Building the road to a regional zoonoses strategy: A survey of zoonoses programmes in the Americas

[Knowledge, practices, and human seroprevalence of brucellosis in the central dairy-producing area of Cochabamba, BoliviaConhecimentos, práticas e soroprevalência humana de brucelose na área central de produção de laticínios de Cochabamba, Bolívia]

Objective

To validate the applicability of the Rose Bengal (RB) test, indirect IgG or IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the Brucellacapt test® to the local context, determine the seroprevalence of brucellosis, and evaluate knowledge of the disease in people at risk in a dairy-producing area of La Maica, Cochabamba (Plurinational State of Bolivia).

Method

The tests were initially validated with a group of 76 people; the final study population was 330 people, who also participated in a socio-epidemiological survey.

Results

Of 330 samples tested, 12.7% were positive, using either the RB or Brucellacapt test®. The indirect IgG ELISA gave false positive results, indicating that the cut-off point should be adapted to the local epidemiological situation. Almost all RB-positive cases were asymptomatic. The socio-epidemiological survey highlights a lack of information and awareness about brucellosis, with regard to its zoonotic nature, mode of transmission, and symptoms.

Conclusion

This study revealed a high seroprevalence of brucellosis in the La Maica dairy-producing area in Cochabamba (Plurinational State of Bolivia), with many asymptomatic cases and a high number of false positives from IgG indirect ELISA. It is recommended to conduct awareness-raising campaigns on the risks of this disease and to discourage the consumption of raw milk.

One Health Priorities: Advancing Veterinary Public Health in Latin America and the Caribbean

One Health (OH) is an integrative approach to human, animal, and environmental health and can be used as a comprehensive indicator for comparative purposes. Although an OH index has been proposed for comparing cities, states, and countries, to date, no practical study has compared countries using this approach. Accordingly, this study aimed to assess OH initiatives using a survey with a veterinary public health focus. The questionnaire contained 104 quantitative questions and was sent to representatives of governmental institutions of 32 countries in the Americas. After exclusion criteria were considered, a total of 35 questionnaires from 17 countries were analyzed, with country names remaining undisclosed during the statistical analyses to protect potentially sensitive information. Principal component analysis (PCA) of health parameters in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) as a function of country perception (self-vector) showed that food safety was ranked higher than public policies (p = 0.009), and that both (p = 0.003) were ranked higher than institutional routines related to zoonosis programs. National policies in accordance with international standards, regulations, recommendations, and guidelines was considered the standout topic for public policy, with higher-ranking topics including standard. Meanwhile, challenging topics included tools, preparedness, governance, and research. Food safety showed both strengths and challenges in the coordination of its activities with other sectors. Food safety communication was scored as a strength, while foodborne diseases prevention was ranked as a challenge. Institutional routines for zoonosis maintained both strong and challenging topics in the execution and implementation of attributions and daily routine. Thus, the survey showed that topics such as access to and compliance with international guidelines and intercountry integration were ranked higher than in-country articulation, particularly among food safety, zoonoses, and environmental institutions.

Spatial-temporal risk factors in the occurrence of rabies in Mexico

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that affects livestock worldwide. The distribution of rabies is highly correlated with the distribution of the vampire bat Desmodus rotundus, the main vector of the disease. In this study, climatic, topographic, livestock population, vampire distribution and urban and rural zones were used to estimate the risk for presentation of cases of rabies in Mexico by co- Kriging interpolation. The highest risk for the presentation of cases is in the endemic areas of the disease, i.e. the States of Yucatán, Chiapas, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí, Nayarit and Baja California Sur. A transition zone for cases was identified across northern Mexico, involving the States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Durango. The variables topography, vampire distribution, bovine population and rural zones are the most important to explain the risk of cases in livestock. This study provides robust estimates of risk and spread of rabies based on geostatistical methods. The information presented should be useful for authorities responsible of public and animal health when they plan and establish strategies preventing the spread of rabies into rabies-free regions of México.

The bibliometric landscape of infectious disease research in Panama (1990-2019)

Background

This work aims to analyze the landscape of scientific publications on subjects related to One Health and infectious diseases in Panama. The research questions are: How does the One Health research landscape look like in Panama? Are historical research efforts aligned with the One Health concept? What infectious diseases have received more attention from the local scientific community since 1990?

