Bullying in Flemish schools: an evaluation of anti-bullying intervention in primary and secondary schools

What Works in Violence Prevention Among Young People?: A Systematic Review of Reviews

Violence prevention programs aim to raise awareness, change attitudes, normative beliefs, motivation, and behavioral responses. Many programs have been developed and evaluated, and optimistic claims about effectiveness made. Yet comprehensive guidance on program design, implementation, and evaluation is limited. The aim of this study was to provide an up-to-date review of evidence on what works for whom. A systematic search of PsycINFO, MEDLINE, ERIC, and Sociology Collection ProQuest identified 40 reviews and meta-analyses reporting on the effectiveness of violence prevention programs among young people (age 15-30) in educational institutions, published before October 2018. These included reviews of programs designed to reduce (i) bullying, (ii) dating and relationship violence, (iii) sexual assault, and (iv) antisocial behavior. Only evaluations that reported on behavioral outcomes such as perpetration, victimization, and bystander behavior were included. The reviewed evaluations reported on programs that were mainly implemented in high-income countries in Europe and North America. The majority found small effects on violence reduction and victimization and increases in self-reported bystander behavior. Our findings expose critical gaps in evaluation research in this area and provide recommendations on how to optimize the effectiveness of future programs.

Components Related to Long-Term Effects in the Intra- and Interpersonal Domains: A Meta-Analysis of Universal School-Based Interventions

The aims of the present meta-analysis were to (1) examine long-term effects of universal secondary school-based interventions on a broad range of competencies and problems and (2) analyze which intervention components were related to stronger or weaker intervention effects at follow-up. Fifty-four studies of controlled evaluations (283 effect sizes) reporting on 52 unique interventions were included. Long-term intervention effects were significant but small; effect sizes ranged from .08 to .23 in the intrapersonal domain (i.e., subjective psychological functioning) and from .10 to .19 in the interpersonal domain (i.e., social functioning). Intervention components were generally related to effects on specific outcomes. Some components (e.g., group discussions) were even related to both stronger and weaker effects depending on the assessed outcome. Moreover, components associated with long-term effects differed from those associated with short-term effects. Our findings underscore the importance of carefully selecting components to foster long-term development on specific outcomes.

PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019137981.

Examining the Prevalence and Risk Factors of School Bullying Perpetration Among Chinese Children and Adolescents

Background and Objectives

School bullying threatens the health of children and adolescents, such as mental health disorders, social deviant behaviors, suicidal behaviors, and coping difficulties. The present study aims to address (1) prevalence rates of both traditional and cyber school bullying perpetration, and (2) the associations between self-control, parental involvement, experiencing conflicts with parents, experiencing interparental conflict, and risk behaviors, and school bullying perpetration among Chinese children and adolescents.

Method

This study used data from a national representative school bullying survey (n = 3,675) among children and adolescents from all grades (primary school 4th grade to high school 12th grade) in seven cities in China. Negative binomial regression was used to estimate the effects of these predictive factors on traditional and cyber school bullying perpetration, respectively. Seven control variables were included, such as gender, boarding school, family socioeconomic status, and parents' education levels.

Results

The sample comprised 52% female, 18% at boarding school, 70% of the participants' academic performance was average or above. Approximately 17.3% of the participants reported participating in traditional school bullying against their peers, and 7.8% perpetrated cyberbullying behaviors. Also, after controlling sociodemographic characteristics and high self-control, parental involvement reduced the likelihood of traditional and cyberbullying perpetrating. Experiencing interparental conflict and risk behavior was significantly associated with increased perpetration of traditional and cyber school bullying. We found that having a conflict with parents was significantly associated with cyberbullying perpetration.

Implications

Findings have implications for practice. Anti-bullying intervention programs targeting this population should consider these factors. For example, school administrators may develop school programs involving parents in the efforts and interventions workshops improving children and adolescents' levels of self-control. Limitations are also discussed.

DEVELOPMENT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN UKRAINE IN THE CONTEXT OF WORLD TRENDS

The aim of the research is to analyze the problem of inclusive education in Ukraine in the context of world trends. According to its philosophy, each school should be inclusive, which implies the readiness of the school to accept every child with SEN at any time, the desire to create the most favorable educational environment that will serve the development of its potential. According to the results of the analysis, we also conclude that Ukrainian scientists pay more attention to issues of inclusion related to higher education (foreign experience, features of teaching students with inclusion, training future teachers to work with children with disabilities, etc.). Meanwhile, in our opinion, the theoretical and methodological principles, pedagogical conditions, practical methods of organizing inclusive education of children with various types of developmental disabilities are insufficiently studied. This, among other things, highlights the scientific problem raised in our study. Thus, the attention of the Ukrainian state to people with SEN, European-oriented social educational policy is evidenced not only by the reduction of the number of boarding schools, orphans and children deprived of parental care there, but also the dynamics of growing enrollment of children with SEN in inclusive special classes of secondary schools (in 2020/2021 academic year compared to 2015/2016 academic year this amount increased by 7% (from 5.3 thousand to 5.7 thousand). As a result of the development of inclusive education over the past five years, the number of students with SEN covered by inclusive education has increased more than 6 times, and the number of inclusive classes in secondary schools has increased 7 times. Similar changes have taken place in the staffing of inclusive education. Inclusive education and upbringing of children with SEN is a long-term strategy that is considered not as a local area of work, but as a systematic approach to organizing the activities of the general education system in all areas in general.

The Effectiveness of Educational Interventions on Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying Among Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

In consideration of the adverse societal, physical, and psychological impacts of bullying on a child's development and future, many studies have developed anti-bullying programs and educational interventions to curb bullying occurrences. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to examine the effectiveness of such educational interventions at reducing the frequencies of traditional bullying or cyberbullying and cybervictimization among adolescents. A comprehensive search was conducted using PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Google Scholar, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Only quantitative studies that reported the effects of educational interventions on reducing the frequencies of traditional bullying or cyberbullying victimization and perpetration were included. Seventeen studies (N_total = 35,694 adolescents, Range_{child age} = 10-18 years) were finalized, and meta-analyses were conducted using a random effect model. Overall, the existing educational interventions had very small to small effect sizes on traditional bullying and cyberbullying perpetration (traditional: standardized mean differences [SMD] = -.30 and cyber: SMD = -.16) and victimization (traditional: SMD = -18 and cyber: SMD = -.13) among adolescents. Type of intervention (i.e., whole school-based or classroom-based), program duration, and presence of parental involvement did not moderate program effectiveness, but cyberbullying programs were more effective when delivered by technology-savvy content experts compared to teachers. Since existing educational interventions were marginally effective in reducing bullying frequencies, further research is needed to identify key moderators that enhance educational programs or develop alternative forms of anti-bullying interventions.

Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Bullying first emerged as an important topic of research in the 1980s in Norway (Olweus), and a recent meta-analysis shows that these forms of aggression remain prevalent among young people globally (Modecki et al.). Prominent researchers in the field have defined bullying as any aggressive behavior that incorporates three key elements, namely: (1) an intention to harm, (2) repetitive in nature, and (3) a clear power imbalance between perpetrator and victim (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Farrington). There are many negative outcomes associated with bullying perpetration, such as: suicidal ideation (Holt et al.), weapon carrying (Valdebenito et al.), drug use (Ttofi et al.), and violence and offending in later life (Ttofi et al.). Bullying victimization too is associated with negative outcomes such as: suicidal ideation (Holt et al.), anxiety, low self-esteem and loneliness (Hawker& Boulton). Therefore, school bullying is an important target for effective intervention, and should be considered a matter of public health concern.

Objectives

The objective of this review is to establish whether or not existing school-based antibullying programs are effective in reducing school-bullyng behaviors. This report also updates a previous meta-analysis conducted by Farrington and Ttofi. This earlier review found that antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying perpetration and victimization and a primary objective of the current report is to update the earlier analysis of 53 evaluations by conducting new searches for evaluations conducted and published since 2009.

Search Methods

Systematic searches were conducted using Boolean combinations of the following keywords: bully*; victim*; bully-victim; school; intervention; prevention; program*; evaluation; effect*; and anti-bullying. Searches were conducted on several online databases including, Web of Science, PscyhINFO, EMBASE, EMBASE, DARE, ERIC, Google Scholar, and Scopus. Databases of unpublished reports, such as masters' and doctoral theses (e.g., Proquest) were also searched.

Selection Criteria

Results from systematic searches were screened thoroughly against the following inclusion criteria. To be included in this review, a study must have: (1) described an evaluation of a school-based antibullying program implemented with school-age participants; (2) utilized an operational definition of school-bullying that coincides with existing definitions; (3) measured school-bullying perpetration and/or victimization using quantitative measures, such as, self-, peer-, or teacher-report questionnaires; and (4) used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, with one group receiving the intervention and another not receiving the intervention.

Data Collection and Analysis

Of the 19,877 search results, 474 were retained for further screening. The majority of these were excluded, and after multiple waves of screening, 100 evaluations were included in our meta-analysis. A total of 103 independent effect sizes were estimated and each effect size was corrected for the impact of including clusters in evaluation designs. Included evaluations were conducted using both randomized (n = 45; i.e., randomized controlled trials/RCTs) and nonrandomized (n = 44; i.e., quasi-experimental designs with before/after measures; BA/EC) methodologies. All of these studies included measures of bullying outcomes before and after implementation of an intervention. The remaining 14 effect sizes were estimated from evaluations that used age cohort designs. Two models of meta-analysis are used to report results in our report. All mean effects computed are presented using both the multivariance adjustment model (MVA) and random effects model (RE). The MVA model assigns weights to primary studies in direct proportion to study level sampling error as with the fixed effects model but adjusts the meta-analytic standard error and confidence intervals for study heterogeneity. The RE model incorporates between-study heterogeneity into the formula for assigning weights to primary studies. The differences and strengths/limitations of both approaches are discussed in the context of the present data.

Results

Our meta-analysis identified that bullying programs significantly reduce bullying perpetration (RE: odds ratio [OR] = 1.309; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.24-1.38; z = 9.88; p < .001) and bullying victimization (RE: OR = 1.244; 95% CI: 1.19-1.31; z = 8.92; p < .001), under a random effects model of meta-analysis. Mean effects were similar across both models of meta-analysis for bullying perpetration (i.e., MVA: OR = 1,324; 95% CI: 1.27-1.38; z = 13.4; p < .001) and bullying victimization (i.e., MVA: OR = 1.248; 95% CI: 1.21-1.29; z = 12.06; p < .001). Under both computational models, primary studies were more effective in reducing bullying perpetration than victimization overall. Effect sizes varied across studies, with significant heterogeneity between studies for both bullying perpetration (Q = 323.392; df = 85; p < .001; I 2  = 73.716) and bullying victimization (Q = 387.255; df = 87; p < .001; I 2  = 77.534) outcomes. Analyses suggest that publication bias is unlikely. Between-study heterogeneity was expected, given the large number of studies included, and thus, the number of different programs, methods, measures and samples used.

Authors' Conclusions

We conclude that overall, school-based antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying perpetration and bullying victimization, although effect sizes are modest. The impact of evaluation methodology on effect size appears to be weak and does not adequately explain the significant heterogeneity between primary studies. Moreover, the issue of the under-/over-estimation of the true treatment effect by different experimental designs and use of self-reported measures is reviewed. The potential explanations for this are discussed, along with recommendations for future primary evaluations. Avenues for future research are discussed, including the need further explain differences across programs by correlating individual effect sizes with varying program components and varying methodological elements available across these 100 evaluations. Initial findings in the variability of effect sizes across different methodological moderators provide some understanding on the issue of heterogeneity, but future analyses based on further moderator variables are needed.

Components of School-Based Interventions Stimulating Students' Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Domains: A Meta-analysis

Many universal school-based interventions aim to stimulate students' intrapersonal (e.g., self-esteem) and interpersonal (e.g., school climate) domains. To improve our understanding of why some of these interventions yield stronger effects than others, we identified intervention components that are related to stronger or weaker intervention effects. We systematically searched four databases (i.e., PsycINFO, PubMed, ERIC, CENTRAL) for controlled evaluations of universal school-based interventions. In total, 104 included studies (529 included effect sizes) reported on 99 unique interventions. Interventions showed small positive effects on the intrapersonal (d = 0.19) and interpersonal (d = 0.15) domains. Focusing on self-awareness and problem solving, using more active learning approaches, and using more extensive interventions predicted stronger intervention effects on aspects of both domains. In contrast, efforts to improve emotion regulation, assertiveness, cognitive coping, and using group discussions predicted weaker intervention effects. Furthermore, commonly implemented components were not necessarily related to stronger intervention effects and components that were related to stronger effects were not necessarily often implemented. Our findings highlight the need to carefully select components for inclusion in interventions.PROSPERO Registration Number: CRD42019137981.

