1
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Mori T, Wang H, Zhang W, Ser CC, Arora D, Pan CF, Li H, Niu J, Rahman MA, Mori T, Koishi H, Yang JKW. Pick and place process for uniform shrinking of 3D printed micro- and nano-architected materials. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5876. [PMID: 37735573 PMCID: PMC10514194 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41535-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization lithography is promising for producing three-dimensional structures with user-defined micro- and nanoscale features. Additionally, shrinkage by thermolysis can readily shorten the lattice constant of three-dimensional photonic crystals and enhance their resolution and mechanical properties; however, this technique suffers from non-uniform shrinkage owing to substrate pinning during heating. Here, we develop a simple method using poly(vinyl alcohol)-assisted uniform shrinking of three-dimensional printed structures. Microscopic three-dimensional printed objects are picked and placed onto a receiving substrate, followed by heating to induce shrinkage. We show the successful uniform heat-shrinking of three-dimensional prints with various shapes and sizes, without sacrificial support structures, and observe that the surface properties of the receiving substrate are important factors for uniform shrinking. Moreover, we print a three-dimensional mascot model that is then uniformly shrunk, producing vivid colors from colorless woodpile photonic crystals. The proposed method has significant potential for application in mechanics, optics, and photonics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Mori
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore.
- Industrial Technology Center of Wakayama Prefecture, Wakayama, 6496261, Japan.
| | - Hao Wang
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore.
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China.
- Greater Bay Area Institute for Innovation, Hunan University, Guangzhou, 511300, China.
| | - Wang Zhang
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - Chern Chia Ser
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - Deepshikha Arora
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - Cheng-Feng Pan
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Hao Li
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - Jiabin Niu
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - M A Rahman
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore
| | - Takeshi Mori
- Industrial Technology Center of Wakayama Prefecture, Wakayama, 6496261, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Koishi
- Industrial Technology Center of Wakayama Prefecture, Wakayama, 6496261, Japan
| | - Joel K W Yang
- Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, 487372, Singapore.
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2
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Challenges and limits of mechanical stability in 3D direct laser writing. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2115. [PMID: 35440637 PMCID: PMC9018765 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-29749-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Direct laser writing is an effective technique for fabrication of complex 3D polymer networks using ultrashort laser pulses. Practically, it remains a challenge to design and fabricate high performance materials with different functions that possess a combination of high strength, substantial ductility, and tailored functionality, in particular for small feature sizes. To date, it is difficult to obtain a time-resolved microscopic picture of the printing process in operando. To close this gap, we herewith present a molecular dynamics simulation approach to model direct laser writing and investigate the effect of writing condition and aspect ratio on the mechanical properties of the printed polymer network. We show that writing conditions provide a possibility to tune the mechanical properties and an optimum writing condition can be applied to fabricate structures with improved mechanical properties. We reveal that beyond the writing parameters, aspect ratio plays an important role to tune the stiffness of the printed structures. Direct laser writing is an effective technique for fabrication of complex 3D polymer networks using ultrashort laser pulses but to date it is difficult to obtain a time-resolved microscopic picture of the printing process in operando. Here, the use molecular dynamics simulation to model direct laser writing and investigate the effect of writing condition and aspect ratio on the mechanical properties of the printed polymer network.
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3
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Somers P, Liang Z, Johnson JE, Boudouris BW, Pan L, Xu X. Rapid, continuous projection multi-photon 3D printing enabled by spatiotemporal focusing of femtosecond pulses. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2021; 10:199. [PMID: 34561417 PMCID: PMC8463698 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-021-00645-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
There is demand for scaling up 3D printing throughput, especially for the multi-photon 3D printing process that provides sub-micrometer structuring capabilities required in diverse fields. In this work, high-speed projection multi-photon printing is combined with spatiotemporal focusing for fabrication of 3D structures in a rapid, layer-by-layer, and continuous manner. Spatiotemporal focusing confines printing to thin layers, thereby achieving print thicknesses on the micron and sub-micron scale. Through projection of dynamically varying patterns with no pause between patterns, a continuous fabrication process is established. A numerical model for computing spatiotemporal focusing and imaging is also presented which is verified by optical imaging and printing results. Complex 3D structures with smooth features are fabricated, with millimeter scale printing realized at a rate above 10-3 mm3 s-1. This method is further scalable, indicating its potential to make fabrications of 3D structures with micro/nanoscale features in a practical time scale a reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Somers
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Zihao Liang
- Charles D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Jason E Johnson
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Bryan W Boudouris
- Charles D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Liang Pan
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Xianfan Xu
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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4
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Ulrich S, Wang X, Rottmar M, Rossi RM, Nelson BJ, Bruns N, Müller R, Maniura-Weber K, Qin XH, Boesel LF. Nano-3D-Printed Photochromic Micro-Objects. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2101337. [PMID: 34028975 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202101337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Molecular photoswitches that can reversibly change color upon irradiation are promising materials for applications in molecular actuation and photoresponsive materials. However, the fabrication of photochromic devices is limited to conventional approaches such as mold casting and spin-coating, which cannot fabricate complex structures. Reported here is the first photoresist for direct laser writing of photochromic 3D micro-objects via two-photon polymerization. The integration of photochromism into thiol-ene photo-clickable resins enables rapid two-photon laser processing of highly complex microstructures and facile postmodification using a series of donor-acceptor Stenhouse adduct (DASA) photoswitches with different excitation wavelengths. The versatility of thiol-ene photo-click reactions allows fine-tuning of the network structure and physical properties as well as the type and concentration of DASA. When exposed to visible light, these microstructures exhibit excellent photoresponsiveness and undergo reversible color-changing via photoisomerization. It is demonstrated that the fluorescence variations of DASAs can be used as a reporter of photoswitching and thermal recovery, allowing the reading of DASA-containing sub-micrometric structures in 3D. This work delivers a new approach for custom microfabrication of 3D photochromic objects with molecularly engineered color and responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ulrich
