Shifted T Helper Cell Polarization in a Murine Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis Model

Buffalo Immune Competence Under Infectious and Non-Infectious Stressors

Immune competence is a critical aspect of protecting animals from the negative consequences of disease. The activation of the immune response from inflammation is part of adaptive homeostasis that serves to eliminate danger, induce tissue repair, and restore tissue homeostasis. Therefore, the main goal for the organism is to control both the induction and suppression of inflammation and resist the onset of disease. In this condition, modulators of inflammatory responses are produced, including small proteins called cytokines, which exert a pro- or anti-inflammatory action in a context-dependent manner. Indeed, the cytokine profile could be considered a useful biomarker to determine the pathophysiology of certain diseases, such as mastitis, endometritis, change-induced heat stress, and zoonoses. Recently, buffalo breeding has attracted the interest of the research communities due to their high resilience; however, little is known about the immune mechanism activated under specific stressors. This review describes the complex immune competence of the buffalo in the presence of the most common infectious and non-infectious stressors. In addition, a brief description of methods for early diagnosis of disease using cytokine quantification will be introduced.

Punch-excised explants of bovine mammary gland to model early immune response to infection

BACKGROUND

Mammary gland (MG) infections (mastitis) are frequent diseases of dairy cows that affect milk quality, animal welfare and farming profitability. These infections are commonly associated with the bacteria Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Different in vitro models have been used to investigate the early response of the MG to bacteria, but the role of the teat in mastitis pathogenesis has received less attention. In this study, we used punch-excised teat tissue as an ex vivo model to study the immune mechanisms that arise early during infection when bacteria have entered the MG.

RESULTS

Cytotoxicity and microscopic analyses showed that bovine teat sinus explants have their morphology and viability preserved after 24 h of culture and respond to ex vivo stimulation with TLR-agonists and bacteria. LPS and E. coli trigger stronger inflammatory response in teat when compared to LTA and S. aureus, leading to a higher production of IL-6 and IL-8, as well as to an up-regulation of proinflammatory genes. We also demonstrated that our ex vivo model can be applied to frozen-stored explants.

CONCLUSIONS

In compliance with the 3Rs principle (replacement, reduction and refinement) in animal experimentation, ex vivo explant analyses proved to be a simple and affordable approach to study MG immune response to infection. This model, which better reproduces organ complexity than epithelial cell cultures or tissue slices, lends itself particularly well to studying the early phases of the MG immune response to infection.

Synthetic Cationic Lipopeptide Can Effectively Treat Mouse Mastitis Caused by Staphylococcus aureus

Mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in dairy cows is one of the most common clinical diseases in dairy cattle. Unfortunately, traditional antibiotic treatment has resulted in the emergence of drug-resistant strains of bacteria, making this disease more difficult to treat. Therefore, novel lipopeptide antibiotics are becoming increasingly important in treating bacterial diseases, and developing novel antibiotics is critical in controlling mastitis in dairy cows. We designed and synthesized three cationic lipopeptides with palmitic acid, all with two positive charges and dextral amino acids. The lipopeptides' antibacterial activity against S. aureus was determined using MIC and scanning electron microscopy. The safety concentration range of lipopeptides for clinical usage was then estimated using the mouse erythrocyte hemolysis assay and CCK8 cytotoxicity. Finally, lipopeptides with high antibacterial activity and minimal cytotoxicity were selected for the treatment experiments regarding mastitis in mice. The observation of histopathological changes, bacterial tissue load and expression of inflammatory factors determined the therapeutic effects of lipopeptides on mastitis in mice. The results showed that all three lipopeptides displayed some antibacterial activity against S. aureus, with C16dKdK having a strong antibacterial impact and being able to treat the mastitis induced by S. aureus infection in mice within a safe concentration range. The findings of this study can be used as a starting point for the development of new medications for the treatment of mastitis in dairy cows.