How can adolescent aggression be reduced? A multi-level meta-analysis

Aggressive behaviour among adolescents has significant social and economic costs. Numerous attempts have been made to intervene to reduce aggression in adolescents. However, little is known about what factors enhance or diminish intervention effectiveness. The present systematic review and meta-analysis, therefore, seeks to quantify the effectiveness of interventions to reduce aggressive behaviour in adolescents and to identify when and for whom such interventions work best. Sixteen databases were searched for randomised controlled trials that assessed interventions to reduce aggression among adolescents. After screening 9795 records, 95 studies were included. A multi-level meta-analysis found a significant overall small-to-medium effect size (d = 0.28; 95% CI [0.17, 0.39]). More effective interventions were of shorter duration, were conducted in the Middle East, were targeted at adolescents with higher levels of risk, and were facilitated by intervention professionals. Potentially active ingredients were classified using the Behaviour Change Technique Taxonomy. Behavioural practice and problem solving were components of more effective interventions targeted at the general population. Overall the findings indicate that psychosocial interventions are effective in reducing adolescent aggression. Future trials need to assess the effect of individual techniques and their combination to identify the key components that can reduce aggression in adolescents.

Effectiveness of school-based mental well-being interventions among adolescents: A systematic review

AIMS

This systematic review aimed to identify school-based interventions for ensuring mental health and well-being of adolescents, synthesize existing interventions, and summarize the quality of identified studies.

DESIGN

A systematic review, analysis, and synthesis were performed.

DATA SOURCES

Search was performed in Cochrane Library, PsychARTICLES, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Medline.

REVIEW METHODS

Literature search was performed in March 2019 using inclusion and exclusion criteria. PRISMA guidelines were followed. Identified records were reviewed by title, abstract, and by the full text by two independent researchers. Three authors independently made a quality assessment of the included studies. Included studies were extracted and synthesized. A systematic review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42019128919).

RESULTS

The initial search yielded 1,199 articles. Of them, 57 articles were included in the final analysis and synthesis. Only four studies were assessed as high quality. Identified themes were mental health and well-being, positive psychology, problem-solving and stress reduction, mindfulness, and physical activity. More than half (N = 32, 56.14%) interventions showed a positive outcome after implementation. Most of those interventions focused on positive psychology and mindfulness.

CONCLUSION

Mental well-being is important for the healthy development of adolescents. Countries are aware that healthy adolescents will become healthy adults who will contribute to his/her community and will lower costs of the absence of work and treatments. Thus, they support and invest in interventions that prevent mental disorders. There is a need for developing multidimensional mental well-being interventions that are effective in low- and secondary-income countries.

IMPACT

This study ensured rigorous methodology, followed PRISMA recommendations and evaluated quality of identified literature using the GRADE guidelines. A critical synthesis was performed to produce an integrated conceptualization of the evidence. The synthesis represents a list of effective school interventions for the promotion of adolescents' mental well-being.

Correcting for norm misperception of anti-bullying attitudes

Research has documented the presence of norm misperception in the context of school bullying, as children and adolescents typically underestimate the degree to which their peers disapprove of bullying behavior. Despite commonly held attitudes in opposition to bullies and in support of helping victims, widespread misperception of the norm makes students vulnerable to acting in a manner that reinforces bullying, as they aim to align themselves with perceived peer beliefs. This study investigated whether personalized normative feedback, a social norms intervention that juxtaposes individuals’ own perceptions of peer norms against their peers’ true normative values, could operate as a mechanism by which to reduce norm misperception of peer attitudes toward bullying. Whereas this type of intervention has shown promising effects in a variety of contexts, no study to date has examined its utility in the specific context of bullying. Baseline participants included 188 seventh grade students, 175 of whom were randomized into four study groups for follow-up data collection. Individuals in the experimental condition received personalized normative feedback on attitudes toward bullying. Control conditions were the following: general normative feedback on anti-bullying attitudes, the absence of normative feedback, and personalized normative feedback on a construct separate from bullying (i.e., antidrug use attitudes). Findings indicated that personalized normative feedback on bullying attitudes led to significant change in perceived peer attitudes in the direction of the group norm, with an effect size in the small-to-medium range. No intervention effects emerged on personal attitude change. Implications highlight strategies for improving the strength of similar interventions in future research as well as the positive clinical outcomes that could result from reduced norm misperception and increased engagement in prosocial bystander behavior.

Anti-bullying interventions in schools: a systematic literature review

This paper presents a systematic literature review addressing rigorously planned and assessed interventions intended to reduce school bullying. The search for papers was performed in four databases (Lilacs, Psycinfo, Scielo and Web of Science) and guided by the question: What are the interventions used to reduce bullying in schools? Only case-control studies specifically focusing on school bullying without a time frame were included. The methodological quality of investigations was assessed using the SIGN checklist. A total of 18 papers composed the corpus of analysis and all were considered to have high methodological quality. The interventions conducted in the revised studies were divided into four categories: multi-component or whole-school, social skills training, curricular, and computerized. The review synthesizes knowledge that can be used to contemplate practices and intervention programs in the education and health fields with a multidisciplinary nature.

Classroom relationship qualities and social-cognitive correlates of defending and passive bystanding in school bullying in Sweden: A multilevel analysis

Using the social-ecological and social cognitive theories as integrated guiding frameworks, the present study examined whether moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy at the individual level, and moral disengagement, quality of teacher-student relationships and quality of student-student relationships at the classroom level were associated with passive bystanding and defending in bullying situations. Participants were 900 Swedish students from 43 classrooms, ranging in age from 9 to 13years. Multilevel regression analyses revealed that passive reactions by bystanders were associated with greater moral disengagement and less defender self-efficacy. Defending, in turn, was associated with less moral disengagement and greater defender self-efficacy and classroom student-student relationship quality. Furthermore, students who scored high in moral disengagement were even less prone to defend victims when the classroom student-student relationship quality was low, but more prone to act as defenders when the classroom student-student relationship quality was high. In addition, the negative association between defender self-efficacy and passive bystanding was stronger both in classrooms with higher student-student relationship quality and in those with lower class moral disengagement. Implications for prevention are discussed.