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, Fribourg, 1700, Switzerland
| | - Xiaopu Wang
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
- Shenzhen Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics for Society, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518172, China
| | - Markus Rottmar
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
| | - René Michel Rossi
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
| | - Bradley J Nelson
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Nico Bruns
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, Fribourg, 1700, Switzerland
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Thomas Graham Building, Cathedral Street 295, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Ralph Müller
- Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Leopold-Ruzicka-Weg 4, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Maniura-Weber
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
| | - Xiao-Hua Qin
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
- Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Leopold-Ruzicka-Weg 4, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
| | - Luciano Fernandes Boesel
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, St. Gallen, 9014, Switzerland
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5
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Mahmood MA, Popescu AC. 3D Printing at Micro-Level: Laser-Induced Forward Transfer and Two-Photon Polymerization. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2034. [PMID: 34206309 PMCID: PMC8271989 DOI: 10.3390/polym13132034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) and two-photon polymerization (TPP) have proven their abilities to produce 3D complex microstructures at an extraordinary level of sophistication. Indeed, LIFT and TPP have supported the vision of providing a whole functional laboratory at a scale that can fit in the palm of a hand. This is only possible due to the developments in manufacturing at micro- and nano-scales. In a short time, LIFT and TPP have gained popularity, from being a microfabrication innovation utilized by laser experts to become a valuable instrument in the hands of researchers and technologists performing in various research and development areas, such as electronics, medicine, and micro-fluidics. In comparison with conventional micro-manufacturing methods, LIFT and TPP can produce exceptional 3D components. To gain benefits from LIFT and TPP, in-detail comprehension of the process and the manufactured parts' mechanical-chemical characteristics is required. This review article discusses the 3D printing perspectives by LIFT and TPP. In the case of the LIFT technique, the principle, classification of derivative methods, the importance of flyer velocity and shock wave formation, printed materials, and their properties, as well as various applications, have been discussed. For TPP, involved mechanisms, the difference between TPP and single-photon polymerization, proximity effect, printing resolution, printed material properties, and different applications have been analyzed. Besides this, future research directions for the 3D printing community are reviewed and summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Arif Mahmood
- Laser Department, National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania;
- Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Andrei C. Popescu
- Center for Advanced Laser Technologies (CETAL), National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics (INFLPR), 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
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6
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Wang H, Wang H, Zhang W, Yang JKW. Toward Near-Perfect Diffractive Optical Elements via Nanoscale 3D Printing. ACS NANO 2020; 14:10452-10461. [PMID: 32687316 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Diffractive optical elements (DOEs) are widely applied as compact solutions to generate desired optical patterns in the far field by wavefront shaping. They consist of microscopic structures of varying heights to control the phase of either reflected or transmitted light. However, traditional methods to achieve varying thicknesses of structures for DOEs are tedious, requiring multiple aligned lithographic steps each followed by an etching process. Additionally, the reliance on photomasks precludes rapid prototyping and customization in manufacturing complex and multifunctional surface profiles. To achieve this, we turn to nanoscale 3D printing based on two-photon polymerization lithography (TPL). However, TPL systems lack the precision to pattern diffractive components where subwavelength variations in height and position could lead to observable loss in diffraction efficiency. Here, we employed a lumped TPL parametric model and a workaround patterning strategy to achieve precise 3D printing of DOEs using optimized parameters for laser power, beam scan speed, hatching distance, and slicing distance. In our case study, millimeter scale near-perfect Dammann gratings were fabricated with measured diffraction efficiencies near theoretical limits, laser spot array nonuniformity as low as 1.4%, and power ratio of the zero-order spot as low as 0.4%. Leveraging on the advantages of additive manufacturing inherent to TPL, the 3D-printed optical devices can be applied for precise wavefront shaping, with great potential in all-optical machine learning, virtual reality, motion sensing, and medical imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- Engineering Product Development Pillar, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
| | - Hongtao Wang
- Engineering Product Development Pillar, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
| | - Wang Zhang
- Engineering Product Development Pillar, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
| | - Joel K W Yang
- Engineering Product Development Pillar, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
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7
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Bauer J, Izard AG, Zhang Y, Baldacchini T, Valdevit L. Thermal post-curing as an efficient strategy to eliminate process parameter sensitivity in the mechanical properties of two-photon polymerized materials. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:20362-20371. [PMID: 32680097 DOI: 10.1364/oe.395986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization direct laser writing (TPP-DLW) is one of the most versatile technologies to additively manufacture complex parts with nanoscale resolution. However, the wide range of mechanical properties that results from the chosen combination of multiple process parameters imposes an obstacle to its widespread use. Here we introduce a thermal post-curing route as an effective and simple method to increase the mechanical properties of acrylate-based TPP-DLW-derived parts by 20-250% and to largely eliminate the characteristic coupling of processing parameters, material properties and part functionality. We identify the underlying mechanism of the property enhancement as a self-initiated thermal curing reaction, which robustly facilitates the high property reproducibility that is essential for any application of TPP-DLW.
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8
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Rekštytė S, Paipulas D, Mizeikis V. Passive fluidic micro-sensor with all-optical readout realized using a direct laser writing technique. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:4602-4605. [PMID: 31517941 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.004602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, we report on design and realization of solvent-sensitive microstructures based on three-dimensional periodic lattices fabricated in a polymeric photoresist. Sensing is based on reversible size change in polymeric microstructures upon immersion in wetting and non-wetting solvents. Its readout is achieved purely optically by observing modification of a Moiré pattern formed by grating-like deformable and rigid polymeric structures. A compact micro-sensor using these principles was realized using a direct laser writing technique in the photoresist. High sensitivity and easy optical readout of the sensor were demonstrated. In the future, sensors based on similar principles may find applications in microfluidic systems, such as lab-on-a-chip.