Genetic polymorphisms in immune- and inflammation-associated genes and their association with bovine mastitis resistance/susceptibility

Bovine mastitis, the inflammation of the mammary gland, is a contagious disease characterized by chemical and physical changes in milk and pathological changes in udder tissues. Depressed immunity and higher expression of inflammatory cytokines with an elevated milk somatic cell count can be observed during mastitis in dairy cattle. The use of somatic cell count (SCC) and somatic cell score (SCS) as correlated traits in the indirect selection of animals against mastitis resistance is in progress globally. Traditional breeding for mastitis resistance seems difficult because of the low heritability (0.10-0.16) of SCC/SCS and clinical mastitis. Thus, genetic-marker-selective breeding to improve host genetics has attracted considerable attention worldwide. Moreover, genomic selection has been found to be an effective and fast method of screening for dairy cattle that are genetically resistant and susceptible to mastitis at a very early age. The current review discusses and summarizes the candidate gene approach using polymorphisms in immune- and inflammation-linked genes (CD4, CD14, CD46, TRAPPC9, JAK2, Tf, Lf, TLRs, CXCL8, CXCR1, CXCR2, C4A, C5, MASP2, MBL1, MBL2, LBP, NCF1, NCF4, MASP2, A2M, and CLU, etc.) and their related signaling pathways (Staphylococcus aureus infection signaling, Toll-like receptor signaling, NF-kappa B signaling pathway, Cytokine-cytokine receptor, and Complement and coagulation cascades, etc.) associated with mastitis resistance and susceptibility phenotypic traits (IL-6, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), IL17, IL8, SCS, and SCC) in dairy cattle.

Adaptive Cell-Mediated Immunity in the Mammary Gland of Dairy Ruminants

Mastitis is one of the greatest issues for the global dairy industry and controlling these infections by vaccination is a long-sought ambition that has remained unfulfilled so far. In fact, gaps in knowledge of cell-mediated immunity in the mammary gland (MG) have hampered progress in the rational design of immunization strategies targeting this organ, as current mastitis vaccines are unable to elicit a strong protective immunity. The objectives of this article are, from a comprehensive and critical review of available literature, to identify what characterizes adaptive immunity in the MG of ruminants, and to derive from this analysis research directions for the design of an optimal vaccination strategy. A peculiarity of the MG of ruminants is that it does not belong to the common mucosal immune system that links the gut immune system to the MG of rodents, swine or humans. Indeed, the MG of ruminants is not seeded by lymphocytes educated in mucosal epithelia of the digestive or respiratory tracts, because the mammary tissue does not express the vascular addressins and chemokines that would allow the homing of memory T cells. However, it is possible to elicit an adaptive immune response in the MG of ruminants by local immunization because the mammary tissue is provided with antigen-presenting cells and is linked to systemic mechanisms. The optimal immune response is obtained by luminal exposure to antigens in a non-lactating MG. The mammary gland can be sensitized to antigens so that a local recall elicits neutrophilic inflammation and enhanced defenses locally, resulting from the activation of resident memory lymphocytes producing IFN-γ and/or IL-17 in the mammary tissue. The rational exploitation of this immunity by vaccination will need a better understanding of MG cell-mediated immunity. The phenotypic and functional characterization of mammary antigen-presenting cells and memory T cells are amongst research priorities. Based on current knowledge, rekindling research on the immune cells that populate the healthy, infected, or immunized MG appears to be a most promising approach to designing efficacious mastitis vaccines.

Genome-Wide DNA Methylation and Its Effect on Gene Expression During Subclinical Mastitis in Water Buffalo

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) in buffalo is one of the most challenging paradoxes for the dairy sector with very significant milk production losses and poses an imminent danger to milch animal’s milk-producing ability. We present here the genome-wide methylation specific to SCM in water buffalo and its consequential effect on the gene expression landscape for the first time. Whole-genome DNA methylation profiles from peripheral blood lymphocytes and gene expression profiles from milk somatic cells of healthy and SCM cases were catalogued from the MeDIP-Seq and RNA-Seq data. The average methylation in healthy buffaloes was found to be higher than that in the SCM-infected buffaloes. DNA methylation was abundant in the intergenic region followed by the intronic region in both healthy control and SCM groups. A total of 3,950 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified and annotated to 370 differentially methylated genes (DMGs), most of which were enriched in the promoter region. Several important pathways were activated due to hypomethylation and belonged to the Staphylococcus aureus infection, Th17 cell differentiation, and antigen processing and presentation pathways along with others of defense responses. DNA methylome was compared with transcriptome to understand the regulatory role of DNA methylation on gene expression specific to SCM in buffaloes. A total of 4,778 significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were extracted in response to SCM, out of which 67 DMGs were also found to be differentially expressed, suggesting that during SCM, DNA methylation could be one of the epigenetic regulatory mechanisms of gene expression. Genes like CSF2RB, LOC102408349, C3 and PZP like, and CPAMD8 were found to be downregulated in our study, which are known to be involved in the immune response to SCM. Association of DNA methylation with transposable elements, miRNAs, and lncRNAs was also studied. The present study reports a buffalo SCM web resource (BSCM2TDb) available at http://webtom.cabgrid.res.in/BSCM2TDb that catalogues all the mastitis-related information of the analyses results of this study in a single place. This will be of immense use to buffalo researchers to understand the host–pathogen interaction involving SCM, which is required in endeavors of mastitis control and management.