An Evaluation of a Bullying Prevention Program for Elementary Schools

This research evaluates an anti-bullying program, Dare to Care: Bully Proofing Your School. Students in Grades 4-6 (N = 197, 77 boys, 120 girls) from four Calgary elementary schools completed the Colorado School Climate Survey (Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager, & Short-Camilli, 2000) and the Provictim Scale - Short Version (Rigby & Slee, 1991). The first research component was a pretest - 3-month posttest comparison between a school that was about to implement the program and one that was not planning to do so. At pretest, students in the no-program school gave more positive reports on many variables than the school about to implement the program, making the intended across-school statistical comparison unfeasible. Within the 3-month program school, however, the frequency of bullying witnessed by the students significantly decreased, but remained stable in the no-program comparison school. Further, attitudes towards victims significantly worsened in the no-program school, but remained stable in the program school. The second research component compared three schools that had implemented the anti-bullying program for various lengths of time. Students in the schools with the longer program duration reported more positive attitudes towards victims than students in the school with shorter program duration; however, other indicators of program effectiveness were not significantly different. The results raise questions about evaluating anti-bullying programs.

The Health Promoting Schools Framework: Known Unknowns and an Agenda for Future Research

The World Health Organization’s Health Promoting Schools (HPS) framework is a whole-school approach to promoting health that recognizes the intrinsic relationship between health and education. Our recent Cochrane systematic review found HPS interventions produced improvements in a number of student health outcomes. Here we reflect on what this review was not able to tell us: in other words, what evidence is missing with regard to the HPS approach. Few HPS interventions engage with schools’ “core business” by examining impacts on educational outcomes. Current evidence is dominated by obesity interventions, with most studies conducted with children rather than adolescents. Evidence is lacking for outcomes such as mental or sexual health, substance use, and violence. Activities to engage families and communities are currently weak and unlikely to prompt behavioral change. The HPS approach is largely absent in low-income settings, despite its potential in meeting children’s basic health needs. Intervention theories are insufficiently complex, often ignoring upstream determinants of health. Few studies provide evidence on intervention sustainability or cost-effectiveness, nor in-depth contextual or process data. We set out an agenda for future school health promotion research, considering implications for key stakeholders, namely, national governments, research funders, academics, and schools.

The Effects of a Skill-Based Intervention for Victims of Bullying in Brazil

This study’s objective was to verify whether improved social and emotional skills would reduce victimization among Brazilian 6th grade student victims of bullying. The targets of this intervention were victimized students; a total of 78 victims participated. A cognitive-behavioral intervention based on social and emotional skills was held in eight weekly sessions. The sessions focused on civility, the ability to make friends, self-control, emotional expressiveness, empathy, assertiveness, and interpersonal problem-solving capacity. Data were analyzed through Poisson regression models with random effects. Pre- and post-analyses reveal that intervention and comparison groups presented significant reduced victimization by bullying. No significant improvement was found in regard to difficulties in practicing social skills. Victimization reduction cannot be attributed to the program. This study contributes to the incipient literature addressing anti-bullying interventions conducted in developing countries and highlights the need for approaches that do not exclusively focus on the students’ individual aspects.

Addressing Bullying in Schools

Bullying in schools is now regarded as an important social problem which schools need to address. However, recent evaluations of existing anti-bullying programs have not indicated a high level of success in the reduction of bullying. This article seeks to critically examine the theoretical perspectives that have been adopted in explaining the prevalence of bullying and their implications for the work of schools. Five different theoretical perspectives are identified and examined. Each is shown to have some empirical support and to have influenced the thinking adopted by schools and actions undertaken in addressing bullying. However, none can claim to provide a complete explanation for bullying behaviour in schools, nor form the basis for a comprehensive approach to the problem. It is suggested that educators recognize both the strengths and limitations of existing theoretical perspectives.

Middle School Students’ Preferences for Anti-Bullying Interventions

In this study, 285 middle school students in the United States were surveyed to obtain their preferences regarding anti-bullying intervention strategies. Participants rated their preferences for 15 common anti-bullying intervention strategies involving teachers, students, and non-teaching staff. The strategies were generated based on a review of the literature. Overall, students rated seven of the 15 strategies as being ‘sometimes’ or ‘almost always’ helpful. Participants tended to prefer intervention strategies in which teachers effectively managed their classrooms, thereby deterring bullying, as well as providing direct assistance to students. The results were also suggestive of students desiring teachers to be proactive in helping them solve bully-victim conflicts. Students tended not to prefer strategies that involved non-teaching staff.

The Roles of Self-Efficacy, Peer Interactions and Attitudes in Bully-Victim Incidents

This study examines the relationship between both bullying and victimization (as a whole and in its different forms) and: (a) self-efficacy measures; (b) peer-interactions and (c) attitudes towards bullying and victimization. It also examined whether bully/victims are a distinct group in terms of the above-mentioned variables. The sample consisted of 448 4th to 6th grade primary education pupils (206 girls, 242 boys). The results of the study clearly indicate that self-efficacy measures, peer interactions and attitudes are associated with both bullying and victimization. In particular: (a) high self-efficacy for aggression is associated with both bullying and victimization, whereas high-self efficacy for assertion and for intervening in bully/victim situations is associated with lower scores on physical victimization for boys and girls respectively; (b) higher scores on positive interactions with peers are associated with lower scores on victimization and (c) higher scores on pro-bully attitudes are associated with higher scores on both bullying and victimization. Bully/victims seem to be a distinct group in terms of their strong pro-bully attitudes and their lack of positive interactions. They are also found to be similar to bullies with respect to self-efficacy for aggression but similar to victims with respect to self-efficacy for assertion. The results of the study are discussed in terms of their implications for school practice and intervention policy.

What Works to Reduce Victimization? Synthesizing What We Know and Where to Go From Here

While some attention has been paid to "what works" to reduce crime, little is known about the effectiveness of programs designed to reduce victimization. This study systematically reviews 83 program evaluations to identify what works to (a) reduce victimization, (b) enhance beliefs/attitudes about victims, and (c) improve knowledge/awareness of victimization issues. Evidence-based findings are organized around 4 major forms of victimization, including bullying, intimate partner violence, sexual abuse, and other general forms of victimization. Determining whether certain types of programs can reduce the risk of victimization has important implications for improving people's quality of life. Based on our findings, we offer several promising directions for the next generation of research on evaluating victimization programs. The goal of this study is to improve the strength of future program evaluations, replications, and other systematic reviews as researchers and practitioners continue to learn what works to reduce victimization.

Adolescent Peer Victimization and Physical Health Problems

OBJECTIVE

Peer victimization (PV) is a key interpersonal stressor that can be traumatizing for youth. This study evaluated the relationships between overt, relational, reputational, and cyber PV and adolescents' somatic complaints and sleep problems. Symptoms of depression and social anxiety were examined as potential mediators.