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9
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Balčiūnas E, Baldock SJ, Dreižė N, Grubliauskaitė M, Coultas S, Rochester DL, Valius M, Hardy JG, Baltriukienė D. 3D printing hybrid organometallic polymer‐based biomaterials via laser two‐photon polymerization. POLYM INT 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.5909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Evaldas Balčiūnas
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences CentreVilnius University Vilnius Lithuania
| | - Sara J Baldock
- Department of ChemistryLancaster University Lancaster UK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster University Lancaster UK
| | - Nadežda Dreižė
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences CentreVilnius University Vilnius Lithuania
| | | | | | | | - Mindaugas Valius
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences CentreVilnius University Vilnius Lithuania
| | - John G Hardy
- Department of ChemistryLancaster University Lancaster UK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster University Lancaster UK
| | - Daiva Baltriukienė
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences CentreVilnius University Vilnius Lithuania
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10
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Paun IA, Calin BS, Mustaciosu CC, Mihailescu M, Moldovan A, Crisan O, Leca A, Luculescu CR. 3D Superparamagnetic Scaffolds for Bone Mineralization under Static Magnetic Field Stimulation. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12172834. [PMID: 31484381 PMCID: PMC6747966 DOI: 10.3390/ma12172834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
We reported on three-dimensional (3D) superparamagnetic scaffolds that enhanced the mineralization of magnetic nanoparticle-free osteoblast cells. The scaffolds were fabricated with submicronic resolution by laser direct writing via two photons polymerization of Ormocore/magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) composites and possessed complex and reproducible architectures. MNPs with a diameter of 4.9 ± 1.5 nm and saturation magnetization of 30 emu/g were added to Ormocore, in concentrations of 0, 2 and 4 mg/mL. The homogenous distribution and the concentration of the MNPs from the unpolymerized Ormocore/MNPs composite were preserved after the photopolymerization process. The MNPs in the scaffolds retained their superparamagnetic behavior. The specific magnetizations of the scaffolds with 2 and 4 mg/mL MNPs concentrations were of 14 emu/g and 17 emu/g, respectively. The MNPs reduced the shrinkage of the structures from 80.2 ± 5.3% for scaffolds without MNPs to 20.7 ± 4.7% for scaffolds with 4 mg/mL MNPs. Osteoblast cells seeded on scaffolds exposed to static magnetic field of 1.3 T deformed the regular architecture of the scaffolds and evoked faster mineralization in comparison to unstimulated samples. Scaffolds deformation and extracellular matrix mineralization under static magnetic field (SMF) exposure increased with increasing MNPs concentration. The results are discussed in the frame of gradient magnetic fields of ~3 × 10−4 T/m generated by MNPs over the cells bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Alexandra Paun
- Center for Advanced Laser Technologies (CETAL), National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania.
- Physics Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University Politehnica of Bucharest, RO-060042 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Bogdan Stefanita Calin
- Center for Advanced Laser Technologies (CETAL), National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
- Physics Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University Politehnica of Bucharest, RO-060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cosmin Catalin Mustaciosu
- Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering IFIN-HH, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
| | - Mona Mihailescu
- Physics Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University Politehnica of Bucharest, RO-060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Antoniu Moldovan
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
| | - Ovidiu Crisan
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
| | - Aurel Leca
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
| | - Catalin Romeo Luculescu
- Center for Advanced Laser Technologies (CETAL), National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, RO-077125 Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
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11
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Barannikov A, Polikarpov M, Ershov P, Bessonov V, Abrashitova K, Snigireva I, Yunkin V, Bourenkov G, Schneider T, Fedyanin AA, Snigirev A. Optical performance and radiation stability of polymer X-ray refractive nano-lenses. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2019; 26:714-719. [PMID: 31074435 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577519001656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Full-field X-ray imaging and microscopy with polymer compound refractive nano-lenses is demonstrated. Experiments were carried out at beamline ID13 at the European Synchrotron and yielded a resolution of 100 nm. The lenses were demonstrated to be functioning even after an absorbed dose of ∼107 Gy. This article also discusses issues related to lens aberrations, astigmatism and radiation stability, and thus ways of improving the lens further are considered. Polymer nano-lenses are versatile and are promissing for nano-focusing and compact X-ray microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Barannikov
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Nevskogo 14, Kaliningrad 236041, Russia
| | - Maxim Polikarpov
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Unit, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Petr Ershov
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Nevskogo 14, Kaliningrad 236041, Russia
| | - Vladimir Bessonov
- Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Ksenia Abrashitova
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Nevskogo 14, Kaliningrad 236041, Russia
| | - Irina Snigireva
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | | | - Gleb Bourenkov
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Unit, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Schneider
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Unit, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andrey A Fedyanin
- Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Anatoly Snigirev
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Nevskogo 14, Kaliningrad 236041, Russia
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12
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Deformation Behavior of Foam Laser Targets Fabricated by Two-Photon Polymerization. NANOMATERIALS 2018; 8:nano8070498. [PMID: 29986426 PMCID: PMC6070906 DOI: 10.3390/nano8070498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization (2PP), which is a three-dimensional micro/nano-scale additive manufacturing process, is used to fabricate component for small custom experimental packages (“targets”) to support laser-driven, high-energy-density physics research. Of particular interest is the use of 2PP to deterministically print millimeter-scale, low-density, and low atomic number (CHO) polymer matrices (“foams”). Deformation during development and drying of the foam structures remains a challenge when using certain commercial acrylic photo-resins. Acrylic resins were chosen in order to meet the low atomic number requirement for the foam; that requirement precludes the use of low-shrinkage organic/inorganic hybrid resins. Here, we compare the use of acrylic resins IP-S and IP-Dip. Infrared and Raman spectroscopy are used to quantify the extent of the polymerization during 2PP vs. UV curing. The mechanical strength of beam and foam structures is examined, particularly the degree of deformation that occurs during the development and drying processes. The magnitude of the shrinkage is quantified, and finite element analysis is used in order to simulate the resulting deformation. Capillary drying forces during development are shown to be small and are likely below the elastic limit of the foam log-pile structures. In contrast, the substantial shrinkage in IP-Dip (~5⁻10%) causes large shear stresses and associated plastic deformation, particularly near constrained boundaries and locations with sharp density transitions. Use of IP-S with an improved writing procedure results in a marked reduction in deformation with a minor loss of resolution.