Methods

Boolean searches on the Web of Science, SCOPUS and PubMed were undertaken to evaluate the main trends of publications related to One Health and infectious disease research in the country of Panama, between 1990 and 2019.

Results

4546 publications were identified since 1990, including 3564 peer-reviewed articles interconnected with One Health related descriptors, and 211 articles focused particularly on infectious diseases. A pattern of exponential growth in the number of publications with various contributions from Panamanian institutions was observed. The rate of multidisciplinary research was moderate, whereas those of interinstitutional and intersectoral research ranged from low to very low. Research efforts have centered largely on protozoan, neglected and arthropod-borne diseases with a strong emphasis on malaria, Chagas and leishmaniasis.

Conclusion

Panama has scientific capabilities on One Health to tackle future infectious disease threats, but the official collaboration schemes and strategic investment to develop further competencies need to be conciliated with modern times, aka the pandemics era. The main proposition here, addressed to the government of Panama, is to launch a One Health regional center to promote multidisciplinary, interinstitutional and intersectoral research activities in Panama and beyond.

Assessing and Prioritizing Zoonotic Diseases in Punjab, India: A One Health Approach

Zoonotic diseases have a significant impact on both human and animal health globally. The present study was planned to prioritize the zoonoses in Punjab state of India. To develop a zoonotic disease prioritization scoring system, a comprehensive approach has been taken, including literature review, key person interviews with animal health experts (n = 12) and medical professionals (n = 7), and nine focus group discussions (FGDs) with veterinary academicians, medical professionals, and field veterinary doctors. The scoring system comprises of seven major criteria, each assigned a weightage score (ws): prevalence/incidence of the disease (ws = 0.20), severity of illnesses in humans (ws = 0.18), epidemic potential (ws = 0.16), socio-economic burden (ws = 0.16), availability of effective control and prevention measures (ws = 0.15), inter-sectoral collaborations (ws = 0.1), and bioterrorism potential (ws = 0.05). The finalized scoring system, accompanied by a list of 15 selected zoonotic diseases, was implemented among a group of 23 professionals engaged in zoonoses research (n = 7), animal health (n = 10), and medical health (n = 6) to determine their prioritization. The zoonotic diseases prioritized for the Punjab (India) included, Brucellosis (0.70) > Rabies (0.69) > Anthrax (0.64) > Leptospirosis (0.62) = Toxoplasmosis (0.62) = Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) (0.62) > Bovine tuberculosis (0.61) > Q fever (0.60) > Cysticercosis (0.59) > Listeriosis (0.58) > Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) (0.57) > Japanese encephalitis (0.56) = Echinococcosis (0.56) > Dermatophytosis (0.53) > and Scrub typhus (0.48), respectively. Higher priority is suggested for endemic zoonoses (e.g., brucellosis and rabies) as compared to those with epidemic potential (e.g., CCHF, HPAI etc.) in Punjab. Results of the current study will help in the development of targeted control and prevention strategies for zoonotic diseases in Punjab and other geographical regions facing similar challenges.

Brucellosis and One Health: Inherited and Future Challenges

One Health is the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment, a concept that historically owes much to the study of brucellosis, including recent political and ethical considerations. Brucellosis One Health actors include Public Health and Veterinary Services, microbiologists, medical and veterinary practitioners and breeders. Brucellosis awareness, and the correct use of diagnostic, epidemiological and prophylactic tools is essential. In brucellosis, One Health implementation faces inherited and new challenges, some aggravated by global warming and the intensification of breeding to meet growing food demands. In endemic scenarios, disease awareness, stakeholder sensitization/engagement and the need to build breeder trust are unresolved issues, all made difficult by the protean characteristics of this zoonosis. Extended infrastructural weaknesses, often accentuated by geography and climate, are critically important. Capacity-building faces misconceptions derived from an uncritical adoption of control/eradication strategies applied in countries with suitable means, and requires additional reference laboratories in endemic areas. Challenges for One Health implementation include the lack of research in species other than cattle and small ruminants, the need for a safer small ruminant vaccine, the need to fill in the infrastructure gap, the need for realistic capacity-building, the creation of reference laboratories in critical areas, and the stepwise implementation of measures not directly transposed from the so-called developed countries.