METHOD

Adolescents (N = 1,162; M age = 15.80 years; 57% female; 80% Hispanic) were assessed at three time points, 6 weeks apart, using standardized measures of PV, depression, social anxiety, sleep problems, and somatic complaints. Structural equation modeling evaluated key study aims.

RESULTS

Relational, reputational, and cyber PV, but not overt PV, were directly or indirectly associated with subsequent somatic complaints and/or sleep problems. Depression and social anxiety mediated relationships between relational PV and health outcomes, whereas reputational PV was indirectly associated with somatic complaints via depression only.

DISCUSSION

The stress of PV may contribute to adolescents' sleep problems and somatic complaints and has implications for pediatric psychologists.

A meta-analysis of the effect of school-based anti-bullying programs

Bullying is a serious public health problem, and many studies have examined the effect of school-based anti-bullying programs. However, these programs and those outcomes are complex, broad, and diverse. Research is needed into the optimal strategies for these comprehensive programs, which consider both the effectiveness and cost of programs. We performed a meta-analysis of 13 studies using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software package to calculate effect size (ES) and the Q statistic. We conducted subgroup analyses to examine the differences based on student grade level, program duration, and program strategy. The pooled ES calculation indicated that school-based anti-bullying programs have a small to moderate effect on victimization. The results of the Q test indicated significant heterogeneity across studies of victimization (Q = 39.625; I (2) = 69.7%; p < .001). Studies involving training in emotional control (p < .01), peer counseling (p < .05), or the establishment of a school policy on bullying (p < .05) showed significantly larger ESs on victimization than did studies that did not involve these strategies. Effective school-based anti-bullying programs should include training in emotional control, peer counseling, and the establishment of a school policy on bullying.

Interventions on bullying and cyberbullying in schools: a systematic review

Background : bullying (and cyberbullying) is a widespread phenomenon among young people and it is used to describe interpersonal relationships characterized by an imbalance of power. In this relationships often show aggressive behavior and intentional "harm doing" repeated over time. The prevalence of bullying among youth has been reported to vary widely among countries (5.1%-41.4%) and this behavior seems generally higher among student boys than girls. Several school interventions have been developed to reduce bullying, but reported inconsistent results possibly related to limitations in the study design or to other methodological shortcomings. Aims : evaluating randomized-controlled trials (RTCs) conducted between 2000 and 2013 to assess the effectiveness of school interventions on bullying and cyberbullying. Methods : a systematic search of the scientific literature was conducted on Pubmed/Medline and Ebsco online databases. We also contacted experts in the field of preventive bullying research. Results : 17 studies met the inclusion criteria. The majority of studies did not show positive effects in the long term; the interventions focused on the whole school were more effective in reducing bullying than interventions delivered through classroom curricula or social skills training alone. Conclusion : while there is evidence that programs aimed at reducing bullying can be effective in the short term, their long-term effectiveness has not been established, and there are important differences in the results based on gender, age and socio-economic status of participants. Internal inconsistency in the findings of some studies, together with the wide variability of experimental designs and lack of common standardized measures in outcome evaluation, are important limitations in this field of research.

The World Health Organization's Health Promoting Schools framework: a Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Healthy children achieve better educational outcomes which, in turn, are associated with improved health later in life. The World Health Organization's Health Promoting Schools (HPS) framework is a holistic approach to promoting health and educational attainment in school. The effectiveness of this approach has not yet been rigorously reviewed.

METHODS

We searched 20 health, education and social science databases, and trials registries and relevant websites in 2011 and 2013. We included cluster randomised controlled trials. Participants were children and young people aged four to 18 years attending schools/colleges. HPS interventions had to include the following three elements: input into the curriculum; changes to the school's ethos or environment; and engagement with families and/or local communities. Two reviewers identified relevant trials, extracted data and assessed risk of bias. We grouped studies according to the health topic(s) targeted. Where data permitted, we performed random-effects meta-analyses.

RESULTS

We identified 67 eligible trials tackling a range of health issues. Few studies included any academic/attendance outcomes. We found positive average intervention effects for: body mass index (BMI), physical activity, physical fitness, fruit and vegetable intake, tobacco use, and being bullied. Intervention effects were generally small. On average across studies, we found little evidence of effectiveness for zBMI (BMI, standardized for age and gender), and no evidence for fat intake, alcohol use, drug use, mental health, violence and bullying others. It was not possible to meta-analyse data on other health outcomes due to lack of data. Methodological limitations were identified including reliance on self-reported data, lack of long-term follow-up, and high attrition rates.

CONCLUSION

This Cochrane review has found the WHO HPS framework is effective at improving some aspects of student health. The effects are small but potentially important at a population level.

The WHO Health Promoting School framework for improving the health and well-being of students and their academic achievement

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization's (WHO's) Health Promoting Schools (HPS) framework is an holistic, settings-based approach to promoting health and educational attainment in school. The effectiveness of this approach has not been previously rigorously reviewed.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of the Health Promoting Schools (HPS) framework in improving the health and well-being of students and their academic achievement.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following electronic databases in January 2011 and again in March and April 2013: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Campbell Library, ASSIA, BiblioMap, CAB Abstracts, IBSS, Social Science Citation Index, Sociological Abstracts, TRoPHI, Global Health Database, SIGLE, Australian Education Index, British Education Index, Education Resources Information Centre, Database of Education Research, Dissertation Express, Index to Theses in Great Britain and Ireland, ClinicalTrials.gov, Current controlled trials, and WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. We also searched relevant websites, handsearched reference lists, and used citation tracking to identify other relevant articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included cluster-randomised controlled trials where randomisation took place at the level of school, district or other geographical area. Participants were children and young people aged four to 18 years, attending schools or colleges. In this review, we define HPS interventions as comprising the following three elements: input to the curriculum; changes to the school's ethos or environment or both; and engagement with families or communities, or both. We compared this intervention against schools that implemented either no intervention or continued with their usual practice, or any programme that included just one or two of the above mentioned HPS elements.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