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13
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Ajami A, Husinsky W, Ovsianikov A, Liska R. Dispersive white light continuum single Z-scan for rapid determination of degenerate two-photon absorption spectra. APPLIED PHYSICS. B, LASERS AND OPTICS 2018; 124:142. [PMID: 30996529 PMCID: PMC6435023 DOI: 10.1007/s00340-018-7011-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We present an experimental technique to determine the degenerate two-photon absorption (2PA) spectra by performing a single Z-scan using a high-spectral-irradiance white light continuum (WLC) generated by a hollow core fiber. The hollow fiber was filled with Argon (Ar) gas at a pressure of 0.6 bar and was pumped with 500 mJ, 30 fs, and 800 nm pulses. The broadband WLC pulses with 350 nm bandwidth in the range of 600-950 nm were compressed to sub-8 fs pulses. To characterize and interpret the data obtained from this method, the spectral, temporal and spatial characteristics of the WLC were first analyzed. The WLC emerging from the compressor was dispersed using a prism pair and then focused into the sample by a cylindrical lens. Since different spectral components are spatially separated, any part of the sample in the beam cross section is irradiated with almost single wavelength pulses leading to only a degenerate 2PA process. The nonlinear transmittance was then measured by a charge-coupled-device (CCD) line camera as a function of the sample position while the sample was moved along the beam direction by a motorized translation stage. In this way the Z-scans at different wavelengths in the WLC spectral range can be measured and thus the wavelength-resolved degenerate 2PA spectra can be obtained by performing a single scan using dispersive WLC. This method was verified on a well-characterized dye Rhodamine B and yield a reasonable agreement with the data found in the literature. We used this method to determine the 2PA spectra of some two-photon initiators (2PIs) developed for two-photon polymerization (2PP) based 3D micro-structuring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliasghar Ajami
- Faculty of Physics, Semnan University, P. O. Box 35195-363, Semnan, Iran
| | - Wolfgang Husinsky
- Institute of Applied Physics, TU Wien (Technische Universitat Wien), Wiedner Hauptstrasse. 8, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Aleksandr Ovsianikov
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology (E308), TU Wien (Technische Universitat Wien), Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, TU Wien (Technische Universitat Wien), Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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14
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Saha SK, Oakdale JS, Cuadra JA, Divin C, Ye J, Forien JB, Bayu Aji LB, Biener J, Smith WL. Radiopaque Resists for Two-Photon Lithography To Enable Submicron 3D Imaging of Polymer Parts via X-ray Computed Tomography. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:1164-1172. [PMID: 29171264 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b12654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon lithography (TPL) is a high-resolution additive manufacturing (AM) technique capable of producing arbitrarily complex three-dimensional (3D) microstructures with features 2-3 orders of magnitude finer than human hair. This process finds numerous applications as a direct route toward the fabrication of novel optical and mechanical metamaterials, miniaturized optics, microfluidics, biological scaffolds, and various other intricate 3D parts. As TPL matures, metrology and inspection become a crucial step in the manufacturing process to ensure that the geometric form of the end product meets design specifications. X-ray-based computed tomography (CT) is a nondestructive technique that can provide this inspection capability for the evaluation of complex internal 3D structure. However, polymeric photoresists commonly used for TPL, as well as other forms of stereolithography, poorly attenuate X-rays due to the low atomic number (Z) of their constituent elements and therefore appear relatively transparent during imaging. Here, we present the development of optically clear yet radiopaque photoresists for enhanced contrast under X-ray CT. We have synthesized iodinated acrylate monomers to formulate high-Z photoresist materials that are capable of forming 3D microstructures with sub-150 nm features. In addition, we have developed a formulation protocol to match the refractive index of the photoresists to the immersion medium of the objective lens so as to enable dip-in laser lithography, a direct laser writing technique for producing millimeter-tall structures. Our radiopaque photopolymer resists increase X-ray attenuation by a factor of more than 10 times without sacrificing the sub-150 nm feature resolution or the millimeter-scale part height. Thus, our resists can successfully replace existing photopolymers to generate AM parts that are suitable for inspection via X-ray CT. By providing the "feedstock" for radiopaque AM parts, our resist formulation is expected to play a critical role in enabling fabrication of functional polymer parts to tight design tolerances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourabh K Saha
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - James S Oakdale
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Jefferson A Cuadra
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Chuck Divin
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Jianchao Ye
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Jean-Baptiste Forien
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Leonardus B Bayu Aji
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Juergen Biener
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - William L Smith
- Materials Engineering Division and ‡Materials Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
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15
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Nishiguchi A, Mourran A, Zhang H, Möller M. In-Gel Direct Laser Writing for 3D-Designed Hydrogel Composites That Undergo Complex Self-Shaping. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2018; 5:1700038. [PMID: 29375957 PMCID: PMC5770688 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201700038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Self-shaping and actuating materials inspired by biological system have enormous potential for biosensor, microrobotics, and optics. However, the control of 3D-complex microactuation is still challenging due to the difficulty in design of nonuniform internal stress of micro/nanostructures. Here, we develop in-gel direct laser writing (in-gel DLW) procedure offering a high resolution inscription whereby the two materials, resin and hydrogel, are interpenetrated on a scale smaller than the wavelength of the light. The 3D position and mechanical properties of the inscribed structures could be tailored to a resolution better than 100 nm over a wide density range. These provide an unparalleled means of inscribing a freely suspended microstructures of a second material like a skeleton into the hydrogel body and also to direct isotropic volume changes to bending and distortion motions. In the combination with a thermosensitive hydrogel rather small temperature variations could actuate large amplitude motions. This generates complex modes of motion through the rational engineering of the stresses present in the multicomponent material. More sophisticated folding design would realize a multiple, programmable actuation of soft materials. This method inspired by biological system may offer the possibility for functional soft materials capable of biomimetic actuation and photonic crystal application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Nishiguchi
- DWI Leibniz‐Institute for Interactive MaterialsRWTH Aachen UniversityForckenbeck str. 50D‐52056AachenGermany
| | - Ahmed Mourran
- DWI Leibniz‐Institute for Interactive MaterialsRWTH Aachen UniversityForckenbeck str. 50D‐52056AachenGermany
| | - Hang Zhang
- DWI Leibniz‐Institute for Interactive MaterialsRWTH Aachen UniversityForckenbeck str. 50D‐52056AachenGermany
| | - Martin Möller
- DWI Leibniz‐Institute for Interactive MaterialsRWTH Aachen UniversityForckenbeck str. 50D‐52056AachenGermany
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16
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Bauhofer AA, Krödel S, Rys J, Bilal OR, Constantinescu A, Daraio C. Harnessing Photochemical Shrinkage in Direct Laser Writing for Shape Morphing of Polymer Sheets. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29. [PMID: 28944559 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Structures that change their shape in response to external stimuli unfold possibilities for more efficient and versatile production of 3D objects. Direct laser writing (DLW) is a technique based on two-photon polymerization that allows the fabrication of microstructures with complex 3D geometries. Here, it is shown that polymerization shrinkage in DLW can be utilized to create structures with locally controllable residual stresses that enable programmable, self-bending behavior. To demonstrate this concept, planar and 3D-structured sheets are preprogrammed to evolve into bio-inspired shapes (lotus flowers and shark skins). The fundamental mechanisms that control the self-bending behavior are identified and tested with microscale experiments. Based on the findings, an analytical model is introduced to quantitatively predict bending curvatures of the fabricated sheets. The proposed method enables simple fabrication of objects with complex geometries and precisely controllable shape morphing potential, while drastically reducing the required fabrication times for producing 3D, hierarchical microstructures over large areas in the order of square centimeters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton A Bauhofer
