Insulin/IGF-regulated size scaling of neuroendocrine cells expressing the bHLH transcription factor Dimmed in Drosophila

Dimm targets GDAP2 to regulate larval development in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain transcription factors precisely regulate various developmental processes in insects. Dimm, a specific bHLH transcription factor, integrates the insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS) and juvenile hormone signaling (JHS) pathways to modulate larval development in silkworms. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation are not yet fully understood. This study aimed to determine the targets of Dimm through which it regulates larval development. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) revealed ganglioside-induced differentiation-associated protein 2 (GDAP2) as a direct downstream target gene of Dimm. Further study showed that Dimm directly binds to an enhancer element located in the second intron of the GDAP2 gene to promote its transcription. GDAP2 exhibited widespread expression across different stages and tissues of silkworms, regulated by both the IIS and the JHS pathways. The systemic knockout of GDAP2 leads to delayed larval development with a significant reduction in body weight; moreover, larval development was arrested at the 4th-instar stage. Further investigation unveiled that the inhibition of the ecdysone and innate immune signaling pathways in the mutant line led to abnormal larval development. A systematic investigation of the biological functions of GDAP2 offers valuable insights into the mechanism by which Dimm integrates IIS and JHS pathways to regulate the larval development of silkworms.

PI3K-Akt-SGF1-Dimm pathway mediates the nutritional regulation of silk protein synthesis in Bombyx mori

The efficient synthesis of silk protein is heavily reliant on the ingestion of massive nutrients during the peak growth phase in the silkworm. However, the molecular mechanism of nutritional regulation of silk protein synthesis remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the impact of nutrient deficiency on the synthesis of silk protein. Nutritional deficiency led to a reduction in silk yield, accompanied by decreased levels of silk proteins and fibroin heavy chain (FibH)-activating transcription factors SGF1 and Dimm. Furthermore, insulin enhanced the protein levels of SGF1 and Dimm, which can be attenuated by specific inhibitors of PI3K. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis showed that the nutrient pathway factor protein kinase B (Akt) could interact with SGF1 protein. Knockdown of Akt reduced the phosphorylation level of SGF1 and impedes its nuclear translocation. Further studies revealed that SGF1 was directly bound to Fkh site in the 22-43 region upstream of ATG of Dimm gene to activate its transcription. In conclusion, during the peak growth phase, nutrition promotes the massive synthesis of silk protein through the PI3K-Akt-SGF1-Dimm pathway. This study offers valuable insights into the efficient synthesis of silk proteins and establishes a theoretical foundation for improving silk yield.

Creation of Knock-In Alleles of Insulin Receptor Tagged by Fluorescent Proteins mCherry or EYFP in Fruit Fly Drosophila melanogaster

The insulin/insulin-like growth factor-like signaling (IIS) pathway is highly conserved across metazoans and regulates numerous physiological functions, including development, metabolism, fecundity, and lifespan. The insulin receptor (InR), a crucial membrane receptor in the IIS pathway, is known to be ubiquitously expressed in various tissues, albeit at generally low levels, and its subcellular localization remains incompletely characterized. In this study, we employed CRISPR-mediated mutagenesis in the fruit fly Drosophila to create knock-in alleles of InR tagged with fluorescent proteins (InR::mCherry or InR::EYFP). By inserting the coding sequence of the fluorescent proteins mCherry or EYFP near the end of the coding sequence of the endogenous InR gene, we could trace the natural InR protein through their fluorescence. As an example, we investigated epithelial cells of the male accessory gland (AG), an internal reproductive organ, and identified two distinct patterns of InR::mCherry localization. In young AG, InR::mCherry accumulated on the basal plasma membrane between cells, whereas in mature AG, it exhibited intracellular localization as multiple puncta, indicating endocytic recycling of InR during cell growth. In the AG senescence accelerated by the mutation of Diuretic hormone 31 (Dh31), the presence of InR::mCherry puncta was more pronounced compared to the wild type. These findings raise expectations for the utility of the newly created InR::mCherry/EYFP alleles for studying the precise expression levels and subcellular localization of InR. Furthermore, this fluorescently tagged allele approach can be extended to investigate other membrane receptors with low abundance, facilitating the direct examination of their true expression and localization.

Belly roll, a GPI-anchored Ly6 protein, regulates Drosophila melanogaster escape behaviors by modulating the excitability of nociceptive peptidergic interneurons

Appropriate modulation of escape behaviors in response to potentially damaging stimuli is essential for survival. Although nociceptive circuitry has been studied, it is poorly understood how genetic contexts affect relevant escape responses. Using an unbiased genome-wide association analysis, we identified an Ly6/α-neurotoxin family protein, Belly roll (Bero), which negatively regulates Drosophila nociceptive escape behavior. We show that Bero is expressed in abdominal leucokinin-producing neurons (ABLK neurons) and bero knockdown in ABLK neurons resulted in enhanced escape behavior. Furthermore, we demonstrated that ABLK neurons responded to activation of nociceptors and initiated the behavior. Notably, bero knockdown reduced persistent neuronal activity and increased evoked nociceptive responses in ABLK neurons. Our findings reveal that Bero modulates an escape response by regulating distinct neuronal activities in ABLK neurons.