At least two review authors identified relevant trials, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias in the trials. We grouped different types of interventions according to the health topic targeted or the approach used, or both. Where data permitted, we performed random-effects meta-analyses to provide a summary of results across studies.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 67 eligible cluster trials, randomising 1443 schools or districts. This is made up of 1345 schools and 98 districts. The studies tackled a range of health issues: physical activity (4), nutrition (12), physical activity and nutrition combined (18), bullying (7), tobacco (5), alcohol (2), sexual health (2), violence (2), mental health (2), hand-washing (2), multiple risk behaviours (7), cycle-helmet use (1), eating disorders (1), sun protection (1), and oral health (1). The quality of evidence overall was low to moderate as determined by the GRADE approach. 'Risk of bias' assessments identified methodological limitations, including heavy reliance on self-reported data and high attrition rates for some studies. In addition, there was a lack of long-term follow-up data for most studies.We found positive effects for some interventions for: body mass index (BMI), physical activity, physical fitness, fruit and vegetable intake, tobacco use, and being bullied. Intervention effects were generally small but have the potential to produce public health benefits at the population level. We found little evidence of effectiveness for standardised body mass index (zBMI) and no evidence of effectiveness for fat intake, alcohol use, drug use, mental health, violence and bullying others; however, only a small number of studies focused on these latter outcomes. It was not possible to meta-analyse data on other health outcomes due to lack of data. Few studies provided details on adverse events or outcomes related to the interventions. In addition, few studies included any academic, attendance or school-related outcomes. We therefore cannot draw any clear conclusions as to the effectiveness of this approach for improving academic achievement.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The results of this review provide evidence for the effectiveness of some interventions based on the HPS framework for improving certain health outcomes but not others. More well-designed research is required to establish the effectiveness of this approach for other health topics and academic achievement.

Correlates of bullying behaviors among a sample of North American Indigenous adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between familial, educational, and psychosocial factors and bullying among 702 North American Indigenous adolescents aged 11-14 years. The study used multinomial logistic regression models to differentiate correlates of bully perpetration and victimization versus being neither and between being a perpetrator versus being a victim. Analyses reveal that being a bully victim had different correlates than being a perpetrator. Perceived discrimination was associated with increased odds of being either a victim or a perpetrator, relative to being neither. Several factors differentiated being a bully perpetrator from being a bully victim: adolescent age, parental warmth and support, depressive symptoms, anger, and school adjustment. These findings expand upon the limited understanding of the factors associated with bullying among North American Indigenous youth. Bullying intervention and prevention programs that target Indigenous adolescents should be culturally grounded and begin early within the family.

School and pupil effects on secondary pupils' feelings of safety in school, around school, and at home

In line with fear of crime research, schools should be secure places where pupils feel safe in order to function well. Various types of risk and promotive variables at school and pupil level may differently influence a pupil's feelings of safety in school, the school surroundings, and at home. The aim is to elaborate and test a theoretical two-level model on risk and promotive variables by using national data from an Internet-based survey in all types of Dutch secondary education. The cross-sectional research involves 71,560 pupils from 185 schools. Confirmatory factor analysis and multilevel logistic regression analysis including latent variables are used to analyze the data. The results demonstrate that school size, pupil attainment level in education, and intactness of a pupil's family have positive effects on a pupil's feelings of safety in and around school and at home; overall negative effects concern the school's curricular differentiation and a pupil's playing truant and not feeling most at home in the Netherlands. A school's social, teaching, and instructional qualities and a pupil's being older, being a boy, and being baptized positively affect the feelings of safety in and around school. A school's safety policy and rules of conduct have no effects. Attending a church or mosque has negative effects on a pupil's feelings of safety around school and at home. The findings confirm part of the two-level model. The Internet-based data collection and feedback procedure enable each school to longitudinally assess and evaluate own results at school level; in addition, cross-sectional comparison of school results with national benchmarks is possible.

The Implementation and Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program in Finland

Bullying is a widespread problem in schools and communities around the world, and nationwide initiatives to prevent and reduce it have begun to emerge in European countries. In Finland, the effects of the national antibullying program, KiVa, have been evaluated first in a randomized controlled trial (2007–2009) and then during nationwide rollout across schools (since 2009). The KiVa program has been found to reduce bullying and victimization, while it increases empathy toward victimized peers and self-efficacy to defend them. Moreover, the program has produced reductions in reinforcement of the bullies’ behavior. Finally, KiVa has been found to increase school liking and school motivation, whereas it has led to significant reductions in anxiety, depression, and negative peer perceptions among children and youth. The uptake of the program by Finnish schools has been remarkable, as 90% of the comprehensive schools are at present implementing KiVa. The paper describes the development of the KiVa program, evaluation of its effects, and its implementation across Finnish schools. Challenges in sustainability and high-level implementation of the program are discussed.

A Theoretically Grounded Exploration of the Social and Emotional Outcomes of Transition to Secondary School

Adolescent development involves a complex interplay between genetics, biology, and social and emotional relationships within multiple contexts of home, school and the broader community. The transition from primary to secondary school, coupled with the onset of puberty, can therefore be a difficult period for young people to negotiate at a critical period of their developmental pathway. Using a social ecological perspective, this article examines the impact of the transition experience on adolescent social and emotional health, both immediately following transition to secondary school and at the end of the first year in this new school environment. This 1-year prospective study involving 1,500 Australian Grade 8 secondary school students found that 31% of students in the sample experienced a ‘difficult’ or ‘somewhat difficult’ transition to their new school. This third of the student sample were consequently more likely to experience poorer social and emotional health, including higher levels of depression and anxiety at the end of their first year of secondary school, while controlling for these variables at the time of transition. A central message from this work exemplifies the urgent need for a longitudinal intervention trial to develop best practice guidelines for activities that help ameliorate the negative impact a change in education context can create for adolescents negotiating a rapid metamorphosis from childhood to adulthood.

Bullying among adolescents in North Cyprus and Turkey: testing a multifactor model

Peer bullying has been studied since the 1970s. Therefore, a vast literature has accumulated about the various predictors of bullying. However, to date there has been no study which has combined individual-, peer-, parental-, teacher-, and school-related predictors of bullying within a model. In this sense, the main aim of this study was to test a multifactor model of bullying among adolescents in North Cyprus and Turkey. A total of 1,052 adolescents (554 girls, 498 boys) aged between 13 and 18 (M = 14.7, SD = 1.17) were recruited from North Cyprus and Turkey. Before testing the multifactor models, the measurement models were tested according to structural equation modeling propositions. Both models indicated that the psychological climate of the school, teacher attitudes within classroom, peer relationships, parental acceptance-rejection, and individual social competence factors had significant direct effects on bullying behaviors. Goodness-of-fit indexes indicated that the proposed multifactor model fitted both data well. The strongest predictors of bullying were the psychological climate of the school following individual social competence factors and teacher attitudes within classroom in both samples. All of the latent variables explained 44% and 51% of the variance in bullying in North Cyprus and Turkey, respectively.

