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Syeda SM, Tsegai ZJ, Cazenave M, Skinner MM, Kivell TL. Cortical bone distribution of the proximal phalanges in great apes: implications for reconstructing manual behaviours. J Anat 2023; 243:707-728. [PMID: 37358024 PMCID: PMC10557399 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Primate fingers are typically in direct contact with the environment during both locomotion and manipulation, and aspects of external phalangeal morphology are known to reflect differences in hand use. Since bone is a living tissue that can adapt in response to loading through life, the internal bone architecture of the manual phalanges should also reflect differences in manual behaviours. Here, we use the R package Morphomap to analyse high-resolution microCT scans of hominid proximal phalanges of digits 2-5 to determine whether cortical bone structure reflects variation in manual behaviours between bipedal (Homo), knuckle-walking (Gorilla, Pan) and suspensory (Pongo) taxa. We test the hypothesis that relative cortical bone distribution patterns and cross-sectional geometric properties will differ both among extant great apes and across the four digits due to locomotor and postural differences. Results indicate that cortical bone structure reflects the varied hand postures employed by each taxon. The phalangeal cortices of Pongo are significantly thinner and have weaker cross-sectional properties relative to the African apes, yet thick cortical bone under their flexor sheath ridges corresponds with predicted loading during flexed finger grips. Knuckle-walking African apes have even thicker cortical bone under the flexor sheath ridges, as well as in the region proximal to the trochlea, but Pan also has thicker diaphyseal cortices than Gorilla. Humans display a distinct pattern of distodorsal thickening, as well as relatively thin cortices, which may reflect the lack of phalangeal curvature combined with frequent use of flexed fingered hand grips during manipulation. Within each taxon, digits 2-5 have a similar cortical distribution in Pongo, Gorilla and, unexpectedly, Homo, which suggest similar loading of all fingers during habitual locomotion or hand use. In Pan, however, cortical thickness differs between the fingers, potentially reflecting differential loading during knuckle-walking. Inter- and intra-generic variation in phalangeal cortical bone structure reflects differences in manual behaviours, offering a comparative framework for reconstructing hand use in fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samar M. Syeda
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Organismal Biology and AnatomyUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Marine Cazenave
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Division of AnthropologyAmerican Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Health SciencesUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Department of Human OriginsMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
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2
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Wei P, Cazenave M, Zhao Y, Xing S. Structural properties of the Late Pleistocene Liujiang femoral diaphyses from southern China. J Hum Evol 2023; 183:103424. [PMID: 37738922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
The characterization of the femoral diaphysis in Pleistocene hominins with chronoecogeographical diversity plays a crucial role in evaluating evolutionary shifts in locomotor behavior and body shape. However, Pleistocene hominin fossil remains in East Asia are scarce and are widely dispersed temporally and spatially, impeding our comprehension of the nature and polarity of morphological trends. Here, we present qualitative and quantitative analyses of the cross-sectional properties and structural organization of diaphyses in two Late Pleistocene hominin femora (Liujiang PA91 and PA92) from southern China, comparing them to other Eurasian and African Pleistocene hominins. By integrating surface features and internal structure, our findings reveal that the Liujiang femora exhibit modern human-like characteristics, including a developed pilaster, a gluteal buttress, and minimum mediolateral breadth located at the midshaft. The presence of a femoral pilaster may relate to posterior cortical reinforcement and an increased anteroposterior bending rigidity along the mid-proximal to mid-distal portion of the diaphysis. Compared to archaic Homo, Liujiang and other Late Pleistocene modern human femora show a thinner mediolateral cortex and lower bending rigidity than the anteroposterior axis, and a lack of medial buttress, potentially indicating functionally related alterations in a range of pelvic and proximal femoral features throughout the Pleistocene. The femoral robusticity of the Liujiang individual resembles that of other Pleistocene hunter-gatherers from East Asia, implying comparable overall mobility or activity levels. The investigation of Liujiang femoral diaphyseal morphology contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of early modern human postcranial structural morphology in East Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pianpian Wei
- Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China; Institute of Archaeological Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China; Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human Journey, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Marine Cazenave
- Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA; Skeletal Biology Research Centre at the School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK; Department of Anatomy and Histology, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Yuhao Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100044, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing, 100044, China.