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Sebastian Krödel
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Jan Rys
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Osama R Bilal
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Andrei Constantinescu
- Laboratoire de Mécanique des Solides, CNRS UMR7649, Ecole Polytechnique, 91129, Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Chiara Daraio
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
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17
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Tičkūnas T, Perrenoud M, Butkus S, Gadonas R, Rekštytė S, Malinauskas M, Paipulas D, Bellouard Y, Sirutkaitis V. Combination of additive and subtractive laser 3D microprocessing in hybrid glass/polymer microsystems for chemical sensing applications. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:26280-26288. [PMID: 29041286 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.026280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel hybrid glass-polymer micromechanical sensor by combining two femtosecond laser direct writing processes: laser illumination followed by chemical etching of glass and two-photon polymerization. This incorporation of techniques demonstrates the capability of combining mechanical deformable devices made of silica with an integrated polymer structure for passive chemical sensing application. We demonstrate that such a sensor could be utilized for investigating the elastic properties of polymeric microstructures fabricated via the two-photon polymerization technique. Moreover, we show that polymeric microstructure stiffness increases when immersed in organic liquids.
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18
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Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing. Chem Rev 2017; 117:10212-10290. [PMID: 28756658 PMCID: PMC5553103 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1138] [Impact Index Per Article: 162.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) alias 3D printing translates computer-aided design (CAD) virtual 3D models into physical objects. By digital slicing of CAD, 3D scan, or tomography data, AM builds objects layer by layer without the need for molds or machining. AM enables decentralized fabrication of customized objects on demand by exploiting digital information storage and retrieval via the Internet. The ongoing transition from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing prompts new challenges for mechanical engineers and materials scientists alike. Because polymers are by far the most utilized class of materials for AM, this Review focuses on polymer processing and the development of polymers and advanced polymer systems specifically for AM. AM techniques covered include vat photopolymerization (stereolithography), powder bed fusion (SLS), material and binder jetting (inkjet and aerosol 3D printing), sheet lamination (LOM), extrusion (FDM, 3D dispensing, 3D fiber deposition, and 3D plotting), and 3D bioprinting. The range of polymers used in AM encompasses thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, hydrogels, functional polymers, polymer blends, composites, and biological systems. Aspects of polymer design, additives, and processing parameters as they relate to enhancing build speed and improving accuracy, functionality, surface finish, stability, mechanical properties, and porosity are addressed. Selected applications demonstrate how polymer-based AM is being exploited in lightweight engineering, architecture, food processing, optics, energy technology, dentistry, drug delivery, and personalized medicine. Unparalleled by metals and ceramics, polymer-based AM plays a key role in the emerging AM of advanced multifunctional and multimaterial systems including living biological systems as well as life-like synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Clark Ligon
- Laboratory
for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, The
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Jürgen Stampfl
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Matthias Gurr
- H.
B. Fuller Deutschland GmbH, An der Roten Bleiche 2-3, Lüneburg D-21335, Germany
| | - Rolf Mülhaupt
- Freiburg
Materials Research Center (FMF) and Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 31, Freiburg D-79104, Germany
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19
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Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing. Chem Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00074 impact factor 2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Clark Ligon
- Laboratory
for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, The Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Matthias Gurr
- H. B. Fuller Deutschland GmbH, An der Roten Bleiche 2-3, Lüneburg D-21335, Germany
| | - Rolf Mülhaupt
- Freiburg
Materials Research Center (FMF) and Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 31, Freiburg D-79104, Germany
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20
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Two-Photon Polymerization Metrology: Characterization Methods of Mechanisms and Microstructures. MICROMACHINES 2017. [PMCID: PMC6189958 DOI: 10.3390/mi8040101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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21
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Rekštytė S, Paipulas D, Malinauskas M, Mizeikis V. Microactuation and sensing using reversible deformations of laser-written polymeric structures. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 28:124001. [PMID: 28141577 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa5d4d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We investigate reversible deformations of polymeric microstructures fabricated using direct laser writing three-dimensional lithography upon immersion in various solvents. Swelling and shrinkage of sub-micrometre size features are induced by interaction with surrounding solvent and such deformations can be exploited to create larger structures whose size, shape, and other structural parameters depend on the surroundings. We describe diffractive optical elements, micro-mechanical sensors and also hybrid deformable structures, that can be used to implement micro-actuation, micro-sensing, and other functionalities highly sought for micro-optical, micro-mechanical, and micro-fluidic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rekštytė
- Laser Research Center, Department of Quantum Electronics, Physics Faculty, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio Ave. 10, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
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22
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Jiang LJ, Campbell JH, Lu YF, Bernat T, Petta N. Direct Writing Target Structures by Two-Photon Polymerization. FUSION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.13182/fst15-222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. J. Jiang
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 209N Walter Scott Building, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588
| | - J. H. Campbell
- Schafer Corporation, 303 Lindbergh Avenue, Livermore, California 94551
| | - Y. F. Lu
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 209N Walter Scott Building, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588
| | - T. Bernat
- Schafer Corporation, 303 Lindbergh Avenue, Livermore, California 94551
| | - N. Petta
- Schafer Corporation, 303 Lindbergh Avenue, Livermore, California 94551
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23
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Oakdale JS, Ye J, Smith WL, Biener J. Post-print UV curing method for improving the mechanical properties of prototypes derived from two-photon lithography. OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 24:27077-27086. [PMID: 27906282 DOI: 10.1364/oe.24.027077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Two photon polymerization (TPP) is a precise, reliable, and increasingly popular technique for rapid prototyping of micro-scale parts with sub-micron resolution. The materials of choice underlying this process are predominately acrylic resins cross-linked via free-radical polymerization. Due to the nature of the printing process, the derived parts are only partially cured and the corresponding mechanical properties, i.e. modulus and ultimate strength, are lower than if the material were cross-linked to the maximum extent. Herein, post-print curing via UV-driven radical generation, is demonstrated to increase the overall degree of cross-linking of low density, TPP-derived structures.