Genetic variation of morphological scaling in Drosophila melanogaster

Morphological scaling relationships between the sizes of individual traits and the body captures the characteristic shape of a species, and their evolution is the primary mechanism of morphological diversification. However, we have almost no knowledge of the genetic variation of scaling, which is critical if we are to understand how scaling evolves. Here we explore the genetics of population scaling relationships (scaling relationships fit to multiple genetically-distinct individuals in a population) by describing the distribution of individual scaling relationships (genotype-specific scaling relationships that are unseen or cryptic). These individual scaling relationships harbor the genetic variation in the developmental mechanisms that regulate trait growth relative to body growth, and theoretical studies suggest that their distribution dictates how the population scaling relationship will respond to selection. Using variation in nutrition to generate size variation within 197 isogenic lineages of Drosophila melanogaster, we reveal extensive variation in the slopes of the wing-body and leg-body individual scaling relationships among genotypes. This variation reflects variation in the nutritionally-induced size plasticity of the wing, leg, and body. Surprisingly, we find that variation in the slope of individual scaling relationships primarily results from variation in nutritionally-induced plasticity of body size, not leg or wing size. These data allow us to predict how different selection regimes affect scaling in Drosophila, and is the first step in identifying the genetic targets of such selection. More generally, our approach provides a framework for understanding the genetic variation of scaling, an important prerequisite to explaining how selection changes scaling and morphology.

Dimmed gene knockout shortens larval growth and reduces silk yield in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The bHLH domain transcription factor, Bombyx mori-derived dimmed (Bmdimm), is directly regulated by the JH-BmMet/BmSRC-BmKr-h1 pathway and plays a key role in regulating the expression of FibH, which codes the main component of silk protein. However, the other roles of Bmdimm in silk protein synthesis remain unclear. Here, we established a Bmdimm knockout (KO) line containing a 7-bp deletion via CRISPR/Cas9 system, which led to the absence of the bHLH domain. The expression level of silk protein genes and silk yield decreased significantly in the Bmdimm KO line. Moreover, knocking out Bmdimm led to shortened larval stages and significant weight loss in larvae and adults. Bmdimm was found to be highly expressed in the silk gland, but it was also expressed in the fat body. The expression level of Bmkr-h1 in the fat body was significantly downregulated in the Bmdimm KO line. Exogenous JHA treatment upregulated Bmkr-h1 and rescued the phenotype of larval growth in the Bmdimm KO line. In conclusion, knocking out Bmdimm led to a shortened larval stage via the inhibition of Bmkr-h1 expression, then reduced silk yield. These findings help to elucidate the regulatory mechanism of fibroin synthesis and larval development in silkworms.

Leucokinin and Associated Neuropeptides Regulate Multiple Aspects of Physiology and Behavior in Drosophila

Leucokinins (LKs) constitute a family of neuropeptides identified in numerous insects and many other invertebrates. LKs act on G-protein-coupled receptors that display only distant relations to other known receptors. In adult Drosophila, 26 neurons/neurosecretory cells of three main types express LK. The four brain interneurons are of two types, and these are implicated in several important functions in the fly's behavior and physiology, including feeding, sleep-metabolism interactions, state-dependent memory formation, as well as modulation of gustatory sensitivity and nociception. The 22 neurosecretory cells (abdominal LK neurons, ABLKs) of the abdominal neuromeres co-express LK and a diuretic hormone (DH44), and together, these regulate water and ion homeostasis and associated stress as well as food intake. In Drosophila larvae, LK neurons modulate locomotion, escape responses and aspects of ecdysis behavior. A set of lateral neurosecretory cells, ALKs (anterior LK neurons), in the brain express LK in larvae, but inconsistently so in adults. These ALKs co-express three other neuropeptides and regulate water and ion homeostasis, feeding, and drinking, but the specific role of LK is not yet known. This review summarizes Drosophila data on embryonic lineages of LK neurons, functional roles of individual LK neuron types, interactions with other peptidergic systems, and orchestrating functions of LK.