Rutin, A Natural Inhibitor of IGPD Protein, Partially Inhibits Biofilm Formation in Staphylococcus xylosus ATCC700404 in vitro and in vivo

Staphylococcus xylosus (S. xylosus) has become an emerging opportunistic pathogen due to its strong biofilm formation ability. Simultaneously, the biofilm of bacteria plays an important role in antibiotic resistance and chronic infection. Here, we confirmed that rutin can effectively inhibit biofilm formation in S. xylosus, of which the inhibition mechanism involves its ability to interact with imidazole glycerol phosphate dehydratase (IGPD), a key enzyme in the process of biofilm formation. We designed experiments to target IGPD and inhibited its activities against S. xylosus. Our results indicated that the activity of IGPD and the amount of histidine decreased significantly under the condition of 0.8 mg/ml rutin. Moreover, the expression of IGPD mRNA (hisB) and IGPD protein was significantly down-regulated. Meanwhile, the results from molecular dynamic simulation and Bio-layer interferometry (BLI) technique showed that rutin could bind to IGPD strongly. Additionally, in vivo studies demonstrated that rutin treatment reduced inflammation and protect mice from acute mastitis caused by S. xylosus. In summary, our findings provide new insights into the treatment of biofilm mediated persistent infections and chronic bacterial infections. It could be helpful to design next generation antibiotics to against resistant bacteria.

Genome-Wide DNA Methylation Analysis of Mammary Gland Tissues From Chinese Holstein Cows With Staphylococcus aureus Induced Mastitis

Staphylococcus aureus intramammary infection is one of the most common causes of chronic mastitis in dairy cows, whose development may be associated with epigenetic changes in the expression of important host defense genes. This study aimed to construct a genome-wide DNA methylation profile of the mammary gland of Chinese Holstein cows (n = 3) following experimentally induced S. aureus mastitis, and to explore the potential gene regulatory mechanisms affected by DNA methylation during S. aureus mastitis. DNA was extracted from S. aureus-positive (n = 3) and S. aureus-negative (n = 3) mammary gland quarters and subjected to methylation-dependent restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (Methyl-RAD Seq). Results showed that CmCGG/CmCWGG DNA methylation sites were unevenly distributed and concentrated on chromosomes 5, 11, and 19, and within intergenic regions and intron regions of genes. Compared with healthy control quarters, 9,181 significantly differentially methylated (DM) CmCGG sites and 1,790 DM CmCWGG sites were found in the S. aureus-positive quarters (P < 0.05, |log2FC| > 1). Furthermore, 363 CmCGG differently methylated genes (DMGs) and 301 CmCWGG DMGs (adjusted P < 0.05, |log2FC| > 1) were identified. Gene ontology and KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that CmCGG DMGs are involved in immune response pathways, while the CmCWGG DMGs were mainly enriched in gene ontology terms related to metabolism. The mRNAs of 526 differentially methylated CmCGG genes and 124 differentially methylated CmCWGG genes were also significantly differentially expressed (RNA-Seq data) in the same samples, herein denoted differentially methylated and expressed genes (DMEGs) (P < 0.05). Functional enrichment analysis of DMEGs revealed roles related to biological processes, especially the regulation of immune response to diseases. CmCGG DMEGs like IL6R, TNF, BTK, IL1R2, and TNFSF8 enriched in several immune-related GO terms and pathways indicated their important roles in host immune response and their potential as candidate genes for S. aureus mastitis. These results suggest potential regulatory roles for DNA methylation in bovine mammary gland processes during S. aureus mastitis and serves as a reference for future epigenetic regulation and mechanistic studies.