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24
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Silva KR, Rezende RA, Pereira FDAS, Gruber P, Stuart MP, Ovsianikov A, Brakke K, Kasyanov V, da Silva JVL, Granjeiro JM, Baptista LS, Mironov V. Delivery of Human Adipose Stem Cells Spheroids into Lockyballs. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166073. [PMID: 27829016 PMCID: PMC5102388 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Adipose stem cells (ASCs) spheroids show enhanced regenerative effects compared to single cells. Also, spheroids have been recently introduced as building blocks in directed self-assembly strategy. Recent efforts aim to improve long-term cell retention and integration by the use of microencapsulation delivery systems that can rapidly integrate in the implantation site. Interlockable solid synthetic microscaffolds, so called lockyballs, were recently designed with hooks and loops to enhance cell retention and integration at the implantation site as well as to support spheroids aggregation after transplantation. Here we present an efficient methodology for human ASCs spheroids biofabrication and lockyballs cellularization using micro-molded non-adhesive agarose hydrogel. Lockyballs were produced using two-photon polymerization with an estimated mechanical strength. The Young’s modulus was calculated at level 0.1362 +/-0.009 MPa. Interlocking in vitro test demonstrates high level of loading induced interlockability of fabricated lockyballs. Diameter measurements and elongation coefficient calculation revealed that human ASCs spheroids biofabricated in resections of micro-molded non-adhesive hydrogel had a more regular size distribution and shape than spheroids biofabricated in hanging drops. Cellularization of lockyballs using human ASCs spheroids did not alter the level of cells viability (p › 0,999) and gene fold expression for SOX-9 and RUNX2 (p › 0,195). The biofabrication of ASCs spheroids into lockyballs represents an innovative strategy in regenerative medicine, which combines solid scaffold-based and directed self-assembly approaches, fostering opportunities for rapid in situ biofabrication of 3D building-blocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina R. Silva
- Laboratory of Tissue Bioengineering, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (Inmetro), Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Nucleus of Multidisciplinary Research in Biology (Numpex-Bio), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A. Rezende
- Division of 3D Technologies, Renato Archer Center for Information Technology (CTI), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frederico D. A. S. Pereira
- Division of 3D Technologies, Renato Archer Center for Information Technology (CTI), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Peter Gruber
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, TU Wien (Technische Universität Wien), Vienna, Austria
| | - Mellannie P. Stuart
- Laboratory of Tissue Bioengineering, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (Inmetro), Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Aleksandr Ovsianikov
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, TU Wien (Technische Universität Wien), Vienna, Austria
| | - Ken Brakke
- Mathematics Department, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Vladimir Kasyanov
- Riga Stradins University and Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia
| | - Jorge V. L. da Silva
- Division of 3D Technologies, Renato Archer Center for Information Technology (CTI), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José M. Granjeiro
- Laboratory of Tissue Bioengineering, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (Inmetro), Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leandra S. Baptista
- Laboratory of Tissue Bioengineering, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (Inmetro), Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Nucleus of Multidisciplinary Research in Biology (Numpex-Bio), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- * E-mail: (LSB); (VM)
| | - Vladimir Mironov
- Laboratory of Tissue Bioengineering, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (Inmetro), Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Division of 3D Technologies, Renato Archer Center for Information Technology (CTI), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail: (LSB); (VM)
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25
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Malinauskas M, Žukauskas A, Hasegawa S, Hayasaki Y, Mizeikis V, Buividas R, Juodkazis S. Ultrafast laser processing of materials: from science to industry. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2016; 5:e16133. [PMID: 30167182 PMCID: PMC5987357 DOI: 10.1038/lsa.2016.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Processing of materials by ultrashort laser pulses has evolved significantly over the last decade and is starting to reveal its scientific, technological and industrial potential. In ultrafast laser manufacturing, optical energy of tightly focused femtosecond or picosecond laser pulses can be delivered to precisely defined positions in the bulk of materials via two-/multi-photon excitation on a timescale much faster than thermal energy exchange between photoexcited electrons and lattice ions. Control of photo-ionization and thermal processes with the highest precision, inducing local photomodification in sub-100-nm-sized regions has been achieved. State-of-the-art ultrashort laser processing techniques exploit high 0.1-1 μm spatial resolution and almost unrestricted three-dimensional structuring capability. Adjustable pulse duration, spatiotemporal chirp, phase front tilt and polarization allow control of photomodification via uniquely wide parameter space. Mature opto-electrical/mechanical technologies have enabled laser processing speeds approaching meters-per-second, leading to a fast lab-to-fab transfer. The key aspects and latest achievements are reviewed with an emphasis on the fundamental relation between spatial resolution and total fabrication throughput. Emerging biomedical applications implementing micrometer feature precision over centimeter-scale scaffolds and photonic wire bonding in telecommunications are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mangirdas Malinauskas
- Laser Research Centre, Department of Quantum Electronics, Physics Faculty, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio Ave. 10, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Albertas Žukauskas
- Laser Research Centre, Department of Quantum Electronics, Physics Faculty, Vilnius University, Saulėtekio Ave. 10, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Satoshi Hasegawa
- Center for Optical Research and Education (CORE), Utsunomiya University, 7-1-2 Yoto, Utsunomiya 321-8585, Japan
| | - Yoshio Hayasaki
- Center for Optical Research and Education (CORE), Utsunomiya University, 7-1-2 Yoto, Utsunomiya 321-8585, Japan
| | - Vygantas Mizeikis
- Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-3-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu 432-8561, Japan
| | - Ričardas Buividas
- Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
| | - Saulius Juodkazis
- Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
- Melbourne Centre for Nanofabrication, ANFF, 151 Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
- Center of Nanotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
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26
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Chen L, Taverne MPC, Zheng X, Lin JD, Oulton R, Lopez-Garcia M, Ho YLD, Rarity JG. Evidence of near-infrared partial photonic bandgap in polymeric rod-connected diamond structures. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:26565-26575. [PMID: 26480169 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.026565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We present the simulation, fabrication, and optical characterization of low-index polymeric rod-connected diamond (RCD) structures. Such complex three-dimensional photonic crystal structures are created via direct laser writing by two-photon polymerization. To our knowledge, this is the first measurement at near-infrared wavelengths, showing partial photonic bandgaps for this structure. We characterize structures in transmission and reflection using angular resolved Fourier image spectroscopy to visualize the band structure. Comparison of the numerical simulations of such structures with the experimentally measured data show good agreement for both P- and S-polarizations.