Lead stress affects the reproduction of Spodoptera litura but not by regulating the vitellogenin gene promoter

Lead (Pb) stress affects hormone-mediated responses (e.g., reproduction) in insects. In this study, the effects of Pb stress (12.5-50 mg Pb/kg in larval artificial diets) on the reproduction of the common cutworm Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were investigated after 7 generations. The results showed that Pb stress did not reduce the longevity of adult females, but 50 mg Pb/kg significantly reduced the longevity of adult males, regardless of the generation. After 50 mg Pb/kg stress for one or 7 generations, the peak time of egg-laying was delayed, and egg production and hatchability were decreased significantly. The vitellin content in eggs was significantly inhibited by Pb stress. The S. litura vitellogenin (Vg) gene promoter was cloned and analyzed. Multiple putative transcription factors were predicted for the 2321 bp Vg promoter region, including the TATA box, GATA, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor, Broad-Complex (BR-C) binding sites, etc. The fragment from -2222 to -211 bp of the Vg promoter was the activation domain for Vg, whereas the region from -211 to -55 bp repressed the activity of the Vg promoter. The construct promoter (-782/+76) in Trichoplusia ni (Hi5) cells significantly improved Vg expression, which was not affected by Pb stress (1 or 10 mg/ml). Therefore, Pb stress significantly inhibited the reproduction of S. litura but not by regulating the Vg promoter.

Insulin signaling represents a gating mechanism between different memory phases in Drosophila larvae

The ability to learn new skills and to store them as memory entities is one of the most impressive features of higher evolved organisms. However, not all memories are created equal; some are short-lived forms, and some are longer lasting. Formation of the latter is energetically costly and by the reason of restricted availability of food or fluctuations in energy expanses, efficient metabolic homeostasis modulating different needs like survival, growth, reproduction, or investment in longer lasting memories is crucial. Whilst equipped with cellular and molecular pre-requisites for formation of a protein synthesis dependent long-term memory (LTM), its existence in the larval stage of Drosophila remains elusive. Considering it from the viewpoint that larval brain structures are completely rebuilt during metamorphosis, and that this process depends completely on accumulated energy stores formed during the larval stage, investing in LTM represents an unnecessary expenditure. However, as an alternative, Drosophila larvae are equipped with the capacity to form a protein synthesis independent so-called larval anaesthesia resistant memory (lARM), which is consolidated in terms of being insensitive to cold-shock treatments. Motivated by the fact that LTM formation causes an increase in energy uptake in Drosophila adults, we tested the idea of whether an energy surplus can induce the formation of LTM in the larval stage. Suprisingly, increasing the metabolic state by feeding Drosophila larvae the disaccharide sucrose directly before aversive olfactory conditioning led to the formation of a protein synthesis dependent longer lasting memory. Moreover, formation of this memory component is accompanied by the suppression of lARM. We ascertained that insulin receptors (InRs) expressed in the mushroom body Kenyon cells suppresses the formation of lARM and induces the formation of a protein synthesis dependent longer lasting memory in Drosophila larvae. Given the numerical simplicity of the larval nervous system this work offers a unique prospect to study the impact of insulin signaling on the formation of protein synthesis dependent memories on a molecular level.

Genetic Underpinnings of Host Manipulation by Ophiocordyceps as Revealed by Comparative Transcriptomics

Ant-infecting Ophiocordyceps fungi are globally distributed, host manipulating, specialist parasites that drive aberrant behaviors in infected ants, at a lethal cost to the host. An apparent increase in activity and wandering behaviors precedes a final summiting and biting behavior onto vegetation, which positions the manipulated ant in a site beneficial for fungal growth and transmission. We investigated the genetic underpinnings of host manipulation by: (i) producing a high-quality hybrid assembly and annotation of the Ophiocordyceps camponoti-floridani genome, (ii) conducting laboratory infections coupled with RNAseq of O. camponoti-floridani and its host, Camponotus floridanus, and (iii) comparing these data to RNAseq data of Ophiocordyceps kimflemingiae and Camponotus castaneus as a powerful method to identify gene expression patterns that suggest shared behavioral manipulation mechanisms across Ophiocordyceps-ant species interactions. We propose differentially expressed genes tied to ant neurobiology, odor response, circadian rhythms, and foraging behavior may result by activity of putative fungal effectors such as enterotoxins, aflatrem, and mechanisms disrupting feeding behaviors in the ant.

Organelle size scaling over embryonic development

Cell division without growth results in progressive cell size reductions during early embryonic development. How do the sizes of intracellular structures and organelles scale with cell size and what are the functional implications of such scaling relationships? Model organisms, in particular Caenorhabditis elegans worms, Drosophila melanogaster flies, Xenopus laevis frogs, and Mus musculus mice, have provided insights into developmental size scaling of the nucleus, mitotic spindle, and chromosomes. Nuclear size is regulated by nucleocytoplasmic transport, nuclear envelope proteins, and the cytoskeleton. Regulators of microtubule dynamics and chromatin compaction modulate spindle and mitotic chromosome size scaling, respectively. Developmental scaling relationships for membrane-bound organelles, like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, mitochondria, and lysosomes, have been less studied, although new imaging approaches promise to rectify this deficiency. While models that invoke limiting components and dynamic regulation of assembly and disassembly can account for some size scaling relationships in early embryos, it will be exciting to investigate the contribution of newer concepts in cell biology such as phase separation and interorganellar contacts. With a growing understanding of the underlying mechanisms of organelle size scaling, future studies promise to uncover the significance of proper scaling for cell function and embryonic development, as well as how aberrant scaling contributes to disease. This article is categorized under: Establishment of Spatial and Temporal Patterns > Regulation of Size, Proportion, and Timing Early Embryonic Development > Fertilization to Gastrulation Comparative Development and Evolution > Model Systems.