| | - Song Xing
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing, 100044, China; Centro Nacional de Investigación Sobre La Evolución Humana (CENIEH), Paseo de La Sierra de Atapuerca S/n, 09002, Burgos, Spain
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3
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O'Mahoney TG, Lowe T, Chamberlain AT, Sellers WI. Endostructural and periosteal growth of the human humerus. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:60-78. [PMID: 36054304 PMCID: PMC10086792 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The growth and development of long bones are of considerable interests in the fields of comparative anatomy and palaeoanthropology, as evolutionary changes and adaptations to specific physical activity patterns are expected to be revealed during bone ontogeny. Traditionally, the cross-sectional geometry of long bones has been examined at discrete locations usually placed at set intervals or fixed percentage distances along the midline axis of the bone shaft. More recently, the technique of morphometric mapping has enabled the continuous analysis of shape variation along the shaft. Here we extend this technique to the full sequence of late fetal and postnatal development of the humeral shaft in a modern human population sample, with the aim of establishing the shape changes during growth and their relationship with the development of the arm musculature and activity patterns. A sample of modern human humeri from individuals of age ranging from 24 weeks in utero to 18 years was imaged using microtomography at multiple resolutions and custom Matlab scripts. Standard biomechanical properties, cortical thickness, surface curvature, and pseudo-landmarks were extracted along radial vectors spaced at intervals of 1° at each 0.5% longitudinal increment measured along the shaft axis. Heat maps were also generated for cortical thickness and surface curvature. The results demonstrate that a whole bone approach to analysis of cross-sectional geometry is more desirable where possible, as there is a continuous pattern of variation along the shaft. It is also possible to discriminate very young individuals and adolescents from other groups by relative cortical thickness, and also by periosteal surface curvature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas George O'Mahoney
- School of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK.,School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Tristan Lowe
- Henry Moseley X-Ray Imaging Facility, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | | | - William Irvin Sellers
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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4
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Wollmann JS, Marshall AS, Schrank M, Gruss LT. Tibial torsion and pressures in the feet during walking: Implications for patterns of metatarsal robusticity. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2023; 180:115-126. [PMID: 36790669 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The Dmanisi Homo fossils include a tibia with a low degree of torsion and metatarsals with a pattern of robusticity differing from modern humans. It has been proposed that low tibial torsion would cause a low foot progression angle (FPA) in walking, and consequently increased force applied to the medial rays. This could explain the more robust MT III and IV from Dmanisi. Here we experimentally tested these hypothesized biomechanical relationships in living human subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS We measured transmalleolar axis (TMA, a proxy for tibial torsion), FPA, and plantar pressure distributions during walking in young men (n = 40). TMA was measured externally using a newly developed method. A pressure mat recorded FPA and pressure under the metatarsal heads (MT I vs. MT II-IV vs. MT V). RESULTS TMA is positively correlated with FPA, but only in the right foot. Plantar pressure under MT II-IV does increase with lower TMA, as predicted, but FPA does not affect pressure. Body mass index also influenced plantar pressure distribution. DISCUSSION Lower tibial torsion in humans is associated with slightly increased pressures along the middle rays of the foot during walking, but not because of changes in FPA. Therefore, it is possible that the low degree of torsion in the Dmanisi Homo tibia is related to the unusual pattern of robusticity in the associated metatarsals, but the mechanism behind this relationship is unclear. Future work will explore TMA, FPA, and plantar pressures during running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica S Wollmann
- Department of Anthropological Sciences, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA.,Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Aubree S Marshall
- Department of Anthropological Sciences, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA.,Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - McKenzie Schrank
