistry, hydroxyapatite (HA) and related apatites have a remarkable ability to bind molecules. This review article describes the accretion of trace elements in bone mineral giving a historical perspective. Implanted HA particles of synthetic origin have proved to be an efficient recruiting moiety for systemically circulating drugs which can locally biomodulate the material and lead to a therapeutic effect. Bone mineral and apatite however also act as a waste dump for trace elements and drugs, which significantly affects the environment and human health. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2020;9(10):709-718.

Inflammatory response in postmenopausal osteoporotic fracture healing

A balanced inflammatory response is important for successful fracture healing. The response of osteoporotic fracture healing is deranged and an altered inflammatory response can be one underlying cause. The objectives of this review were to compare the inflammatory responses between normal and osteoporotic fractures and to examine the potential effects on different healing outcomes. A systematic literature search was conducted with relevant keywords in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science independently. Original preclinical studies and clinical studies involving the investigation of inflammatory response in fracture healing in ovariectomized (OVX) animals or osteoporotic/elderly patients with available full text and written in English were included. In total, 14 articles were selected. Various inflammatory factors were reported; of those tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 are two commonly studied markers. Preclinical studies showed that OVX animals generally demonstrated higher systemic inflammatory response and poorer healing outcomes compared to normal controls (SHAM). However, it is inconclusive if the local inflammatory response is higher or lower in OVX animals. As for clinical studies, they mainly examine the temporal changes of the inflammatory stage or perform comparison between osteoporotic/fragility fracture patients and normal subjects without fracture. Our review of these studies emphasizes the lack of understanding that inflammation plays in the altered fracture healing response of osteoporotic/elderly patients. Taken together, it is clear that additional studies, preclinical and clinical, are required to dissect the regulatory role of inflammatory response in osteoporotic fracture healing.

Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2020;9(7):368–385.

Co-administration of Systemic and Intralesional Zoledronic Acid in a Case of Fibrous Dysplasia: A Potentially Novel Therapy

Fibrous dysplasia (FD) is a benign bone lesion characterized by replacement of normal bone with abnormal fibrous tissue, clinically manifesting as deformities, bone pains, and pathological fractures. The standard medical management for FD includes systemic bisphosphonate therapy. The efficacy of systemic bisphosphonate is however limited with minimal functional improvement and pain relief. Keeping the above lacunae in mind, we have made a solitary attempt at treating FD with locally administered zoledronic acid. A 25-year-old gentleman had presented to our institute with swelling and pain involving the left thigh and left lower leg. He was diagnosed as having polyostotic FD, confirmed on bone histopathology. He was administered 4 mg of zoledronic acid intravenously while 1 mg of the drug was injected locally into the femoral lesion under ultrasound and fluoroscopy guidance. There were no peri-procedural complications. At 6 months follow-up, there was marked improvement in pain scores at the left thigh, while that at the left leg remained unchanged. In addition, repeat bone scintigraphy showed a 20.8% and 25.3% reduction in anterior and posterior uptake values, respectively, at the left femur while that at the left tibia remained unaltered.

Targeted Drug Delivery from Titanium Implants: A Review of Challenges and Approaches

Titanium implants are considered the gold standard of treatment for dental and orthopedic applications. Biocompatibility, low elasticity, and corrosion resistance are some of the key properties of these metallic implants. Nonetheless, a long-term clinical failure of implants may occur due to inadequate osseointegration. Poor osseointegration induces mobility, inflammation, increased bone resorption, and osteolysis; hence, it may result in painful revision surgeries. Topographical modifications, improvement in hydrophilicity, and the development of controlled-release drug-loading systems have shown to improve cellular adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Surface modifications, along with drug coating, undoubtedly demonstrate better osseointegration, especially in challenged degenerative conditions, such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and osteogenesis imperfecta. Anabolic bone-acting drugs, such as parathyroid hormone peptides, simvastatin, prostaglandin-EP4-receptor antagonist, vitamin D, strontium ranelate, and anti-catabolic bone-acting drugs, such as calcitonin, bisphosphonates, and selective estrogen receptor modulators, expedite the process of osseointegration. In addition, various proteins, peptides, and growth factors may accessorize the idea of localized therapy. Loading these substances on modified titanium surfaces is achieved commonly by mechanisms such as direct coating, adsorption, and incorporating in biodegradable polymers. The primary approach toward the optimum drug loading is a critical trade-off between factors preventing release of a drug immediately and those allowing slow and sustained release. Recent advances broaden the understanding of the efficacy of adsorption, hydrogel coating, and electrospinning layer-by-layer coating facilitated by differential charge on metallic surface. This review discusses the existing approaches and challenges for the development of stable and sustained drug delivery systems on titanium implants, which would promote faster and superior osseointegration.