Type 3 immunity: a perspective for the defense of the mammary gland against infections

Type 3 immunity encompasses innate and adaptive immune responses mediated by cells that produce the signature cytokines IL-17A and IL-17F. This class of effector immunity is particularly adept at controlling infections by pyogenic extracellular bacteria at epithelial barriers. Since mastitis results from infections by bacteria such as streptococci, staphylococci and coliform bacteria that cause neutrophilic inflammation, type 3 immunity can be expected to be mobilized at the mammary gland. In effect, the main defenses of this organ are provided by epithelial cells and neutrophils, which are the main terminal effectors of type 3 immunity. In addition to theoretical grounds, there is observational and experimental evidence that supports a role for type 3 immunity in the mammary gland, such as the production of IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22 in milk and mammary tissue during infection, although their respective sources remain to be fully identified. Moreover, mouse mastitis models have shown a positive effect of IL-17A on the course of mastitis. A lot remains to be uncovered before we can safely harness type 3 immunity to reinforce mammary gland defenses through innate immune training or vaccination. However, this is a promising way to find new means of improving mammary gland defenses against infection.

Characterization of an Enterococcus faecium strain in a murine mastitis model

AIM

The aim of the study was to characterize phenotypically and genotypically Enterococcus faecium strains collected from bovine mastitis milk and to evaluate one of them for its virulence in a murine mastitis model.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of five E. faecium isolates were collected from cows with subclinical mastitis. EF-7A showed resistance to antibiotics tested, it presented alpha haemolysin and did not present gelatinase activity. It yielded cyA, efafm and gelE1 genes and it could be characterized as a moderate biofilm producer. It was able to internalize in MAC-T cells and 1×10⁸ colony forming unit ml^-1 was able to establish an intramammary infection in mice. The strain could be recovered from liver, kidney and blood samples. RAPD profiles showed different bands with respect to the inoculated strain. Histopathology analyses showed different grades of polymorphonuclear neutrophils infiltration in mammary glands.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report that studied E. faecium strain in a lactating mouse model of mastitis and showed that the experimental inoculation was able to stimulate an inflammatory response resulting in mastitis. Results contribute to a better understanding of intramammary infections caused by E. faecium.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This investigation shows that mice represent a valuable model for the study of the mastitis pathogenesis caused by E. faecium considering the high costs of using cows for mastitis research.

In vitro activity and In vivo efficacy of Isoliquiritigenin against Staphylococcus xylosus ATCC 700404 by IGPD target

Staphylococcus xylosus (S. xylosus) is a type of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, which was previously considered as non-pathogenic. However, recent studies have linked it with cases of mastitis in cows. Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) is a bioactive compound with pharmacological functions including antibacterial activity. In this study, we evaluated the effect of ISL on S. xylosus in vitro and in vivo. The MIC of ISL against S. xylosus was 80 μg/mL. It was observed that sub-MICs of ISL (1/2MIC, 1/4MIC, 1/8MIC) significantly inhibited the formation of S. xylosus biofilm in vitro. Previous studies have observed that inhibiting imidazole glycerol phosphate dehydratase (IGPD) concomitantly inhibited biofilm formation in S. xylosus. So, we designed experiments to target the formation of IGPD or inhibits its activities in S. xylosus ATCC 700404. The results indicated that the activity of IGPD and its histidine content decreased significantly under 1/2 MIC (40 μg/mL) ISL, and the expression of IGPD gene (hisB) and IGPD protein was significantly down-regulated. Furthermore, Bio-layer interferometry experiments showed that ISL directly interacted with IGPD protein (with strong affinity; KD = 234 μM). In addition, molecular docking was used to predict the binding mode of ISL and IGPD. In vivo tests revealed that, ISL significantly reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels, mitigated the destruction of the mammary glands and reversed the production of inflammatory cells in mice. The results of the study suggest that, ISL may inhibit S. xylosus growth by acting on IGPD, which can be used as a target protein to treat infections caused by S. xylosus.