- Department of Anthropological Sciences, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA.,Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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5
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Sarringhaus L, Lewton KL, Iqbal S, Carlson KJ. Ape femoral-humeral rigidities and arboreal locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2022; 179:624-639. [PMID: 36790629 PMCID: PMC9828227 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study investigates patterns of bone functional adaptations in extant apes through comparing hindlimb to forelimb bone rigidity ratios in groups with varying levels of arboreality. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using CT scans, bone rigidity (J) was calculated at three regions of interest (ROI) along femoral and humeral diaphyses in Homo, Pongo, Pan, and Gorilla with further comparisons made between species and subspecies divisions within Pan and Gorilla. RESULTS Consistent with previous work on extant hominoids, species exhibited differences in midshaft femoral to humeral (F/H) rigidity ratios. Results of the present study confirm that these midshaft differences extend to 35% and 65% diaphyseal ROIs. Modern humans, exhibiting larger ratios, and orangutans, exhibiting smaller ratios, bracketed the intermediate African apes in comparisons. Within some African apes, limb rigidity ratios varied significantly between taxonomic groups. Eastern gorillas exhibited the highest mean ratios and chimpanzees the lowest at all three ROIs. In posthoc comparisons, chimpanzees and bonobos did not differ in relative limb rigidity ratios at any of the three ROIs. However, western gorillas were more similar to bonobos than eastern gorillas at 50% and 35% ROIs, but not at the 65% ROI. CONCLUSION Species, and to a lesser extent subspecies, can be distinguished by F/H limb rigidity ratios according to broad positional behavior patterns at multiple regions of interest along the diaphyses. Similarity of bonobos and western gorillas is in line with behavioral data of bonobos being the most terrestrial of Pan species, and western gorillas the most arboreal of the Gorilla groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Sarringhaus
- Department of Evolutionary AnthropologyDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA,Department of AnthropologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMichiganUSA,Department of BiologyJames Madison UniversityHarrisonburgVirginiaUSA
| | - Kristi L. Lewton
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Safiyyah Iqbal
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental SciencesUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburgSouth Africa
| | - Kristian J. Carlson
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA,Evolutionary Studies InstituteUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburgSouth Africa
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6
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Wagstaffe AY, O'Driscoll AM, Kunz CJ, Rayfield EJ, Janis CM. Divergent locomotor evolution in "giant" kangaroos: Evidence from foot bone bending resistances and microanatomy. J Morphol 2022; 283:313-332. [PMID: 34997777 PMCID: PMC9303454 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The extinct sthenurine (giant, short-faced) kangaroos have been proposed to have a different type of locomotor behavior to extant (macropodine) kangaroos, based both on physical limitations (the size of many exceeds the proposed limit for hopping) and anatomical features (features of the hind limb anatomy suggestive of weight-bearing on one leg at a time). Here, we use micro computerised tomography (micro-CT) scans of the pedal bones of six kangaroos, three sthenurine, and three macropodine, ranging from ~50 to 150 kg, to investigate possible differences in bone resistances to bending and cortical bone distribution that might relate to differences in locomotion. Using second moment of area analysis, we show differences in resistance to bending between the two subfamilies. Distribution of cortical bone shows that sthenurines had less resistant calcaneal tubers, implying a different foot posture during locomotion, and the long foot bones were more resistant to the medial bending stresses. These differences were the most pronounced between Pleistocene monodactyl sthenurines (Sthenurus stirlingi and Procoptodon browneorum) and the two species of Macropus (the extant M. giganteus and the extinct M. cf. M. titan) and support the hypothesis that these derived sthenurines employed bipedal striding. The Miocene sthenurine Hadronomas retains some more macropodine-like features of bone resistance to bending, perhaps reflecting its retention of the fifth pedal digit. The Pleistocene macropodine Protemnodon has a number of unique features, possibly indicative of a type of locomotion unlike the other kangaroos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Y Wagstaffe
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Energy and Environment Institute, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Adrian M O'Driscoll