Roles of the insulin signaling pathway in insect development and organ growth

Organismal development is a complex process as it requires coordination of many aspects to grow into fit individuals, such as the control of body size and organ growth. Therefore, the mechanisms of precise control of growth are essential for ensuring the growth of organisms at a correct body size and proper organ proportions during development. The control of the growth rate and the duration of growth (or the cessation of growth) are required in size control. The insulin signaling pathway and the elements involved are essential in the control of growth. On the other hand, the ecdysteroid molting hormone determines the duration of growth. The secretion of these hormones is controlled by environmental factors such as nutrition. Moreover, the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway is considered as a nutrient sensing pathway. Important cross-talks have been shown to exist among these pathways. In this review, we outline the control of body and organ growth by the insulin/TOR signaling pathway, and also the interaction between nutrition via insulin/TOR signaling and ecdysteroids at the coordination of organismal development and organ growth in insects, mainly focusing on the well-studied fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.

ER-Ca2+ sensor STIM regulates neuropeptides required for development under nutrient restriction in Drosophila

Neuroendocrine cells communicate via neuropeptides to regulate behaviour and physiology. This study examines how STIM (Stromal Interacting Molecule), an ER-Ca²⁺ sensor required for Store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, regulates neuropeptides required for Drosophila development under nutrient restriction (NR). We find two STIM-regulated peptides, Corazonin and short Neuropeptide F, to be required for NR larvae to complete development. Further, a set of secretory DLP (Dorso lateral peptidergic) neurons which co-express both peptides was identified. Partial loss of dSTIM caused peptide accumulation in the DLPs, and reduced systemic Corazonin signalling. Upon NR, larval development correlated with increased peptide levels in the DLPs, which failed to occur when dSTIM was reduced. Comparison of systemic and cellular phenotypes associated with reduced dSTIM, with other cellular perturbations, along with genetic rescue experiments, suggested that dSTIM primarily compromises neuroendocrine function by interfering with neuropeptide release. Under chronic stimulation, dSTIM also appears to regulate neuropeptide synthesis.

Modulation of Drosophila post-feeding physiology and behavior by the neuropeptide leucokinin

Behavior and physiology are orchestrated by neuropeptides acting as central neuromodulators and circulating hormones. An outstanding question is how these neuropeptides function to coordinate complex and competing behaviors. In Drosophila, the neuropeptide leucokinin (LK) modulates diverse functions, but mechanisms underlying these complex interactions remain poorly understood. As a first step towards understanding these mechanisms, we delineated LK circuitry that governs various aspects of post-feeding physiology and behavior. We found that impaired LK signaling in Lk and Lk receptor (Lkr) mutants affects diverse but coordinated processes, including regulation of stress, water homeostasis, feeding, locomotor activity, and metabolic rate. Next, we sought to define the populations of LK neurons that contribute to the different aspects of this physiology. We find that the calcium activity in abdominal ganglia LK neurons (ABLKs), but not in the two sets of brain neurons, increases specifically following water consumption, suggesting that ABLKs regulate water homeostasis and its associated physiology. To identify targets of LK peptide, we mapped the distribution of Lkr expression, mined a brain single-cell transcriptome dataset for genes coexpressed with Lkr, and identified synaptic partners of LK neurons. Lkr expression in the brain insulin-producing cells (IPCs), gut, renal tubules and chemosensory cells, correlates well with regulatory roles detected in the Lk and Lkr mutants. Furthermore, these mutants and flies with targeted knockdown of Lkr in IPCs displayed altered expression of insulin-like peptides (DILPs) and transcripts in IPCs and increased starvation resistance. Thus, some effects of LK signaling appear to occur via DILP action. Collectively, our data suggest that the three sets of LK neurons have different targets, but modulate the establishment of post-prandial homeostasis by regulating distinct physiological processes and behaviors such as diuresis, metabolism, organismal activity and insulin signaling. These findings provide a platform for investigating feeding-related neuroendocrine regulation of vital behavior and physiology.