Childhood bullying: a review of constructs, concepts, and nursing implications

Bullying among children as a pervasive problem has been increasingly recognized as an important public health issue. However, while much attention has been given to understanding the impact of bullying on victims, it is equally important to examine predictors of bullying and potential outcomes for bullies themselves. The current literature on bullying lacks consensus on a utilizable definition of bullying in research, which can vary by theoretical framework. In an attempt to bridge the gaps in the literature, this article will provide a review of the state of the science on bullying among children, including the major theoretical constructs of bullying and their respective viewpoints on predictors and correlates of bullying. A secondary aim of this article is to summarize empirical evidence for predictors of bullying and victimization, which can provide strategies for intervention and prevention by public health nursing professionals. By calling attention to the variability in the bullying literature and the limitations of current evidence available, researchers can better address methodological gaps and effectively move toward developing studies to inform nursing treatment programs and enhance public health initiatives that reduce violence in school settings.

A Mixed-Method Evaluation of a Strength-Based Bullying Prevention Program

The goal of this study was to describe the strength-based bullying prevention program, Strengths in Motion, and to evaluate the program utilizing a mixed-method design. Participants included students in Grades 4 to 8 from an intervention ( n = 50) and a comparison ( n = 53) school in Northern Ontario. Measures of bullying, strengths, and classroom climate were completed at three time points: One month prior to the start of the program (baseline), and at 3 and 8 months after the program had started. Quantitative analyses revealed that there was a significant decrease in students’ bullying victimization over time, an increase in classroom climate, and students’ personal awareness of their strengths. Semistructured interviews conducted 20 months after the start of the program with various stakeholders, including parents and school staff, complemented these findings and provided additional information on the efficacy of the program and the strength-based approach. Study findings are discussed in terms of the implications for future research.

Multi-level aspects of social cohesion of secondary schools and pupils' feelings of safety

BACKGROUND. School safety and corresponding feelings of both pupils and school staff are beginning to receive more and more attention. The social cohesion characteristics of a school may be useful in promoting feelings of safety, particularly in pupils. AIMS. To conceptualize theoretically, and check empirically a two-level model of social cohesion between and within schools, in order to explain a pupil's feelings of safety at school. SAMPLES. Data were collected aided by a national Dutch survey in secondary education carried out via the Internet. In 2008, digital questionnaires were completed by about 78,800 pupils, 6,200 teachers and educational support staff, and 600 school managers. METHODS. Data were checked for reliability and representativity. Social cohesion was indicated by self-reported measures of individual pupils and by aggregating scale and item scores of school managers, teachers, and other support staff within schools. Multi-level analysis using individual pupil data and school-level data was performed using MLwiN. RESULTS. A pupil's age, educational attainment level, experience of mild physical violence, prosocial rules of conduct and joint control of these rules, and school measures against playing truant, show positive influences on a pupil's feelings of safety at school. Negative influences are exerted by not feeling most at home in The Netherlands, peers taking drugs and weapons into school, and by experiencing social violence, severe physical violence, and sexual violence. Negative school effects exist simultaneously in severe physical violence experienced by teachers and other staff, and in curriculum differentiation applied by teachers and other staff; a positive school effect is school size. Some interaction effects between pupil and school-level variables were explored. CONCLUSIONS. The variance at school level is relatively low compared with the variance at pupil level. However, a much higher percentage of variance at school level than at pupil level is explained with respect to the pupils' feelings of safety at school. The resulting two-level model also reflects the streaming of pupils in Dutch secondary schools. To improve school safety, the national results emphasize the need to enhance prosocial behaviour rules and to enhance the shared control of these rules between teachers and pupils. They also emphasize the need for the school to take measures that prevent truancy and redefine curriculum differentiation procedures. National educational policy and research can combine efforts to assist schools in developing reliable and valid procedures to increase effectively safety in and around schools.

Anti-bullying intervention: Implementation and outcome

BACKGROUND

The participant role approach represents a view of bullying as a group process in which bystanders often encourage the bullying or silently witness it, while little support is given to the victim (e.g. Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1996). There is a discrepancy between students' attitudes (which are often against bullying) and their actual behaviour in bullying situations, and this may be an important factor contributing to the persistence of the problem.

AIM

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of an anti-bullying intervention programme targeting the group as a whole. Class teachers who attended a 1-year training course carried out the interventions in school classes. The present evaluation of the project is based on multi-level modelling, assessing the programme effects after 12 months of intervention, utilizing a cohort longitudinal design with adjacent cohorts (Olweus & Alsaker, 1991) also taking into account the degree of implementation of the programme.

SAMPLE

The intervention was implemented in 48 school classes (Grades 4, 5, and 6) from 16 Finnish schools, involving 1,220 children (600 girls and 620 boys).

METHOD

The present report is based on questionnaire data collected at two assessment points during the project, assessing the frequencies of bullies and victims, the extent of observed and experienced bullying, students' attitudes and efficacy beliefs related to bullying, and their participant role behaviours (self- and peer-reported). Reports were collected from teachers about the concrete actions taken in order to compare the actual content of the intervention to what had been planned.

RESULTS

A positive impact of the intervention programme was found on several outcome variables (e.g. frequencies of bullies and victims, observed and experienced bullying, attitudes and efficacy beliefs, and to some extent, participant role behaviours). The intervention effects were found more often in Grade 4 than in Grade 5, and often only in schools with a high degree of implementation of the programme.

National campaign effects on secondary pupils' bullying and violence

BACKGROUND

Research on pupils' bullying (1991) and violence (1993) motivated the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science to initiate a national campaign on school safety. The government campaign was undertaken from 1995 to 2000.

AIM

To test for differences in secondary pupils' bullying and violence before and after the campaign while controlling for different contextual variables.

SAMPLES

In 1991, a representative survey on bullying was conducted in 36 secondary schools with 1,055 pupils from Year 2 and 4 classes (age range 13-16 years). In 1993, a survey on violent behaviour took place in 71 secondary schools with 1,998 pupils from Year 3 and 4 classes (age range 14-16 years). In 2000, a survey on bullying and violence was conducted in 60 secondary schools with 9,948 pupils from Year 1 to 6 classes (age range 12-18 years).

METHODS

The data from pupils in identical school years were compared with respect to bullying (1991-2000) and violence (1993-2000). The statistical relations were analysed in two stepwise multiple regression analyses. Year of investigation (1991- 2000, 1993-2000) was the respective dependent variable. The independent variables were pupils' bullying or violence scores, sex, school year, contextual lesson, school, and community variables.