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Center for Anatomical and Human Studies, Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Callum J Kunz
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Emily J Rayfield
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Christine M Janis
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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7
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Anaya A, Patel BA, Orr CM, Ward CV, Almécija S. Evolutionary trends of the lateral foot in catarrhine primates: Contextualizing the fourth metatarsal of Australopithecus afarensis. J Hum Evol 2021; 161:103078. [PMID: 34749002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In 2000, a complete fourth metatarsal (Mt4) of the ∼3- to 4-Million-year-old hominin Australopithecus afarensis was recovered in Hadar, Ethiopia. This metatarsal presented a mostly human-like morphology, suggesting that a rigid lateral foot may have evolved as early as ∼3.2 Ma. The lateral foot is integral in providing stability during the push off phase of gait and is key in understanding the transition to upright, striding bipedalism. Previous comparisons of this fossil were limited to Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, and modern humans. This study builds on previous studies by contextualizing the Mt4 morphology of A. afarensis (A.L. 333-160) within a diverse comparative sample of nonhuman hominoids (n = 144) and cercopithecids (n = 138) and incorporates other early hominins (n = 3) and fossil hominoids that precede the Pan-Homo split (n = 4) to better assess the polarity of changes in lateral foot morphology surrounding this divergence. We investigate seven morphological features argued to be functionally linked to human-like bipedalism. Our results show that some human-like characters used to assess midfoot and lateral foot stiffness in the hominin fossil record are present in our Miocene ape sample as well as in living cercopithecids. Furthermore, modern nonhuman hominoids can be generally distinguished from other species in most metrics. These results suggest that the possession of a rigid foot in hominins could represent a conserved trait, whereas the specialized pedal grasping mechanics of extant apes may be more derived, in which case some traits often used to infer bipedal locomotion in early hominins may, instead, reflect a lower reliance on pedal grasping. Another possibility is that early hominins reverted from modern ape Mt4 morphology into a more plesiomorphic condition when terrestrial bipedality became a dominant behavior. More fossils dating around the Pan-Homo divergence time are necessary to test these competing hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisha Anaya
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27705, USA; Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, 10024, USA.
| | - Biren A Patel
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA; Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Caley M Orr
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Carol V Ward
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Sergio Almécija
- Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, 10024, USA; New York Consortium of Evolutionary Primatology, New York, NY, 10024, USA; Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
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8
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Biomechanical Evaluation on the Bilateral Asymmetry of Complete Humeral Diaphysis in Chinese Archaeological Populations. Symmetry (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/sym13101843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry (CSG) is an effective indicator of humeral bilateral asymmetry. However, previous studies primarily focused on CSG properties from limited locations to represent the overall bilateral biomechanical performance of humeral diaphysis. In this study, the complete humeral diaphyses of 40 pairs of humeri from three Chinese archaeological populations were scanned using high-resolution micro-CT, and their biomechanical asymmetries were quantified by morphometric mapping. Patterns of humeral asymmetry were compared between sub-groups defined by sex and population, and the representativeness of torsional rigidity asymmetry at the 35% and 50% cross-sections (J35 and J50 asymmetry) was testified. Inter-group differences were observed on the mean morphometric maps, but were not statistically significant. Analogous distribution patterns of highly asymmetrical regions, which correspond to major muscle attachments, were observed across nearly all the sexes and populations. The diaphyseal regions with high variability of bilateral asymmetry tended to present a low asymmetrical level. The J35 and J50 asymmetry were related to the overall humeral asymmetry, but the correlation was moderate and they could not reflect localized asymmetrical features across the diaphysis. This study suggests that the overall asymmetry pattern of humeral diaphysis is more complicated than previously revealed by individual sections.