Substrates for Neuronal Cotransmission With Neuropeptides and Small Molecule Neurotransmitters in Drosophila

It has been known for more than 40 years that individual neurons can produce more than one neurotransmitter and that neuropeptides often are colocalized with small molecule neurotransmitters (SMNs). Over the years much progress has been made in understanding the functional consequences of cotransmission in the nervous system of mammals. There are also some excellent invertebrate models that have revealed roles of coexpressed neuropeptides and SMNs in increasing complexity, flexibility, and dynamics in neuronal signaling. However, for the fly Drosophila there are surprisingly few functional studies on cotransmission, although there is ample evidence for colocalization of neuroactive compounds in neurons of the CNS, based both on traditional techniques and novel single cell transcriptome analysis. With the hope to trigger interest in initiating cotransmission studies, this review summarizes what is known about Drosophila neurons and neuronal circuits where different neuropeptides and SMNs are colocalized. Coexistence of neuroactive substances has been recorded in different neuron types such as neuroendocrine cells, interneurons, sensory cells and motor neurons. Some of the circuits highlighted here are well established in the analysis of learning and memory, circadian clock networks regulating rhythmic activity and sleep, as well as neurons and neuroendocrine cells regulating olfaction, nociception, feeding, metabolic homeostasis, diuretic functions, reproduction, and developmental processes. One emerging trait is the broad role of short neuropeptide F in cotransmission and presynaptic facilitation in a number of different neuronal circuits. This review also discusses the functional relevance of coexisting peptides in the intestine. Based on recent single cell transcriptomics data, it is likely that the neuronal systems discussed in this review are just a fraction of the total set of circuits where cotransmission occurs in Drosophila. Thus, a systematic search for colocalized neuroactive compounds in further neurons in anatomically defined circuits is of interest for the near future.

Characterization of a set of abdominal neuroendocrine cells that regulate stress physiology using colocalized diuretic peptides in Drosophila

Multiple neuropeptides are known to regulate water and ion balance in Drosophila melanogaster. Several of these peptides also have other functions in physiology and behavior. Examples are corticotropin-releasing factor-like diuretic hormone (diuretic hormone 44; DH44) and leucokinin (LK), both of which induce fluid secretion by Malpighian tubules (MTs), but also regulate stress responses, feeding, circadian activity and other behaviors. Here, we investigated the functional relations between the LK and DH44 signaling systems. DH44 and LK peptides are only colocalized in a set of abdominal neurosecretory cells (ABLKs). Targeted knockdown of each of these peptides in ABLKs leads to increased resistance to desiccation, starvation and ionic stress. Food ingestion is diminished by knockdown of DH44, but not LK, and water retention is increased by LK knockdown only. Thus, the two colocalized peptides display similar systemic actions, but differ with respect to regulation of feeding and body water retention. We also demonstrated that DH44 and LK have additive effects on fluid secretion by MTs. It is likely that the colocalized peptides are coreleased from ABLKs into the circulation and act on the tubules where they target different cell types and signaling systems to regulate diuresis and stress tolerance. Additional targets seem to be specific for each of the two peptides and subserve regulation of feeding and water retention. Our data suggest that the ABLKs and hormonal actions are sufficient for many of the known DH44 and LK functions, and that the remaining neurons in the CNS play other functional roles.

A Complex Relationship between Immunity and Metabolism in Drosophila Diet-Induced Insulin Resistance

Both systemic insulin resistance and tissue-specific insulin resistance have been described in Drosophila and are accompanied by many indicators of metabolic disease. The downstream mediators of insulin-resistant pathophysiology remain unclear. We analyzed insulin signaling in the fat body studying loss and gain of function. When expression of the sole Drosophila insulin receptor (InR) was reduced in larval fat bodies, animals exhibited developmental delay and reduced size in a diet-dependent manner. Fat body InR knockdown also led to reduced survival on high-sugar diets. To look downstream of InR at potential mediators of insulin resistance, transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) studies in insulin-resistant fat bodies revealed differential expression of genes, including those involved in innate immunity. Obesity-associated insulin resistance led to increased susceptibility of flies to infection, as in humans. Reduced innate immunity was dependent on fat body InR expression. The peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) PGRP-SB2 and PGRP-SC2 were selected for further study based on differential expression studies. Downregulating PGRP-SB2 selectively in the fat body protected animals from the deleterious effects of overnutrition, whereas downregulating PGRP-SC2 produced InR-like phenotypes. These studies extend earlier work linking the immune and insulin signaling pathways and identify new targets of insulin signaling that could serve as potential drug targets to treat type 2 diabetes.

Reduced insulin signaling maintains electrical transmission in a neural circuit in aging flies

Lowered insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling (IIS) can extend healthy lifespan in worms, flies, and mice, but it can also have adverse effects (the “insulin paradox”). Chronic, moderately lowered IIS rescues age-related decline in neurotransmission through the Drosophila giant fiber system (GFS), a simple escape response neuronal circuit, by increasing targeting of the gap junctional protein innexin shaking-B to gap junctions (GJs). Endosomal recycling of GJs was also stimulated in cultured human cells when IIS was reduced. Furthermore, increasing the activity of the recycling small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) Rab4 or Rab11 was sufficient to maintain GJs upon elevated IIS in cultured human cells and in flies, and to rescue age-related loss of GJs and of GFS function. Lowered IIS thus elevates endosomal recycling of GJs in neurons and other cell types, pointing to a cellular mechanism for therapeutic intervention into aging-related neuronal disorders.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factors play an important role in the nervous system development and function. Reduced insulin signaling, however, can improve symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases in different model organisms and protect against age-associated decline in neuronal function extending lifespan. Here, we analyze the effects of genetically attenuated insulin signaling on the escape response pathway in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. This simple neuronal circuit is dominated by electrical synapses composed of the gap junctional shaking-B protein, which allows for the transfer of electrical impulses between cells. Transmission through the circuit is known to slow down with age. We show that this functional decline is prevented by systemic or circuit-specific suppression of insulin signaling due to the preservation of the number of gap junctional proteins in aging animals. Our experiments in a human cell culture system reveal increased membrane targeting of gap junctional proteins via small proteins Rab4 and Rab11 under reduced insulin conditions. We also find that increasing the level of these recycling-mediating proteins in flies preserves the escape response circuit output in old flies and suggests ways of improving the function of neuronal circuits dominated by electrical synapses during aging.