Association between bovine leukemia virus proviral load and severity of clinical mastitis

The purpose of this study was to clarify the effect of Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection on natural immunity in the bovine mammary gland and on the severity of clinical mastitis. We classified milk samples from clinical mastitic cows into BLV-positive (n=76) and BLV-negative (n=12). BLV-positive cows were further divided into cows with High BLV proviral load (H-PVL) (n=23) and Low BLV proviral load (L-PVL) (n=53). Severity of clinical mastitis was classified as MILD, MODERATE, or SEVERE. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed on the host factors and environmental factors with severity of clinical mastitis as the objective variable. BLV proviral load (PVL) and season at onset of mastitis showed significant correlation with the severity of clinical mastitis. Binary logistic regression analysis was performed on natural immunity factors lactoferrin and lingual antimicrobial peptide (LAP) concentration in milk, with PVL as the objective variable. Of these natural immunity factors, LAP concentration in milk showed significant correlation with PVL. The results of the present study suggested that PVL and season are associated with severity of clinical mastitis, and that the immune function in the mammary gland is decreased in cows with H-PVL compared to that in cows with L-PVL.

IL-1β Promotes Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms on Implants in vivo

Implant associated infections represent a serious health burden in clinics since some microorganisms are able to colonize biological surfaces or surfaces of indwelling medical devices and form biofilms. Biofilms represent communities of microorganisms attached to hydrated surfaces and enclosed in self-produced extracellular matrix. This renders them resistant to exogenous assaults like antibiotics or immune effector mechanisms. Little is known regarding the role of the immune system in the formation of biofilms during implant associated infections, largely due to the lack of suitable mouse models. Here we use colonized osmotic pumps in mice to study the interaction of an activated immune system with biofilm-forming Staphylococcus aureus encoding Gaussia luciferase. This approach permits biofilm formation on the osmotic pumps in living animals. It also allows the continuous supply of soluble immune cell activating agents, such as cytokines to study their effect on biofilm formation in vivo. Using non-invasive imaging of the bioluminescent signal emitted by the lux expressing bacteria for quantification of bacterial load in conjunction with light and electron microscopy, we observed that pump-supplied pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β strongly increased biofilm formation along with a massive influx of neutrophils adjacent to the biofilm-coated pumps. Thus, our data demonstrate that immune defense mechanisms can augment biofilm formation.

Knowledge gaps and research priorities in Staphylococcus aureus mastitis control

This study assessed knowledge gaps and suggested research priorities in the field of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis. Staphylococcus aureus infecting the mammary gland remains a major problem to the dairy industry worldwide because of its pathogenicity, contagiousness, persistence in the cow environment, colonization of skin or mucosal epithelia, and the poor curing efficacy of treatments. Staphylococcus aureus also constitutes a threat to public health due to food safety and antibiotic usage issues and the potential for bidirectional transmission of strains between humans and dairy animals (cows and small ruminants). Gaps have been identified in (i) understanding the molecular basis for pathogenesis of S. aureus mastitis, (ii) identifying staphylococcal antigens inducing protection and (iii) determining the cell-mediated immune responses to infection and vaccination. The recommended priorities for research are (i) improved diagnostic methods for early detection of infection and intervention through treatment or management, (ii) development of experimental models to investigate the strategies used by S. aureus to survive within the mammary gland and resist treatment with anti-microbials, (iii) investigation of the basis for cow-to-cow variation in response to S. aureus mastitis, (iv) identification of the immune responses (adaptive and innate) induced by infection or vaccination and (v) antibacterial discovery programmes to develop new, more effective, narrow spectrum antibacterial agents for the treatment of S. aureus mastitis. With the availability and ongoing improvement of molecular research tools, these objectives may not be out of reach in the future.

A mouse mastitis model to study the effects of the intramammary infusion of a food-grade Lactococcus lactis strain