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Profico A, Bondioli L, Raia P, O'Higgins P, Marchi D. morphomap: An R package for long bone landmarking, cortical thickness, and cross‐sectional geometry mapping. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:129-139. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Profico
- PalaeoHub, Department of Archaeology University of York York UK
| | - Luca Bondioli
- Service of Bioarchaeology Service Museo delle Civiltà Rome Italy
| | - Pasquale Raia
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, dell'Ambiente e delle Risorse Università di Napoli Federico II Naples Italy
| | - Paul O'Higgins
- PalaeoHub, Department of Archaeology University of York York UK
- Hull York Medical School University of York York UK
- Centre for Forensic Anthropology University of Western Australia Perth Australia
| | - Damiano Marchi
- Department of Biology University of Pisa Pisa Italy
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in PalaeoSciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg‐Braamfontein South Africa
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10
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Patel BA, Orr CM, Jashashvili T. Strength properties of extant hominoid hallucal and pollical metapodials. J Hum Evol 2020; 143:102774. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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11
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Morphometric analysis of the hominin talus: Evolutionary and functional implications. J Hum Evol 2020; 142:102747. [PMID: 32240884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of bipedalism is a key benchmark in human evolution that has impacted talar morphology. Here, we investigate talar morphological variability in extinct and extant hominins using a 3D geometric morphometric approach. The evolutionary timing and appearance of modern human-like features and their contributions to bipedal locomotion were evaluated on the talus as a whole, each articular facet separately, and multiple combinations of facets. Distinctive suites of features are consistently present in all fossil hominins, despite the presence of substantial interspecific variation, suggesting a potential connection of these suites to bipedal gait. A modern human-like condition evolved in navicular and lateral malleolar facets early in the hominin lineage compared with other facets, which demonstrate more complex morphological variation within Homininae. Interestingly, navicular facet morphology of Australopithecus afarensis is derived in the direction of Homo, whereas more recent hominin species such as Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus sediba retain more primitive states in this facet. Combining the navicular facet with the trochlea and the posterior calcaneal facet as a functional suite, however, distinguishes Australopithecus from Homo in that the medial longitudinal arch had not fully developed in the former. Our results suggest that a more everted foot and stiffer medial midtarsal region are adaptations that coincide with the emergence of bipedalism, whereas a high medial longitudinal arch emerges later in time, within Homo. This study provides novel insights into the emergence of talar morphological traits linked to bipedalism and its transition from a facultative to an obligate condition.
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12
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Wilson LAB, De Groote I, Humphrey LT. Sex differences in the patterning of age-related bone loss in the human hallucal metatarsal in rural and urban populations. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 171:628-644. [PMID: 31925961 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Age-degenerative features of the metatarsals are poorly known despite the importance of metatarsal bone properties for investigating mobility patterns. We assessed the role of habitual activity in shaping the patterning and magnitude of sexual dimorphism in age-related bone loss in the hallucal metatarsal. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cross-sections were extracted at midshaft from micro-computed tomography scan models of individuals from medieval rural (Abingdon Vineyard) and early industrial urban (Spitalfields) settings (n = 71). A suite of cross-sectional geometry dimensions and biomechanical properties were compared between populations. RESULTS The rural group display generally stronger and larger metatarsals that show a greater capacity to resist torsion and that have comparatively greater bending strength along the medio-lateral plane. Men in both groups show greater values of cortical area than women, but only in the urban group do men show lower magnitudes of age-related decline compared to females. Women in rural and urban populations show different patterns of age-related decline in bone mass, particularly old women in the urban group show a marked decline in cortical area that is absent for women in the rural group. DISCUSSION Lifetime exposure to hard, physical activity in an agricultural setting has contributed to the attainment of greater bone mass and stronger bones in young adults. Furthermore, over the life-course, less of this greater amount of bone is lost, such that sustained activity levels may have acted to buffer against age-related decline, and this is most pronounced for women, who are expected to experience greater bone loss later in life than men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A B Wilson
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Isabelle De Groote
- School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
- Department of Archaeology, Section Prehistory of western Europe, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Louise T Humphrey
- Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum London, London, UK
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13