RESULTS

In both regression analyses, the contextual lesson and school variables discriminated between the measurement years. Also, compared with 1991, the pupils in 2000 scored lower for being a bully and higher for being bullied directly. Compared with 1993, the pupils in 2000 scored lower for being a victim of intentional damage to property or emotional violence, lower for being a perpetrator of disruptive behaviour in school, and higher for being a perpetrator of intentional damage to property.

CONCLUSIONS

The differences between the contextual variables measured before and after the campaign reflect changes in educational and instructional situations. Independent of these differences, the national campaign appears to have helped improve the awareness of pupils' social behaviour and elicit, in particular, a decrease in pupils' violent behaviour. However, more specific pedagogical and preventative support for pupils socially at risk appears to be needed to have a more prosocial impact on the behaviour of secondary school pupils.

Children’s Bullying Experiences Expressed Through Drawings and Self-Reports

Traditionally, studies assessing children’s experiences of bullying and victimization have focused on the use of questionnaires and peer-nominations. The present study aimed to investigate this phenomenon by using two complementary assessment tools, namely self-reported questionnaires and children’s drawings. The sample consisted of 448 boys and girls drawn from the 4th to 6th grade classrooms of ten primary schools in Central Greece. Children were asked to: (a) draw a scene of peer victimization taking place in their school and (b) complete self-reported questionnaires regarding bullying behaviour, victimization and participant roles in bully/victim incidences. Although the results showed that the relation between drawing and self-report measures is not a straightforward one, they do reveal some interesting associations primarily related to gender differences. In other words, it was found that boys outnumbered girls in both bullying behaviour and victimization. Regarding the employed forms of victimization, boys tended to depict themselves in more physical aggression scenes than girls, while girls tended to draw themselves in more verbal victimization scenes than boys.

Bullying in school: evaluation and dissemination of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program

The nature and extent of bullying among school children is discussed, and recent attention to the phenomenon by researchers, the media, and policy makers is noted. The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP) is a comprehensive, school-wide program that was designed to reduce bullying and achieve better peer relations among students in elementary, middle, and junior high school grades. Several large-scale studies from Norway are reviewed, which provide compelling evidence of the program's effectiveness in Norwegian schools. Studies that have evaluated the OBPP in diverse settings in the United States have not been uniformly consistent, but they have shown that the OBPP has had a positive impact on students' self-reported involvement in bullying and antisocial behavior. Efforts to disseminate the OBPP in Norway and the United States are discussed.

Evaluation of an intervention program for anxious adolescent boys who are bullied at school

PURPOSE

This study tested the efficacy of an intervention for anxious adolescent boys experiencing bullying at school. The cognitive-behavioral intervention focused on targeting individual factors that appear to increase an adolescent's vulnerability to bullying experiences such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and use of maladaptive coping strategies.

METHODS

Adolescent boys reporting anxiety symptoms and the recent experience of being bullied at school (grades 7-10) were randomly assigned by group to intervention (n = 22) or wait-list (n = 24) conditions. Depressive and anxiety symptoms and bullying experiences were measured before and after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up for the intervention condition.

RESULTS

The intervention was effective in significantly reducing adolescent's bullying experiences as well as their anxiety, depression, and the degree of distress associated with being bullied. Intervention gains were maintained at the 3-month follow-up. The intervention was not effective in enhancing adolescent's self-esteem or changing aggressive or avoidant responses to bullying situations.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary support for the value of individually focused interventions for boys in the effort to reduce the incidence of bullying within schools.

The Behavioral Ecological Model as a Framework for School-Based Anti-Bullying Health Promotion Interventions

This article presents a conceptual strategy which uses the Behavioral Ecological Model (BEM) as a health promotion framework to guide school-based bullying awareness programs and subsequent anti-bullying strategies for school nursing practice. Anti-bullying frameworks and tools are scarce despite the extent of the problem of bullying. This article reviews existing literature centered on the BEM and illustrates how the model can be applied to the school-setting. This is the first time that a multilevel framework has been proposed for school-based anti-bullying in the form of a model. The BEM is a useful tool for assisting in the development of more comprehensive programs to influence anti-bullying intervention in school-based nursing practice.

Peer victimization and social anxiety in adolescents: prospective and reciprocal relationships

This study used a 2-month prospective research design to examine the bi-directional interplay between peer victimization and social anxiety among adolescents. Participants included 228 adolescents (58% female) in grades 10-12. Three types of peer victimization were examined: overt (physical aggression or verbal threats), relational (malicious manipulation of a relationship, such as by friendship withdrawal), and reputational (damaging another's peer relationships, such as through rumor spreading). Adolescents' self-reported feelings of social anxiety and peer victimization experiences were assessed at two time points, in November and January of the same school year. Peer victimization was strongly related to adolescents' social anxiety, and relational victimization explained additional unique variance. Moreover, peer victimization was both a predictor and consequence of social anxiety over time, with the most robust results found for relational victimization. Limited support was obtained for gender as a moderating variable. Findings highlight the deleterious effects of peer victimization, especially relational victimization, and suggest avenues for future research and clinical intervention for adolescents experiencing such victimization.

Victimization and bullying among 8-year-old Finnish children: a 10-year comparison of rates

OBJECTIVE

There are only few population-based time-trend studies on changes in prevalence of bullying and victimization among children. The main aim of this study was to find out whether changes have occurred in prevalence rates of bullying and victimization from 1989 to 1999 among eight-year-old children. The associations between victimization and bullying and psychiatric symptoms and their possible differences in the statistical strengths of associations between the years 1989 and 1999 were also studied.

METHOD

Two cross-sectional, representative samples from southern Finland were compared. All children born in 1981 (1989 sample, n = 985, response rate 95%) and 1991 (1999 sample, n = 962, response rate 86%) and living in the selected school district were included in the study samples. Children, parents and teachers were asked about bullying and victimization. The Children's Depression Inventory and Rutter's parent and teacher scales were used to study psychiatric symptoms.

RESULTS

In 1999, fewer 8-year-old children were victims of bullying than in 1989. There was a decrease in the number of bullies but the change was statistically significant only in the parental reports. The statistical strengths of associations of victimization and bullying with psychiatric symptoms were mainly the same in 1989 as in 1999.

CONCLUSIONS

Slightly decreased levels of victimization among 8-year-old Finnish children is a promising result, but further time-trend studies are needed, as well as qualitative studies, to obtain a deeper understanding of the bullying phenomenon and the factors reducing it. It might be that especially young children are suspectible to influences diminishing victimisation and bullying.