Transcriptional Reorganization of Drosophila Motor Neurons and Their Muscular Junctions toward a Neuroendocrine Phenotype by the bHLH Protein Dimmed

Neuroendocrine cells store and secrete bulk amounts of neuropeptides, and display morphological and molecular characteristics distinct from neurons signaling with classical neurotransmitters. In Drosophila the transcription factor Dimmed (Dimm), is a prime organizer of neuroendocrine capacity in a majority of the peptidergic neurons. These neurons display large cell bodies and extensive axon terminations that commonly do not form regular synapses. We ask which molecular compartments of a neuron are affected by Dimm to generate these morphological features. Thus, we ectopically expressed Dimm in glutamatergic, Dimm-negative, motor neurons and analyzed their characteristics in the central nervous system and the neuromuscular junction. Ectopic Dimm results in motor neurons with enlarged cell bodies, diminished dendrites, larger axon terminations and boutons, as well as reduced expression of synaptic proteins both pre and post-synaptically. Furthermore, the neurons display diminished vesicular glutamate transporter, and signaling components known to sustain interactions between the developing axon termination and muscle, such as wingless and frizzled are down regulated. Ectopic co-expression of Dimm and the insulin receptor augments most of the above effects on the motor neurons. In summary, ectopic Dimm expression alters the glutamatergic motor neuron phenotype toward a neuroendocrine one, both pre- and post-synaptically. Thus, Dimm is a key organizer of both secretory capacity and morphological features characteristic of neuroendocrine cells, and this transcription factor affects also post-synaptic proteins.

IP3R-mediated Ca2+ release regulates protein metabolism in Drosophila neuroendocrine cells: implications for development under nutrient stress

Successful completion of animal development is fundamentally reliant on nutritional cues. Surviving periods of nutritional insufficiency requires adaptations that are coordinated, in part, by neural circuits. As neuropeptides secreted by neuroendocrine (NE) cells modulate neural circuits, we investigated NE cell function during development under nutrient stress. Starved Drosophila larvae exhibited reduced pupariation if either insulin signaling or IP₃/Ca²⁺ signaling were downregulated in NE cells. Moreover, an IP₃R (inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor) loss-of-function mutant displayed reduced protein synthesis, which was rescued by overexpression of either InR (insulin receptor) or IP₃R in NE cells of the mutant, suggesting that the two signaling pathways might be functionally compensatory. Furthermore, cultured IP₃R mutant NE cells, but not neurons, exhibited reduced protein translation. Thus cell-specific regulation of protein synthesis by IP₃R in NE cells influences protein metabolism. We propose that this regulation helps developing animals survive in poor nutritional conditions.

Summary: Intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling regulates protein translation and can compensate for insulin signaling in specialized neuro-hormonal cells, thus enabling Drosophila larval to pupal development under acute starvation.

The Drosophila Transcription Factor Dimmed Affects Neuronal Growth and Differentiation in Multiple Ways Depending on Neuron Type and Developmental Stage

Growth of postmitotic neurons occurs during different stages of development, including metamorphosis, and may also be part of neuronal plasticity and regeneration. Recently we showed that growth of post-mitotic neuroendocrine cells expressing the basic helix loop helix (bHLH) transcription factor Dimmed (Dimm) in Drosophila could be regulated by insulin/IGF signaling and the insulin receptor (dInR). Dimm is also known to confer a secretory phenotype to neuroendocrine cells and can be part of a combinatorial code specifying terminal differentiation in peptidergic neurons. To further understand the mechanisms of Dimm function we ectopically expressed Dimm or Dimm together with dInR in a wide range of Dimm positive and Dimm negative peptidergic neurons, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, and gut endocrine cells. We provide further evidence that dInR mediated cell growth occurs in a Dimm dependent manner and that one source of insulin-like peptide (DILP) for dInR mediated cell growth in the CNS is DILP6 from glial cells. Expressing both Dimm and dInR in Dimm negative neurons induced growth of cell bodies, whereas dInR alone did not. We also found that Dimm alone can regulate cell growth depending on specific cell type. This may be explained by the finding that the dInR is a direct target of Dimm. Conditional gene targeting experiments showed that Dimm alone could affect cell growth in certain neuron types during metamorphosis or in the adult stage. Another important finding was that ectopic Dimm inhibits apoptosis of several types of neurons normally destined for programmed cell death (PCD). Taken together our results suggest that Dimm plays multiple transcriptional roles at different developmental stages in a cell type-specific manner. In some cell types ectopic Dimm may act together with resident combinatorial code transcription factors and affect terminal differentiation, as well as act in transcriptional networks that participate in long term maintenance of neurons which might lead to blocked apoptosis.