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Sorrentino R, Stephens NB, Carlson KJ, Figus C, Fiorenza L, Frost S, Harcourt-Smith W, Parr W, Saers J, Turley K, Wroe S, Belcastro MG, Ryan TM, Benazzi S. The influence of mobility strategy on the modern human talus. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 171:456-469. [PMID: 31825095 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The primate talus is known to have a shape that varies according to differences in locomotion and substrate use. While the modern human talus is morphologically specialized for bipedal walking, relatively little is known on how its morphology varies in relation to cultural and environmental differences across time. Here we compare tali of modern human populations with different subsistence economies and lifestyles to explore how cultural practices and environmental factors influence external talar shape. MATERIALS AND METHODS The sample consists of digital models of 142 tali from 11 archaeological and post-industrial modern human groups. Talar morphology was investigated through 3D (semi)landmark based geometric morphometric methods. RESULTS Our results show distinct differences between highly mobile hunter-gatherers and more sedentary groups belonging to a mixed post-agricultural/industrial background. Hunter-gatherers exhibit a more "flexible" talar shape, everted posture, and a more robust and medially oriented talar neck/head, which we interpret as reflecting long-distance walking strictly performed barefoot, or wearing minimalistic footwear, along uneven ground. The talus of the post-industrial population exhibits a "stable" profile, neutral posture, and a less robust and orthogonally oriented talar neck/head, which we interpret as a consequence of sedentary lifestyle and use of stiff footwear. DISCUSSION We suggest that talar morphological variation is related to the adoption of constraining footwear in post-industrial society, which reduces ankle range of motion. This contrasts with hunter-gatherers, where talar shape shows a more flexible profile, likely resulting from a lack of footwear while traversing uneven terrain. We conclude that modern human tali vary with differences in locomotor and cultural behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Sorrentino
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, Ravenna, Italy
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania
| | - Kristian J Carlson
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Palaeosciences Centre, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Carla Figus
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, Ravenna, Italy
| | - Luca Fiorenza
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,Earth Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephen Frost
- Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon
| | - William Harcourt-Smith
- Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York.,New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, New York.,Department of Anthropology, Lehman College, New York, New York.,Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York
| | - William Parr
- Surgical and Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Prince of Wales Hospital, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jaap Saers
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology & Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kevin Turley
- Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon
| | - Stephen Wroe
- Function, Evolution and Anatomy Research Laboratory, Zoology Division, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Maria G Belcastro
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,ADES, UMR 7268 CNRS/Aix-Marseille Université/EFS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille Cedex 15, France
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania
| | - Stefano Benazzi
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, Ravenna, Italy.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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14
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Cortical bone distribution in the femoral neck of Paranthropus robustus. J Hum Evol 2019; 135:102666. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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15
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Marchi D, Harper C, Chirchir H, Ruff C. Relative fibular strength and locomotor behavior in KNM-WT 15000 and OH 35. J Hum Evol 2019; 131:48-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Komza K, Skinner MM. First metatarsal trabecular bone structure in extant hominoids and Swartkrans hominins. J Hum Evol 2019; 131:1-21. [PMID: 31182196 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Changes in first metatarsal (MT1) morphology within the hominin clade are crucial for reconstructing the evolution of a forefoot adapted for human-like gait. Studies of the external morphology of the MT1 in humans, non-human apes, and fossil hominins have documented changes in its robusticity, epiphyseal shape and its articulation with the medial cuneiform. Here, we test whether trabecular structure in the MT1 reflects different loading patterns in the forefoot across extant large apes and humans, and within this comparative context, infer locomotor behavior in two fossil hominins from Swartkrans, South Africa. Microtomographic scans were collected from the MT1 of Pongo sp. (n = 6), Gorilla gorilla (n = 10), Pan troglodytes (n = 10), Homo sapiens (n = 11), as well as SKX 5017 (Paranthropus robustus), and SK 1813 (Hominin gen. sp. indet.). Trabecular structure was quantified within the head and base using a 'whole-epiphysis' approach with medtool 4.2. We found that modern humans displayed relatively higher bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the dorsal region of each epiphysis and a higher overall degree of anisotropy (DA), whereas great apes showed higher BV/TV in the plantar regions, reflecting dorsiflexion at the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint in the former and plantarflexion in the latter. Both fossils displayed low DA, with SKX 5017 showing a hyper-dorsal concentration of trabecular bone in the head (similar to humans), while SK 1813 showed a more central trabecular distribution not seen in either humans or non-human apes. Additionally, we found differences between non-human apes, modern humans, and the fossil taxa in trabecular spacing (Tb.Sp.), number (Tb.N.), and thickness (Tb.th.). While low DA in both fossils suggests increased mobility of the MT1, differences in their trabecular distributions could indicate variable locomotion in these Pleistocene hominins (recognizing that the juvenile status of SK 1813 is a potential confounding factor). In particular, evidence for consistent loading in hyper-dorsiflexion in SKX 5017 would suggest locomotor behaviors beyond human-like toe off during terrestrial locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Komza