Descriptive cross-sectional study on major bovine diseases and associated risk factors in north-eastern Ecuadorian Amazon

Cattle raising is a crucial element of production systems in the tropics and subtropics. However, in recent years, global public health security has been threatened by disease emergence. In Orellana Province, livestock is the most important activity to generate economic income. Nevertheless, there is no available data about Animal Health status. With this objective, a study was performed to describe the major Bovine diseases recorded between 2011 to 2019, and the main Risk factors associated. Data on main Bovine diseases were retrieved from the World Animal Health Information System database. Whereas Bovine population data used to calculate the prevalence rates and confidence intervals were obtained from Ecuador's Ministry of Agriculture. By contrast, the Risk factors identified with an epidemiological questionnaire were applied to 300 livestock farmers. As a result, from 2011 to 2019 in Orellana has been confirmed: 90 cases of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (31.58%), Bovine Rabies by hematophagous bats (Desmodus rotundus), 83 cases (29.12%), Bovine viral diarrhea with 43 cases (15.10%), Brucellosis by Brucella abortus 35 cases, which was (12.28%), and 34 cases related to Enzootic bovine leukosis (11.92%). Overall, the prevalence rates ranged from (0.24 to 15.37%). In addition, farm size, presence of forest, herd, and paddock sizes, cutting frequency of forages, and other animal species were involved as Risk factors (OR = 3.15 to 11.75; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.69). In conclusion, there are animal diseases with reproductive and neurologic symptomology and high-Risk factors implicated in the transmission. Consequently, space-temporal and seroprevalence epidemiological studies should be performed in Orellana.

Policies to prevent zoonotic spillover: protocol for a systematic scoping review of evaluative evidence

INTRODUCTION

The increasing incidence of pathogen transmission from animals to humans (zoonotic spillover events) has been attributed to behavioural practices and ecological and socioeconomic change. As these events sometimes involve pathogens with epidemic or pandemic potential, they pose a serious threat to population health. Public policies may play a key role in preventing these events. The aim of this review is to identify evaluations of public policies that target the determinants of zoonotic spillover, examining approaches taken to evaluation, choice of outcomes measures and evidence of effectiveness. Our approach to identifying and analysing this literature will be informed by a One Health lens, acknowledging the interconnectedness of human, animal and environmental health.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic scoping review methodology will be used. To identify articles, we will search Medline, SCOPUS, Web of Science and Global Health in May 2021 using search terms combining animal health and the animal-human interface, public policy, prevention and zoonoses. We will screen titles and abstracts and extract data according to published guidelines for scoping reviews. All evaluations of public policies aiming to prevent zoonotic spillover events will be eligible for inclusion. We will summarise key data from each study, mapping policies along the spillover pathway and outlining the range of policies, approaches to evaluation and outcome measures. Review findings will provide a useful reference for researchers and practitioners, outlining the state of the evaluative evidence around policies to prevent zoonotic spillover.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Formal ethical approval is not required, because the study does not involve primary data collection. The findings of this study will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed publication, presentations and summaries for key stakeholders.

Of love and other demons: depicting human rabies in Colombia

Human rabies has been described by various cultures in many countries around the world. Gabriel García Márquez's novel Of love and other demons recounts the story of a girl who, in colonial Colombia in the 18^th century, was bitten by a rabid dog. This paper aims to review the general status of the disease in Colombia and interweave it with García Márquez's book. Developed countries have successfully controlled dog-mediated rabies virus transmission, whereas in some countries in Latin America wildlife and canine rabies are still an issue. Our approach suggests that although the measures that have been taken to mitigate dog-transmitted rabies have worked well in most parts of the world, greater efforts are required to control sylvatic rabies transmitted by bats or other mammals, as occurs in Colombia. Since developing countries are the most affected by the disease at present, transdisciplinary commitment between human and veterinary sectors is necessary to fight against rabies virus transmission.

COVID-19 and zoonoses in Brazil: Environmental scan of one health preparedness and response

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic reinforced the central role of the One Health (OH) approach, as a multisectoral and multidisciplinary perspective, to tackle health threats at the human-animal-environment interface. This study assessed Brazilian preparedness and response to COVID-19 and zoonoses with a focus on the OH approach and equity dimensions. We conducted an environmental scan using a protocol developed as part of a multi-country study. The article selection process resulted in 45 documents: 79 files and 112 references on OH; 41 files and 81 references on equity. The OH and equity aspects are poorly represented in the official documents regarding the COVID-19 response, either at the federal and state levels. Brazil has a governance infrastructure that allows for the response to infectious diseases, including zoonoses, as well as the fight against antimicrobial resistance through the OH approach. However, the response to the pandemic did not fully utilize the resources of the Brazilian state, due to the lack of central coordination and articulation among the sectors involved. Brazil is considered an area of high risk for emergence of zoonoses mainly due to climate change, large-scale deforestation and urbanization, high wildlife biodiversity, wide dry frontier, and poor control of wild animals' traffic. Therefore, encouraging existing mechanisms for collaboration across sectors and disciplines, with the inclusion of vulnerable populations, is required for making a multisectoral OH approach successful in the country.

Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Notifiable Scrub Typhus in Taiwan during the Period 2010-2019

Scrub typhus is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi. In this study, the epidemiological characteristics of scrub typhus in Taiwan, including gender, age, seasonal variation, climate factors, and epidemic trends from 2010 to 2019 were investigated. Information about scrub typhus in Taiwan was extracted from annual summary data made publicly available on the internet by the Taiwan Centers for Disease Control. From 2010 to 2019, there were 4352 confirmed domestic and 22 imported cases of scrub typhus. The incidence of scrub typhus ranged from 1.39 to 2.30 per 100,000 from 2010-2019, and peaked in 2013 and 2015-2016. Disease incidence varied between genders, age groups, season, and residence (all p < 0.001) from 2010 to 2019. Risk factors were being male (odds ratio (OR) =1.358), age 40 to 64 (OR = 1.25), summer (OR = 1.96) or fall (OR = 1.82), and being in the Penghu islands (OR = 1.74) or eastern Taiwan (OR = 1.92). The occurrence of the disease varied with gender, age, and place of residence comparing four seasons (all p < 0.001). Weather, average temperature (°C) and rainfall were significantly correlated with confirmed cases. The number of confirmed cases increased by 3.279 for every 1 °C (p = 0.005) temperature rise, and 0.051 for every 1 mm rise in rainfall (p = 0.005). In addition, the total number of scrub typhus cases in different geographical regions of Taiwan was significantly different according to gender, age and season (all p < 0.001). In particular, Matsu islands residents aged 20-39 years (OR = 2.617) and residents of the Taipei area (OR = 3.408), northern Taiwan (OR = 2.268) and eastern Taiwan (OR = 2.027) were affected during the winter. Males and females in the 50-59 age group were at high risk. The total number of imported cases was highest among men, aged 20-39, during the summer months, and in Taipei or central Taiwan. The long-term trend of local cases of scrub typhus was predicted using the polynomial regression model, which predicted the month of most cases in a high-risk season according to the seasonal index (1.19 in June by the summer seasonal index, and 1.26 in October by the fall seasonal index). The information in this study will be useful for policy-makers and clinical experts for direct prevention and control of chigger mites with O. tsutsugamushi that cause severe illness and are an economic burden to the Taiwan medical system. These data can inform future surveillance and research efforts in Taiwan.

Evaluación prospectiva de las iniciativas en contra de las zoonosis de países de América Latina

Objetivo Evaluar comparativamente las iniciativas a escala nacional en contra de las zoonosis en países de América Latina mediante la adaptación de la evaluación prospectiva. Materiales y Métodos Se analizó la vigilancia de los eventos de interés en salud pública y medidas ejecutadas y se adaptó el método de evaluación prospectiva de Haegeman con cinco criterios: evaluación, pertinencia, eficacia, oportunidad y sostenibilidad; estos fueron especificados y aplicados de manera cualitativa para medir el logro y el efecto de cada una de las iniciativas, determinando la eficacia de manera objetiva y acortando el tiempo de comparabilidad. Resultados Los principales objetivos de los programas de zoonosis son reducir morbimortalidad, fortalecer la vigilancia epidemiológica y capacidad nacional. Los eventos vigilados se clasificaron en virales, bacterianos, parasitarios y acciones contra la mordedura por animal ponzoñoso y tenencia responsable de mascotas. Las medidas para controlar las zoonosis incluyen cinco actividades: promoción, prevención, diagnóstico, vigilancia y control. De los cinco criterios valorados, se infirió que las iniciativas siguen las recomendaciones de los reglamentos internacionales. Incluyeron colaboración intersectorial y corresponsabilidad social y fueron consecuentes con los objetivos planteados y sostenibles en el tiempo. Conclusiones La evaluación prospectiva evidenció que la pertinencia de los programas se ve reflejada en cómo los objetivos se enfocan en las necesidades de la sociedad frente a los riesgos de contagio de enfermedades zoonóticas. Las acciones implementadas de manera colaborativa apuntan a generar un impacto positivo con la sociedad y el ecosistema.