Variability in the number of abdominal leucokinergic neurons in adult Drosophila melanogaster

Developmental plasticity allows individuals with the same genotype to show different phenotypes in response to environmental changes. An example of this is how neuronal diversity is protected at the expense of neuronal number under sustained undernourishment during the development of the Drosophila optic lobe. In the development of the Drosophila central nervous system, neuroblasts go through two phases of neurogenesis separated by a period of mitotic quiescence. Although during embryonic development much evidence indicates that both cell number and the cell fates generated by each neuroblast are very precisely controlled in a cell autonomous manner, after quiescence extrinsic factors control the reactivation of neuroblast proliferation in a fashion that has not yet been elucidated. Moreover, there is very little information about whether environmental changes affect lineage progression during postembryonic neurogenesis. Using as a model system the pattern of abdominal leucokinergic neurons (ABLKs), we have analyzed how changes in a set of environmental factors affect the number of ABLKs generated during postembryonic neurogenesis. We describe the variability in ABLK number between individuals and between hemiganglia of the same individual and, by genetic analysis, we identify the bithorax-complex genes and the ecdysone hormone as critical factors in these differences. We also explore the possible adaptive roles involved in this process. J. Comp. Neurol. 525:639-660, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Drosophila insulin-like peptide 1 (DILP1) is transiently expressed during non-feeding stages and reproductive dormancy

The insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway is evolutionarily conserved in animals, and is part of nutrient-sensing mechanisms that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress responses, and lifespan. In Drosophila, eight insulin-like peptides (DILP1-8) are known, six of which have been investigated in some detail, whereas expression and functions of DILP1 and DILP4 remain enigmatic. Here we demonstrate that dilp1/DILP1 is transiently expressed in brain insulin producing cells (IPCs) from early pupa until a few days of adult life. However, in adult female flies where diapause is triggered by low temperature and short days, within a time window 0–10h post-eclosion, the dilp1/DILP1 expression remains high for at least 9 weeks. The dilp1 mRNA level is increased in dilp2, 3, 5 and dilp6 mutant flies, indicating feedback regulation. Furthermore, the DILP1 expression in IPCs is regulated by short neuropeptide F, juvenile hormone and presence of larval adipocytes. Male dilp1 mutant flies display increased lifespan and reduced starvation resistance, whereas in female dilp1 mutants oviposition is reduced. Thus, DILP1 is expressed in non-feeding stages and in diapausing flies, is under feedback regulation and appears to play sex-specific functional roles.

Insulin/IGF signaling and its regulation in Drosophila

Taking advantage of Drosophila as a genetically tractable experimental animal much progress has been made in our understanding of how the insulin/IGF signaling (IIS) pathway regulates development, growth, metabolism, stress responses and lifespan. The role of IIS in regulation of neuronal activity and behavior has also become apparent from experiments in Drosophila. This review briefly summarizes these functional roles of IIS, and also how the insulin producing cells (IPCs) are regulated in the fly. Furthermore, we discuss functional aspects of the spatio-temporal production of eight different insulin-like peptides (DILP1-8) that are thought to act on one known receptor (dInR) in Drosophila.

Serotonin and insulin-like peptides modulate leucokinin-producing neurons that affect feeding and water homeostasis in Drosophila

Metabolic homeostasis and water balance is maintained by tight hormonal and neuronal regulation. In Drosophila, insulin-like peptides (DILPs) are key regulators of metabolism, and the neuropeptide leucokinin (LK) is a diuretic hormone that also modulates feeding. However, it is not known whether LK and DILPs act together to regulate feeding and water homeostasis. Because LK neurons express the insulin receptor (dInR), we tested functional links between DILP and LK signaling in feeding and water balance. Thus, we performed constitutive and conditional manipulations of activity in LK neurons and insulin-producing cells (IPCs) in adult flies and monitored food intake, responses to desiccation, and peptide expression levels. We also measured in vivo changes in LK and DILP levels in neurons in response to desiccation and drinking. Our data show that activated LK cells stimulate diuresis in vivo, and that LK and IPC signaling affect food intake in opposite directions. Overexpression of the dInR in LK neurons decreases the LK peptide levels, but only caused a subtle decrease in feeding, and had no effect on water balance. Next we demonstrated that LK neurons express the serotonin receptor 5-HT1B . Knockdown of this receptor in LK neurons diminished LK expression, increased desiccation resistance, and diminished food intake. Live calcium imaging indicates that serotonin inhibits spontaneous activity in abdominal LK neurons. Our results suggest that serotonin via 5-HT1B diminishes activity in the LK neurons and thereby modulates functions regulated by LK peptide, but the action of the dInR in these neurons remains less clear.