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Canada; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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17
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Macintosh AA, Stock JT. Intensive terrestrial or marine locomotor strategies are associated with inter- and intra-limb bone functional adaptation in living female athletes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 168:566-581. [PMID: 30613942 PMCID: PMC6519197 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To systematically characterize intra-limb patterns of skeletal plasticity to loading among living women, in order to better understand regional complexity in structural adaptation within the lower limb and more accurately infer behavior in the past. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used peripheral quantitative computed tomography imaging of the femur, tibia, first and second metatarsals to quantify bone morphology among female controls and athletes representative of either terrestrial or marine mobility, grouped by loading category (odd-impact, repetitive low-impact, and high-magnitude). Parameters included midshaft bone density, areas, rigidity, and shape, epiphyseal bone densities and areas. We assessed between-group differences and the influence of training history on significant variation among the loading groups. RESULTS Terrestrial mobility strategies were best distinguished by significant midshaft periosteal hypertrophy across the lower limb/foot relative to controls, and by particularly high midshaft femoral and tibial cortical bone areas relative to rowers. Enhanced midshaft bone area was typically paired with decreased bone density among athlete groups. Sport-specific variation in training duration/timing was significantly correlated with multiple midshaft parameters. DISCUSSION Results demonstrate characteristic patterns of intra-limb adaptation to terrestrial and marine mobility strategies among active women relative to controls, and highlight components of these patterns that may be shaped in part by differences in loading duration/timing. Additionally, our findings support constraints on skeletal variation in the distal tibia and foot relative to more proximal locations about the knee among living women. For example, metatarsal variation was constrained, but where present reflected sport-specific variation in force distribution in the foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A Macintosh
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
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18
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DeSilva J, McNutt E, Benoit J, Zipfel B. One small step: A review of Plio‐Pleistocene hominin foot evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168 Suppl 67:63-140. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy DeSilva
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Ellison McNutt
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
| | - Julien Benoit
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Bernhard Zipfel
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
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19
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Hirasaki E, Oishi M. Arrangement of foot interosseous muscles in African great apes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:924-929. [PMID: 30302746 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The dorsal interossei of the human foot are arranged so that they abduct the digits around the second digit, while those of non-hominoid anthropoid primates are mostly arranged around the third or fourth digit. This is thought to relate to the medial shift in the functional axis, an essential modification in the evolution of the human foot. However, studies of the arrangement of interosseous muscles are relatively limited and there is some debate about their arrangement in great apes. In particular, some researchers claim that the interossei of chimpanzees are arranged around the second digit, whereas others claim that their foot axis lies on the third digit. MATERIALS AND METHODS We examined the arrangement of the foot interosseous muscles in ten chimpanzees, one bonobo, and three gorillas. RESULTS The interossei were arranged around the second digit in two chimpanzees, one bonobo, and one gorilla, whereas the third digit was the axis in the other specimens. DISCUSSIONS The variation observed suggests that the arrangement of the interosseous muscles of the great apes is in a transitional condition from monkey-type to human-type. Considering that osteological and foot pressure research supports the idea that the foot axis is on the second digit in great apes, modification in the interosseous muscles appears to lag behind modification in the metatarsals and foot motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eishi Hirasaki
- Section of Evolutionary Morphology, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - Motoharu Oishi
- Laboratory of Anatomy 1, Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
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20
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Inter-ray variation in metatarsal strength properties in humans and African apes: Implications for inferring bipedal biomechanics in the Olduvai Hominid 8 foot. J Hum Evol 2018; 121:147-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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21