Lactococcus lactis is one of the most important microorganisms in the dairy industry and has “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) status. L. lactis belongs to the group of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and is encountered in a wide range of environments. Recently, the use of the intramammary infusion of a live culture of LAB has been investigated as a new antibiotic alternative for treating mastitis in dairy ruminants. Controversial results are described in literature regarding its efficacy and safety. In this study we conducted in-depth investigation of the mammary gland immune response induced by intramammary inoculum of a live culture of L. lactis LMG 7930 using the mouse mastitis model. Overnight cultures either of L. lactis (≈ 10⁷ CFU) or of the mastitis pathogens Staphylococcus chromogenes (≈ 10⁵ CFU) or S. aureus (≈ 10² CFU/ml) were injected into the mouse inguinal glands. A double injection, consisting of S. chromogenes first and then L. lactis, was also investigated. Bacterial recovery from the gland and inflammatory cell infiltration were assessed. L. lactis-treated and control glands were analysed for proinflammatory cytokine production. Microbiological results showed that L. lactis was able to survive in the mammary gland 24 h post infection, as were the mastitis pathogens S. chromogenes and S. aureus. L. lactis reduced S. chromogenes survival in the glands and increased its own survival ability by coexisting with the pathogen. Histology showed that L. lactis-treated glands presented variable histological features, ranging from undamaged tissue with no inflammatory cell infiltrate to severe PMN infiltrate with focal areas of tissue damage. S. aureus-treated glands showed the most severe histological grade of inflammation despite the fact that the inoculum size was the smallest. In contrast, most S. chromogenes-treated glands showed normal structures with no infiltration or lesions. Significant increases in IL-1β and TNF-α levels were also found in L. lactis-inoculated glands. The above findings seem to suggest that food-grade L. lactis at a high-inoculum dose such as an overnight culture may elicit a suppurative inflammatory response in the mammary gland, thus becoming a potential mastitis-causing pathogen. Because of the unpredictable potential of L. lactis in acting as a potential mastitis pathogen, this organism cannot be considered a safe treatment for bovine mastitis.

Local immunization impacts the response of dairy cows to Escherichia coli mastitis

Current vaccines to Escherichia coli mastitis have shown some albeit limited efficacy. Their mode of action has not been documented, and immune responses protecting the mammary gland against E. coli are not completely understood. To improve our knowledge of mammary gland immune protection, cows immunized either intramuscularly or intramammarily with the E. coli P4 were submitted to a homologous mastitis challenge. A third group of mock-immunized cows serve as challenge controls. Local immunization modified favorably the course of infection, by improving bacterial clearance while limiting inflammation. Systemic clinical signs and reduction in milk secretion were also contained. This occurred with a modification of the cytokine profile, such as an increase in IFN-γ and a reduction in TNF-α concentrations in milk. Concentrations of IL-17A and IL-22 increased in milk at the onset of the inflammatory response and remained high up to the elimination of bacteria, but concentrations did not differ between groups. Accelerated bacteriological cure was not linked to an increase in the initial efficiency of phagocytosis in milk. Results support the idea that antibodies did not play a major role in the improvement, and that cell-mediated immunity is the key to understanding E. coli vaccine-induced protection of the mammary gland.

Immune response of Staphylococcus aureus strains in a mouse mastitis model is linked to adaptive capacity and genotypic profiles

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most frequently isolated major pathogens from intramammary infections (IMI) worldwide. The mechanisms by which S. aureus IMI are established and maintained in dairy cows involve both bacterial escape strategies and modulation of the host immune response. Moreover, it was shown that different S. aureus strains have varying effects on the immune response. The aim of this study was to investigate the immune response in a mouse mastitis model of two S. aureus strains isolated from bovine IMI with different clinical manifestation (persistent-P or non-persistent-NP), phenotypic and genotypic profile. Both strains were capable of establishing an IMI after 264h post inoculation (pi). Strain A (NP) showed a more aggressive behaviour than strain B (P) at early stages of IMI, while strain B multiplied initially at a lower rate but increased its replication capacity from 120h pi to the end of the study (264h pi). Strain A triggered a stronger initial inflammatory response compared with strain B inducing higher gene and protein expression of TLR2, NF-κB activation and higher gene expression of IL-1α at initial stage of IMI (6-12h pi) but inducing extensive mammary tissue damage. Immune cells response was different for each S. aureus strain throughout the course of infection, showing mammary glands inoculated with strain A greater initial immune cells stimulation compared with strain B and then a second immune cells stimulation (from 120 to 264h pi) represented by monocytes-macrophages, T and B lymphocytes, mainly stimulated by strain B, consistent with inflammatory process becoming chronic. Strain-specific pathogenicity observed underscores the importance of pathogen factors in the progression of the infectious process. These results contribute to increase the available information on host-pathogen interaction and point out for the need of further research to expand the knowledge about these interactions for developing new strategies to intervene in the IMI progress.