Genome-wide features of neuroendocrine regulation in Drosophila by the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor DIMMED

Neuroendocrine (NE) cells use large dense core vesicles (LDCVs) to traffic, process, store and secrete neuropeptide hormones through the regulated secretory pathway. The dimmed (DIMM) basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor of Drosophila controls the level of regulated secretory activity in NE cells. To pursue its mechanisms, we have performed two independent genome-wide analyses of DIMM's activities: (i) in vivo chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to define genomic sites of DIMM occupancy and (ii) deep sequencing of purified DIMM neurons to characterize their transcriptional profile. By this combined approach, we showed that DIMM binds to conserved E-boxes in enhancers of 212 genes whose expression is enriched in DIMM-expressing NE cells. DIMM binds preferentially to certain E-boxes within first introns of specific gene isoforms. Statistical machine learning revealed that flanking regions of putative DIMM binding sites contribute to its DNA binding specificity. DIMM's transcriptional repertoire features at least 20 LDCV constituents. In addition, DIMM notably targets the pro-secretory transcription factor, creb-A, but significantly, DIMM does not target any neuropeptide genes. DIMM therefore prescribes the scale of secretory activity in NE neurons, by a systematic control of both proximal and distal points in the regulated secretory pathway.

Peptidergic cell-specific synaptotagmins in Drosophila: localization to dense-core granules and regulation by the bHLH protein DIMMED

Bioactive peptides are packaged in large dense-core secretory vesicles, which mediate regulated secretion by exocytosis. In a variety of tissues, the regulated release of neurotransmitters and hormones is dependent on calcium levels and controlled by vesicle-associated synaptotagmin (SYT) proteins. Drosophila express seven SYT isoforms, of which two (SYT-α and SYT-β) were previously found to be enriched in neuroendocrine cells. Here we show that SYT-α and SYT-β tissue expression patterns are similar, though not identical. Furthermore, both display significant overlap with the bHLH transcription factor DIMM, a known neuroendocrine (NE) regulator. RNAi-mediated knockdown indicates that both SYT-α and SYT-β functions are essential in identified NE cells as these manipulations phenocopy loss-of-function states for the indicated peptide hormones. In Drosophila cell culture, both SYT-α and neuropeptide cargo form DIMM-dependent fluorescent puncta that are coassociated by super-resolution microscopy. DIMM is required to maintain SYT-α and SYT-β protein levels in DIMM-expressing cells in vivo. In neurons normally lacking all three proteins (DIMM(-)/SYT-α(-)/SYT-β(-)), DIMM misexpression conferred accumulation of endogenous SYT-α and SYT-β proteins. Furthermore transgenic SYT-α does not appreciably accumulate in nonpeptidergic neurons in vivo but does so if DIMM is comisexpressed. Among Drosophila syt genes, only syt-α and syt-β RNA levels are upregulated by DIMM overexpression. Together, these data suggest that SYT-α and SYT-β are important for NE cell physiology, that one or both are integral membrane components of the large dense-core vesicles, and that they are closely regulated by DIMM at a post-transcriptional level.

Drosophila insulin-producing cells are differentially modulated by serotonin and octopamine receptors and affect social behavior

A set of 14 insulin-producing cells (IPCs) in the Drosophila brain produces three insulin-like peptides (DILP2, 3 and 5). Activity in IPCs and release of DILPs is nutrient dependent and controlled by multiple factors such as fat body-derived proteins, neurotransmitters, and neuropeptides. Two monoamine receptors, the octopamine receptor OAMB and the serotonin receptor 5-HT1A, are expressed by the IPCs. These receptors may act antagonistically on adenylate cyclase. Here we investigate the action of the two receptors on activity in and output from the IPCs. Knockdown of OAMB by targeted RNAi led to elevated Dilp3 transcript levels in the brain, whereas 5-HT1A knockdown resulted in increases of Dilp2 and 5. OAMB-RNAi in IPCs leads to extended survival of starved flies and increased food intake, whereas 5-HT1A-RNAi produces the opposite phenotypes. However, knockdown of either OAMB or 5-HT1A in IPCs both lead to increased resistance to oxidative stress. In assays of carbohydrate levels we found that 5-HT1A knockdown in IPCs resulted in elevated hemolymph glucose, body glycogen and body trehalose levels, while no effects were seen after OAMB knockdown. We also found that manipulations of the two receptors in IPCs affected male aggressive behavior in different ways and 5-HT1A-RNAi reduced courtship latency. Our observations suggest that activation of 5-HT1A and OAMB signaling in IPCs generates differential effects on Dilp transcription, fly physiology, metabolism and social interactions. However the findings do not support an antagonistic action of the two monoamines and their receptors in this particular system.