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Patel BA, Organ JM, Jashashvili T, Bui SH, Dunsworth HM. Ontogeny of hallucal metatarsal rigidity and shape in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). J Anat 2018; 232:39-53. [PMID: 29098692 PMCID: PMC5735049 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Life history variables including the timing of locomotor independence, along with changes in preferred locomotor behaviors and substrate use during development, influence how primates use their feet throughout ontogeny. Changes in foot function during development, in particular the nature of how the hallux is used in grasping, can lead to different structural changes in foot bones. To test this hypothesis, metatarsal midshaft rigidity [estimated from the polar second moment of area (J) scaled to bone length] and cross-sectional shape (calculated from the ratio of maximum and minimum second moments of area, Imax /Imin ) were examined in a cross-sectional ontogenetic sample of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta; n = 73) and common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; n = 79). Results show the hallucal metatarsal (Mt1) is relatively more rigid (with higher scaled J-values) in younger chimpanzees and macaques, with significant decreases in relative rigidity in both taxa until the age of achieving locomotor independence. Within each age group, Mt1 rigidity is always significantly higher in chimpanzees than macaques. When compared with the lateral metatarsals (Mt2-5), the Mt1 is relatively more rigid in both taxa and across all ages; however, this difference is significantly greater in chimpanzees. Length and J scale with negative allometry in all metatarsals and in both species (except the Mt2 of chimpanzees, which scales with positive allometry). Only in macaques does Mt1 midshaft shape significantly change across ontogeny, with older individuals having more elliptical cross-sections. Different patterns of development in metatarsal diaphyseal rigidity and shape likely reflect the different ways in which the foot, and in particular the hallux, functions across ontogeny in apes and monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biren A. Patel
- Department of Integrative Anatomical SciencesKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Human and Evolutionary Biology SectionDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Jason M. Organ
- Department of Anatomy and Cell BiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringIndiana University – Purdue University IndianapolisIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Tea Jashashvili
- Molecular Imaging CenterDepartment of RadiologyKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of Geology and PaleontologyGeorgian National MuseumTbilisiGeorgia
| | - Stephanie H. Bui
- Human and Evolutionary Biology SectionDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Holly M. Dunsworth
- Department of Sociology and AnthropologyUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRIUSA
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22
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Dupej J, Lacoste Jeanson A, Pelikán J, Brůžek J. Semiautomatic extraction of cortical thickness and diaphyseal curvature from CT scans. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:868-876. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ján Dupej
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Sciences; Charles University, Viničná 7; Praha 2, 128 43 Czech Republic
- Department of Software and Computer Science Education; Charles University, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Malostranské Náměstí 25; Praha 1, 118 00 Czech Republic
| | - Alizé Lacoste Jeanson
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Sciences; Charles University, Viničná 7; Praha 2, 128 43 Czech Republic
| | - Josef Pelikán
- Department of Software and Computer Science Education; Charles University, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Malostranské Náměstí 25; Praha 1, 118 00 Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Brůžek
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Sciences; Charles University, Viničná 7; Praha 2, 128 43 Czech Republic
- PACEA, UMR 5199, CNRS; Université de Bordeaux, Bâtiment B8, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023; Talence, F-33400 France
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23
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Foot use during vertical climbing in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J Hum Evol 2017; 109:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2015] [Revised: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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24
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Patel BA, Yapuncich GS, Tran C, Nengo IO. Catarrhine hallucal metatarsals from the early Miocene site of Songhor, Kenya. J Hum Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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25
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Byron CD, Herrel A, Pauwels E, Muynck AD, Patel BA. Mouse hallucal metatarsal cross‐sectional geometry in a simulated fine branch niche. J Morphol 2015; 276:759-65. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Departement d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la BiodiversiteCNRS/MNHNParis France
- Department of Vertebrate Evolutionary MorphologyGhent UniversityGent Belgium
| | - Elin Pauwels
- Department of Physics and AstronomyGhent UniversityUGCTGhent Belgium
| | - Amelie De Muynck
- Department of Physics and AstronomyGhent UniversityUGCTGhent Belgium
| | - Biren A. Patel
- Department of Cell and NeurobiologyKeck School of Medicine, University of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles California
- Human and Evolutionary Biology SectionDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles California
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