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27
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Band Structure of Photonic Crystals Fabricated by Two-Photon Polymerization. CRYSTALS 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst5010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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28
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Two-photon polymerization of 3-D zirconium oxide hybrid scaffolds for long-term stem cell growth. Biointerphases 2014; 9:029014. [DOI: 10.1116/1.4873688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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29
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30
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Vivas MG, De Boni L, Bretonniere Y, Andraud C, Mendonca CR. Polarization effect on the two-photon absorption of a chiral compound. OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 20:18600-18608. [PMID: 23038499 DOI: 10.1364/oe.20.018600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this report, we investigate the polarization effect (linear, elliptical and circular) on the two-photon absorption (2PA) properties of a chiral compound based in azoaromatic moieties using the femtosecond Z-scan technique with low repetition rate and low pulse energy. We observed a strong 2PA modulation between 800 nm and 960 nm as a function the polarization changes from linear through elliptical to circular. Such results were interpreted employing the sum-over-essential states approach, which allowed us to model the 2PA circular-linear dichroism effect and to identifier the overlapping of the excited electronic states responsible by the 2PA allowed band.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Vivas
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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31
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Sakellari I, Kabouraki E, Gray D, Purlys V, Fotakis C, Pikulin A, Bityurin N, Vamvakaki M, Farsari M. Diffusion-assisted high-resolution direct femtosecond laser writing. ACS NANO 2012; 6:2302-2311. [PMID: 22324511 DOI: 10.1021/nn204454c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We present a new method for increasing the resolution of direct femtosecond laser writing by multiphoton polymerization, based on quencher diffusion. This method relies on the combination of a mobile quenching molecule with a slow laser scanning speed, allowing the diffusion of the quencher in the scanned area and the depletion of the multiphoton-generated radicals. The material we use is an organic-inorganic hybrid, while the quencher is a photopolymerizable amine-based monomer which is bound on the polymer backbone upon fabrication of the structures. We use this method to fabricate woodpile structures with a 400 nm intralayer period. This is comparable to the results produced by direct laser writing based on stimulated-emission-depletion microscopy, the method considered today as state-of-the-art in 3D structure fabrication. We optically characterize these woodpiles to show that they exhibit well-ordered diffraction patterns and stopgaps down to near-infrared wavelengths. Finally, we model the quencher diffusion, and we show that radical inhibition is responsible for the increased resolution.
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Amato L, Gu Y, Bellini N, Eaton SM, Cerullo G, Osellame R. Integrated three-dimensional filter separates nanoscale from microscale elements in a microfluidic chip. LAB ON A CHIP 2012; 12:1135-42. [PMID: 22318474 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc21116e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
We report on the integration of a size-based three-dimensional filter, with micrometre-sized pores, in a commercial microfluidic chip. The filter is fabricated inside an already sealed microfluidic channel using the unique capabilities of two-photon polymerization. This direct-write technique enables integration of the filter by post-processing in a chip that has been fabricated by standard technologies. The filter is located at the intersection of two channels in order to control the amount of flow passing through the filter. Tests with a suspension of 3 μm polystyrene spheres in a Rhodamine 6G solution show that 100% of the spheres are stopped, while the fluorescent molecules are transmitted through the filter. We demonstrate operation up to a period of 25 minutes without any evidence of clogging. Preliminary validation of the device for plasma separation from whole blood is shown. Moreover, the filter can be cleaned and reused by reversing the flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Amato
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie-CNR, Dipartimento di Fisica-Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Vasilantonakis N, Terzaki K, Sakellari I, Purlys V, Gray D, Soukoulis CM, Vamvakaki M, Kafesaki M, Farsari M. Three-dimensional metallic photonic crystals with optical bandgaps. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2012; 24:1101-5. [PMID: 22278944 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201104778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of fully three-dimensional photonic crystals with a bandgap at optical wavelengths is demonstrated by way of direct femtosecond laser writing of an organic-inorganic hybrid material with metal-binding moieties, and selective silver coating using electroless plating. The crystals have 600-nm intralayer periodicity and sub-100 nm features, and they exhibit well-defined diffraction patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikos Vasilantonakis
- Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, N. Plastira 100, Heraklion, Greece
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Sun Q, Ueno K, Misawa H. In situ investigation of the shrinkage of photopolymerized micro/nanostructures: the effect of the drying process. OPTICS LETTERS 2012; 37:710-712. [PMID: 22344156 DOI: 10.1364/ol.37.000710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We report on experimental study of the shrinkage of photopolymerized micro/nanostructures fabricated by femtosecond direct laser writing in organic-inorganic resists. Blueshift of the stop-band positions of fabricated photonic crystals during the drying process, which follows the development and rinsing stages, indicates that the drying process plays an important role in the formation of the shrinkage. It is further confirmed that the shrinkage almost completely occurs during the drying process by in situ optical monitoring the structures. These findings will help to better understand, control, and even positively utilize the shrinkage in the applications of the photopolymerization-based direct laser writing technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Sun