Key Factors That Enable the Pandemic Potential of RNA Viruses and Inter-Species Transmission: A Systematic Review

Viruses play a primary role as etiological agents of pandemics worldwide. Although there has been progress in identifying the molecular features of both viruses and hosts, the extent of the impact these and other factors have that contribute to interspecies transmission and their relationship with the emergence of diseases are poorly understood. The objective of this review was to analyze the factors related to the characteristics inherent to RNA viruses accountable for pandemics in the last 20 years which facilitate infection, promote interspecies jump, and assist in the generation of zoonotic infections with pandemic potential. The search resulted in 48 research articles that met the inclusion criteria. Changes adopted by RNA viruses are influenced by environmental and host-related factors, which define their ability to adapt. Population density, host distribution, migration patterns, and the loss of natural habitats, among others, have been associated as factors in the virus-host interaction. This review also included a critical analysis of the Latin American context, considering its diverse and unique social, cultural, and biodiversity characteristics. The scarcity of scientific information is striking, thus, a call to local institutions and governments to invest more resources and efforts to the study of these factors in the region is key.

Epidemiologic Characteristics of Domestic Patients with Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome in Taiwan: A 19-Year Retrospective Study

Background: Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is an illness caused by hantaviruses. Numerous factors modify the risk of hantavirus transmission. This study explored the epidemiological characteristics, differences, and trends in terms of gender, age, season, and living areas of those diagnosed with domestically acquired HFRS in Taiwan from 2001 to 2019. Methods: We examined publicly available annual summary data on the domestic cases with HFRS from 2001 to 2019; these data were obtained from the web database of Taiwan’s Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Results: This study analyzed 21 domestic cases with HFRS from Taiwan’s CDC databases. In this study of the cases of HFRS in Taiwan, a gradual increase in the cases of those aged ≥40 years acquiring the disease was noted, and a distinct pattern of seasonal variation (spring) was observed. Furthermore, more men had domestically acquired HFRS, and living in Taipei metropolitan area (6 cases [28.6%]) and the rural areas (Gao-Ping region, 9 cases [42.9%]) was identified as a potential risk factor. This study represents the first report of confirmed cases of domestically acquired HFRS from surveillance data from Taiwan’s CDC, 2001–2019. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of longitudinal studies covering a wide geographical area, particularly for highly fluctuating pathogens, to understanding the implications of the transmission of zoonotic diseases in human populations. Important data were identified to inform future surveillance and research efforts in Taiwan.

How the COVID-19 pandemic may impact public support for clinical xenotransplantation in the United States?

Many patients who would undergo organ transplantation cannot proceed due to the inability of human organ donation to satisfy medical needs. Xenotransplantation has the potential to offer unlimited availability of pig organs for transplantation, and pig-to-non-human primate models have demonstrated outcomes that may soon justify clinical trials. However, one of the unique ethical challenges faced by xenotransplantation is that the risk of introducing potential zoonotic disease into the community must be weighed along with the benefit to the patient. While most experts believe that zoonosis is manageable, apprehension over disease transmission from animal donors to human recipients remains a frequent concern of many who are undecided or opposed to clinical xenotransplantation. The COVID-19 pandemic represents a scenario (rapid worldwide spread of a highly contagious novel zoonotic disease with no natural defense in humans) that would seem to justify apprehension, especially in the United States, which has largely avoided previous pandemic outbreaks. However, there are many differences between zoonosis found in the wild or after xenotransplantation that favor the safety of the latter. Still, these differences, as well as the benefits of xenotransplantation, are not widely understood outside of the field. We must therefore ask what impact the COVID-19 pandemic will have on attitudes toward xenotransplantation.