Differential response of immune-related genes to peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid challenge in vitro

AIM

To study the effect of Staphylococcus aureus cell wall antigens, peptidoglycan (PGN) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) challenge on immune cells present in bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, efforts have been made to investigate the effects of three combinations (10+10, 20+20 and 30+30 μg/ml) of PGN and LTA obtained from S. aureus. These antigens were used to challenge the bovine PBMCs. After 6 h of incubation quantitative, real time-polymerase chain reaction was used to study toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2) and major cytokine mRNA expression in bovine PBMC challenged with three different antigen blends.

RESULTS

The results indicated that mRNA level of interferon gamma is influenced by the expression of TLR-2 gene. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 10 (IL-10), and IL-8 genes showed a maximum response at a dose of 10 μg of PGN and 10 μg of LTA challenge per ml of culture medium. The outcome also suggests that both IL-10 and IL-8 followed the expression pattern of TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

A dose of 10 μg of PGN and 10 μg of LTA per ml of culture medium was found to be most suitable for challenging PBMC.

The Effects of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 on Dairy Goat Mastitis and Cell Survival of Goat Mammary Epithelial Cells

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is a zinc-dependent enzyme, and plays a crucial role in extracellular matrix degeneration, inflammation and tissue remodeling. However, the relationship between MMP-9 and somatic cell count (SCC) in goat milk and the role of MMP-9 in the regulation of mastitis are still unknown. In this study, we found MMP-9 was predominantly expressed in the spleen, intestine and mammary gland. The SCC in goat milk was positively correlated with MMP-9 expression, and staphylococcus aureus could markedly increase MMP-9 expression in goat mammary epithelial cells (GMEC) in dosage and time dependent manner. We also demonstrated that SB-3CT, an inhibitor of MMP-9, promoted apoptosis and inhibited proliferation in GMEC. Thus, MMP-9 may emerge as an easily measurable and sensitive parameter that reflects the number of somatic cells present in milk and a regulatory factor of apoptosis in GMEC.

Piperine Plays an Anti-Inflammatory Role in Staphylococcus aureus Endometritis by Inhibiting Activation of NF-κB and MAPK Pathways in Mice

Endometritis is commonly caused by pathogenic microorganisms, including Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Piperine, which is a natural medicine, has shown a variety of biological activities. To explore the effect and mechanism of piperine on S. aureus endometritis, a mouse model of S. aureus endometritis was successfully established in the present study. Histopathological changes were observed with H&E staining, cytokines were analyzed by ELISA, mRNA was analyzed by qPCR, and proteins were detected by western blot. The results showed that piperine could significantly alleviate inflammatory injury in S. aureus endometritis. The qPCR and ELISA results showed that piperine effectively reduced the S. aureus-induced overexpression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 but increased the expression of IL-10. The S. aureus-induced inflammation was related to TLR-2 and TLR-4 because the results showed that their expression was increased in S. aureus infection but then decreased with piperine treatment. To further confirm that piperine caused an anti-inflammatory response by targeting NF-κB and MAPKs, the expression of I-κB, p65, p38, ERK, and JNK was measured. The phosphorylation of I-κB, p65, p38, ERK, and JNK was inhibited by piperine in a dose-dependent manner. All of the results indicated that piperine may be a potential anti-inflammatory drug both in endometritis and in other S. aureus-induced diseases.

Innate and Adaptive Immunity Synergize to Trigger Inflammation in the Mammary Gland

The mammary gland is able to detect and react to bacterial intrusion through innate immunity mechanisms, but mammary inflammation can also result from antigen-specific adaptive immunity. We postulated that innate and adaptive immune responses could synergize to trigger inflammation in the mammary gland. To test this hypothesis, we immunized cows with the model antigen ovalbumin and challenged the sensitized animals with either Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as innate immunity agonist, ovalbumin as adaptive immunity agonist, or both agonists in three different udder quarters of lactating cows. There was a significant amplification of the initial milk leukocytosis in the quarters challenged with the two agonists compared to leukocytosis in quarters challenged with LPS or ovalbumin alone. This synergistic response occurred only with the cows that developed the ovalbumin-specific inflammatory response, and there were significant correlations between milk leukocytosis and production of IL-17A and IFN-γ in a whole-blood ovalbumin stimulation assay. The antigen-specific response induced substantial concentrations of IL-17A and IFN-γ in milk contrary to the response to LPS. Such a synergy at the onset of the reaction of the mammary gland suggests that induction of antigen-specific immune response with bacterial antigens could improve the initial immune response to infection, hence reducing the bacterial load and contributing to protection.