- Research Institute for Electronics Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Gittard SD, Nguyen A, Obata K, Koroleva A, Narayan RJ, Chichkov BN. Fabrication of microscale medical devices by two-photon polymerization with multiple foci via a spatial light modulator. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 2:3167-78. [PMID: 22076276 PMCID: PMC3207384 DOI: 10.1364/boe.2.003167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/09/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization is an appealing technique for producing microscale devices due to its flexibility in producing structures with a wide range of geometries as well as its compatibility with materials suitable for biomedical applications. The greatest limiting factor in widespread use of two-photon polymerization is the slow fabrication times associated with line-by-line, high-resolution structuring. In this study, a recently developed technology was used to produce microstructures by two-photon polymerization with multiple foci, which significantly reduces the production time. Computer generated hologram pattern technology was used to generate multiple laser beams in controlled positions from a single laser. These multiple beams were then used to simultaneously produce multiple microstructures by two-photon polymerization. Arrays of micro-Venus structures, tissue engineering scaffolds, and microneedle arrays were produced by multifocus two-photon polymerization. To our knowledge, this work is the first demonstration of multifocus two-photon polymerization technology for production of a functional medical device. Multibeam fabrication has the potential to greatly improve the efficiency of two-photon polymerization production of microscale devices such as tissue engineering scaffolds and microneedle arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun D. Gittard
- Nanotechnology Department, Laser Zentrum Hannover eV, Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexander Nguyen
- Nanotechnology Department, Laser Zentrum Hannover eV, Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Campus Box 7575, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599-7575, USA
| | - Kotaro Obata
- Nanotechnology Department, Laser Zentrum Hannover eV, Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Anastasia Koroleva
- Nanotechnology Department, Laser Zentrum Hannover eV, Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Roger J. Narayan
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Campus Box 7575, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599-7575, USA
| | - Boris N. Chichkov
- Nanotechnology Department, Laser Zentrum Hannover eV, Hollerithallee 8, D-30419 Hannover, Germany
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Three-Dimensional Open Cell Structures: Evaluation and Fabrication by Additive Manufacturing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-17782-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
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Ovsianikov A, Malinauskas M, Schlie S, Chichkov B, Gittard S, Narayan R, Löbler M, Sternberg K, Schmitz KP, Haverich A. Three-dimensional laser micro- and nano-structuring of acrylated poly(ethylene glycol) materials and evaluation of their cytoxicity for tissue engineering applications. Acta Biomater 2011; 7:967-74. [PMID: 20977947 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The natural cell environment is characterized by complex three-dimensional structures, which contain features at multiple length scales. Many in vitro studies of cell behavior in three dimensions rely on the availability of artificial scaffolds with controlled three-dimensional topologies. In this paper, we demonstrate fabrication of three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering out of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGda) materials by means of two-photon polymerization (2PP). This laser nanostructuring approach offers unique possibilities for rapid manufacturing of three-dimensional structures with arbitrary geometries. The spatial resolution dependence on the applied irradiation parameters is investigated for two PEGda formulations, which are characterized by molecular weights of 302 and 742. We demonstrate that minimum feature sizes of 200nm are obtained in both materials. In addition, an extensive study of the cytotoxicity of the material formulations with respect to photoinitiator type and photoinitiator concentration is undertaken. Aqueous extracts from photopolymerized PEGda samples indicate the presence of water-soluble molecules, which are toxic to fibroblasts. It is shown that sample aging in aqueous medium reduces the cytotoxicity of these extracts; this mechanism provides a route for biomedical applications of structures generated by 2PP microfabrication and photopolymerization technologies in general. Finally, a fully biocompatible combination of PEGda and a photoinitiator is identified. Fabrication of reproducible scaffold structures is very important for systematic investigation of cellular processes in three dimensions and for better understanding of in vitro tissue formation. The results of this work suggest that 2PP may be used to polymerize poly(ethylene glycol)-based materials into three-dimensional structures with well-defined geometries that mimic the physical and biological properties of native cell environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ovsianikov
- Laser Zentrum Hannover, Hollerithallee 8, Hannover, Germany.
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Abstract
The interest in organic-inorganic hybrids as materials for optics and photonics started more than 25 years ago and since then has known a continuous and strong growth. The high versatility of sol-gel processing offers a wide range of possibilities to design tailor-made materials in terms of structure, texture, functionality, properties and shape modelling. From the first hybrid material with optical functional properties that has been obtained by incorporation of an organic dye in a silica matrix, the research in the field has quickly evolved towards more sophisticated systems, such as multifunctional and/or multicomponent materials, nanoscale and self-assembled hybrids and devices for integrated optics. In the present critical review, we have focused our attention on three main research areas: passive and active optical hybrid sol-gel materials, and integrated optics. This is far from exhaustive but enough to give an overview of the huge potential of these materials in photonics and optics (254 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedicte Lebeau
- Equipe Matériaux à Porosité Contrôlée, Institut de Science des Matériaux de Mulhouse, CNRS LRC 7228, UHA-ENSCMu, 3 rue Alfred Werner, 68093 Mulhouse cedex, France
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Maruo S, Hasegawa T, Yoshimura N. Single-anchor support and supercritical CO2 drying enable high-precision microfabrication of three-dimensional structures. OPTICS EXPRESS 2009; 17:20945-51. [PMID: 19997332 DOI: 10.1364/oe.17.020945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In high-precision two-photon microfabrication of three-dimensional (3-D) polymeric microstructures, supercritical CO(2) drying was employed to reduce surface tension, which tends to cause the collapse of micro/nano structures. Use of supercritical drying allowed high-aspect ratio microstructures, such as micropillars and cantilevers, to be fabricated. We also propose a single-anchor supporting method to eliminate non-uniform shrinkage of polymeric structures otherwise caused by attachment to the substrate. Use of this method permitted frame models such as lattices to be produced without harmful distortion. The combination of supercritical CO(2) drying and the single-anchor supporting method offers reliable high-precision microfabrication of sophisticated, fragile 3-D micro/nano structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoji Maruo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hyuk Moon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 1 Shinsu-dong, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Korea, and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3231 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Shu Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 1 Shinsu-dong, Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742, Korea, and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3231 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
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