Abortive vampire bat rabies infections in Peruvian peridomestic livestock

Rabies virus infections normally cause universally lethal encephalitis across mammals. However, 'abortive infections' which are resolved prior to the onset of lethal disease have been described in bats and a variety of non-reservoir species. Here, we surveyed rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers in 332 unvaccinated livestock of 5 species from a vampire bat rabies endemic region of southern Peru where livestock are the main food source for bats. We detected rabies virus neutralizing antibody titers in 11, 5 and 3.6% of cows, goats and sheep respectively and seropositive animals did not die from rabies within two years after sampling. Seroprevalence was correlated with the number of local livestock rabies mortalities reported one year prior but also one year after sample collection. This suggests that serological status of livestock can indicate the past and future levels of rabies risk to non-reservoir hosts. To our knowledge, this is the first report of anti-rabies antibodies among goats and sheep, suggesting widespread abortive infections among livestock in vampire bat rabies endemic areas. Future research should resolve the within-host biology underlying clearance of rabies infections. Cost-effectiveness analyses are also needed to evaluate whether serological monitoring of livestock can be a viable complement to current monitoring of vampire bat rabies risk based on animal mortalities alone.

Epidemiologic Characteristics of Imported and Domestic Chikungunya Cases in Taiwan: A 13-Year Retrospective Study

Background: Chikungunya fever is caused by the chikungunya virus. Numerous factors affect the risk of chikungunya transmission. This study explored the epidemiological characteristics, differences, and trends in domestic and imported cases of chikungunya fever in Taiwan in terms of patient sex, age, month of confirmation, and area of residence from 2007 to 2019. Methods: Public annual chikungunya data from Taiwan’s Centers for Disease Control (CDC) were analyzed. In total, 21 confirmed domestic and 198 imported cases of chikungunya were reported. Of the domestic cases, one was sporadic and reported in July 2019, and 20 were attributed to a cluster event during August and September 2019. Results: In a comparison between domestic and imported cases reported from July to October 2019, differences in sex were nonsignificant (p = 0.555), whereas significant differences were observed for age (p < 0.001), month of confirmation (p = 0.005), and place of residence (p = 0.001). An age of 69–69 years (odds ratio (OR) = 6.66, 95% confidence interval (95%CI) = 2.15–20.65), month of confirmation of September (OR = 5.25, 95%CI = 1.89–14.61) and place of residence of New Taipei City (OR = 48.70, 95%CI = 6.17–384.44) were identified as potential risk factors. Additionally, domestic cases in August and September 2019 increased in proportion to the increase in imported cases during July and August 2019. Increased domestic patients may have been caused by the domestic mosquitoes that transmitted the virus by biting the imported patients to Taiwan. This is the first report comparing domestic and imported cases of chikungunya from surveillance data from the Taiwan CDC from 2007 to 2019. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of longitudinal and geographically extended studies to understand the implications of zoonotic disease transmission on Taiwan’s population. Critical data were identified to inform future surveillance and research efforts in Taiwan.

Spatio-temporal description of bovine rabies cases in Peru, 2003-2017

Vampire bats became the main reservoir of rabies in Latin America, where the disease remains one of the most important viral zoonoses affecting humans and livestock. In Peru, the most affected livestock are cattle. The official data of 1,729 cases of bovine rabies were evaluated between 2003 and 2017 through a descriptive analysis, decomposition of the time-series and spatio-temporal analyses. Although the cases did not present a defined seasonality, the trend seemed to increase for several years. The bovine rabies cases are more frequent in the inter-Andean valleys than in other regions of the Amazon plains. The highest case density was observed in the regions of Ayacucho, Cuzco and Apurímac, all located in the Andes. It is necessary to review the current national program for the prevention and control of rabies in livestock, incorporating concepts of the ecology of vampire bats, as well as the prediction of the infection waves geographic and temporal spread. These approaches could improve the efficiency of other current prevention measures that have not shown the expected control effects, such as indiscriminate culling of vampire bats.

Food for contagion: synthesis and future directions for studying host-parasite responses to resource shifts in anthropogenic environments

Human-provided resource subsidies for wildlife are diverse, common and have profound consequences for wildlife-pathogen interactions, as demonstrated by papers in this themed issue spanning empirical, theoretical and management perspectives from a range of study systems. Contributions cut across scales of organization, from the within-host dynamics of immune function, to population-level impacts on parasite transmission, to landscape- and regional-scale patterns of infection. In this concluding paper, we identify common threads and key findings from author contributions, including the consequences of resource subsidies for (i) host immunity; (ii) animal aggregation and contact rates; (iii) host movement and landscape-level infection patterns; and (iv) interspecific contacts and cross-species transmission. Exciting avenues for future work include studies that integrate mechanistic modelling and empirical approaches to better explore cross-scale processes, and experimental manipulations of food resources to quantify host and pathogen responses. Work is also needed to examine evolutionary responses to provisioning, and ask how diet-altered changes to the host microbiome influence infection processes. Given the massive public health and conservation implications of anthropogenic resource shifts, we end by underscoring the need for practical recommendations to manage supplemental feeding practices, limit human-wildlife conflicts over shared food resources and reduce cross-species transmission risks, including to humans.This article is part of the theme issue 'Anthropogenic resource subsidies and host-parasite dynamics in wildlife'.

A study to identify the practices of the buffalo keepers which inadvertently lead to the spread of brucellosis in Delhi

Background

India has the largest Buffalo population in the world, with every household in rural India owning buffaloes depending upon daily milk requirement – dairy farmers can own between 10 to 70 buffaloes. The health of Indian buffaloes is of economic importance since India is one of the largest buffalo meat exporters in the world, and Indian Buffalo semen is sold in the USA for breeding purposes. However, National Control Program on brucellosis is only active in South India and in Panjab (a North Indian state with high human brucellosis incidence). Our aim was to assess the knowledge and practices of the buffalo keepers of Delhi that make them susceptible to brucellosis.

Results

Amongst all the 11 districts of Delhi, there was 0% awareness about brucellosis and also about the S19 vaccine as the buffalo keepers had never heard of S19 vaccine which is available at minimal cost from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India. Majority of the respondents drink raw milk, sleep in cattle sheds, do not isolate sick cattle, do not test buffaloes blood for any disease before purchasing them, apply intrauterine medication with bare hands to buffalo after abortion of foetus, never clean their cattle sheds with a disinfectant and believe that they can only acquire skin infections from cattle. All of these habits make them prone to brucellosis. While about 20 to 27% of respondents reported a history of abortions and retained placenta, disposed of the placenta with bare hands, and applied raw milk on cracked lips. It was surprising to note that majority of them never reared small ruminants like sheep and goat with buffaloes or Bos species as they were aware of the rapid spread of disease from small to big ruminants.

Conclusions

We found that buffalo keepers were ignorant of brucellosis, its causative agent, relevant vaccines and that they also involved in high-risk activities. As such, our findings highlight a need for buffalo keepers to be better educated via several awareness camps to minimize human exposure to Brucella in Delhi.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-018-1670-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Quantifying the burden of vampire bat rabies in Peruvian livestock

Background

Knowledge of infectious disease burden is necessary to appropriately allocate resources for prevention and control. In Latin America, rabies is among the most important zoonoses for human health and agriculture, but the burden of disease attributed to its main reservoir, the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), remains uncertain.

Methodology/Principal findings

We used questionnaires to quantify under-reporting of livestock deaths across 40 agricultural communities with differing access to health resources and epidemiological histories of vampire bat rabies (VBR) in the regions of Apurimac, Ayacucho and Cusco in southern Peru. Farmers who believed VBR was absent from their communities were one third as likely to report livestock deaths from disease as those who believed VBR was present, and under-reporting increased with distance from reporting offices. Using generalized mixed-effect models that captured spatial autocorrelation in reporting, we project 4.6 (95% CI: 4.4–8.2) rabies cases per reported case and identify geographic areas with potentially greater VBR burden than indicated by official reports. Spatially-corrected models estimate 505–724 cattle deaths from VBR in our study area during 2014 (421–444 deaths/100,000 cattle), costing US$121,797–171,992. Cost benefit analysis favoured vaccinating all cattle over the current practice of partial vaccination or halting vaccination all together.

Conclusions

Our study represents the first estimate of the burden of VBR in Latin America to incorporate data on reporting rates. We confirm the long-suspected cost of VBR to small-scale farmers and show that vaccinating livestock is a cost-effective solution to mitigate the burden of VBR. More generally, results highlight that ignoring geographic variation in access to health resources can bias estimates of disease burden and risk.

The number of cases and monetary cost of a disease guides how resources for prevention and control are allocated. In Latin America, rabies transmitted by vampire bats is one of the most recognized zoonoses affecting humans and livestock, but its burden on lives and livelihoods has been difficult to calculate because the percentage of outbreaks that are not reported to surveillance systems is unknown. Here, using surveys to calculate farmers’ tendencies to report livestock deaths, we estimate that over 500 cattle died of rabies in southern Peru in 2014, a loss of approximately US$170,000 or over 700 months of local income. Our results also show that the perceived risk of rabies strongly affected reporting of cattle mortality and vaccination coverage, suggesting that campaigns to increase awareness could reduce the burden of rabies.