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Li Y, Jiang W, Nie N, Xu J, Wang X, Zhang J, Guan J, Zhu C, Zhang C, Gu Y, Chen X, Yao S, Yin Z, Wu B, Ouyang H, Zou X. Size- and Dose-Dependent Body-Wide Organ Transcriptomic Responses to Calcium Phosphate Nanomaterials. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 38018117 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c10301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanomaterials are widely used in clinical practice. There are potential risks of body-wide infiltration due to their small size; however, the body-wide reliable risk assessment of nanoparticle infiltration is not fully studied and established. In this study, we demonstrated the size- and dose-dependent body-wide organ transcriptomic responses to calcium phosphate nanomaterials in vivo. In a mice model, a calcium phosphate nanocluster (amorphous calcium phosphate, ACP, ∼1 nm in diameter) and its crystallization product (ACP-M, ∼10 nm in diameter) in a series of doses was administrated systematically; multiorgan transcriptomics were then performed with tissues of heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and brain to investigate the systematic effect of dose and size of nanomaterials on the whole body. The results presented gene expression trajectories correlated with the dose of the nanomaterials and tissue-specific risk effects in all detected tissues. For the dose-dependent tissue-specific risk effects, lung tissue exhibited the most significant risk signatures related to apoptosis, cell proliferation, and cell stress. The spleen showed the second most significant risk signatures associated with immune response and DNA damage. For the size-dependent tissue-specific risk effects, ACP nanomaterials could increase most of the tissue-specific risk effects of nanomaterials in multiple organs than larger calcium phosphate nanoparticles. Finally, we used the size- and dose-dependent body-wide organ transcriptomic responses/risks to nanomaterials as the standards and built up a risk prediction model to evaluate the risk of the local nanomaterials delivery. Thus, our findings could provide a size- and dose- dependent risk assessment scale of nanoparticles in the transcriptomic level. It could be useful for risk assessment of nanomaterials in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- Clinical Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Nanfang Nie
- Clinical Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Jiaqi Xu
- Clinical Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Xiaozhao Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, Hangzhou 310058, P. R. China
| | - Junwen Zhang
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
| | - Jiahuan Guan
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
| | - Chengcheng Zhu
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
| | - Ying Gu
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
| | - Xiaoyi Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Shasha Yao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310016, China
| | - Zi Yin
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Bingbing Wu
- International Institutes of Medicine, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang 322000, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
| | - Hongwei Ouyang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, Hangzhou 310058, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohui Zou
- Clinical Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regeneration Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, P. R. China
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Stahl P, Kollenda S, Sager J, Schmidt L, Schroer MA, Stauber RH, Epple M, Knauer SK. Tuning Nanobodies' Bioactivity: Coupling to Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles Allows the Intracellular Interference with Survivin. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2300871. [PMID: 37035950 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202300871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Nanobodies are highly affine binders, often used to track disease-relevant proteins inside cells. However, they often fail to interfere with pathobiological functions, required for their clinical exploitation. Here, a nanobody targeting the disease-relevant apoptosis inhibitor and mitosis regulator Survivin (SuN) is utilized. Survivin's multifaceted functions are regulated by an interplay of dynamic cellular localization, dimerization, and protein-protein interactions. However, as Survivin harbors no classical "druggable" binding pocket, one must aim at blocking extended protein surface areas. Comprehensive experimental evidence demonstrates that intracellular expression of SuN allows to track Survivin at low nanomolar concentrations but failed to inhibit its biological functions. Small angle X-ray scattering of the Survivin-SuN complex locates the proposed interaction interface between the C-terminus and the globular domain, as such not blocking any pivotal interaction. By clicking multiple SuN to ultrasmall (2 nm) gold nanoparticles (SuN-N), not only intracellular uptake is enabled, but additionally, Survivin crosslinking and interference with mitotic progression in living cells are also enabled. In sum, it is demonstrated that coupling of nanobodies to nanosized scaffolds can be universally applicable to improve their function and therapeutic applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Stahl
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kollenda
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Jonas Sager
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Laura Schmidt
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Martin A Schroer
- Nanoparticle Process Technology, Department of Engineering, University of Duisburg-Essen, Lotharstr. 1, 47057, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Roland H Stauber
- Molecular and Cellular Oncology/ENT, University Medical Center Mainz (UMM), Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE) and Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 7, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Shirley K Knauer
- Molecular Biology II, Department of Biology, Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB) and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
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3
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Pereira Martins JR, Linhares de Aguiar AL, Barros Nogueira KA, Uchôa Bastos Filho AJ, da Silva Moreira T, Lima Holanda Araújo M, Pessoa C, Eloy JO, da Silva Junior IJ, Petrilli R. Nanoencapsulation of R-phycoerytrin extracted from Solieria filiformis improves protein stability and enables its biological application as a fluorescent dye. J Microencapsul 2023; 40:37-52. [PMID: 36630267 DOI: 10.1080/02652048.2023.2168081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to encapsulate R-PE to improve its stability for use as a fluorescent probe for cancer cells. Purified R-PE from the algae Solieria filiformis was encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles using PCL. Nanoparticles were characterised and R-PE release was evaluated. Also, cellular uptake using breast and prostate cancer cells were performed. Nanoparticles presented nanometric particle size (198.8 ± 0.06 nm) with low polydispersity (0.13 ± 0.022), negative zeta potential (-18.7 ± 1.10 mV), and 50.0 ± 7.3% encapsulation. FTIR revealed that R-PE is molecularly dispersed in PCL. DSC peak at 307 °C indicates the presence of R-PE in the nanoparticle. Also, in vitro, it was demonstrated low release for nanoparticles and degradation for the free R-PE. Finally, cellular uptake demonstrated the potential of R-PE/PCL nanoparticles for cancer cell detection. Nanoparticles loaded with R-PE can overcome instability and allow application as a fluorescent probe for cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Thais da Silva Moreira
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Dentistry and Nursing, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | | | - Claudia Pessoa
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Josimar O Eloy
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Dentistry and Nursing, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | | | - Raquel Petrilli
- Institute of Health Sciences, University of International Integration of the Afro-Brazilian Lusophony, Redenção, Brazil
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4
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Bonany M, Pérez-Berná AJ, Dučić T, Pereiro E, Martin-Gómez H, Mas-Moruno C, van Rijt S, Zhao Z, Espanol M, Ginebra MP. Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles-cell interaction: New approaches to disclose the fate of membrane-bound and internalised nanoparticles. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2022; 142:213148. [PMID: 36274359 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.213148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles are popular tools in bone regeneration, but they have also been used for gene delivery and as anticancer drugs. Understanding their mechanism of action, particularly for the latter application, is crucial to predict their toxicity. To this end, we aimed to elucidate the importance of nanoparticle membrane interactions in the cytotoxicity of MG-63 cells using two different types of nanoparticles. In addition, conventional techniques for studying nanoparticle internalisation were evaluated and compared with newer and less exploited approaches. Hydroxyapatite and magnesium-doped hydroxyapatite nanoparticles were used as suspensions or compacted as specular discs. Comparison between cells seeded on the discs and those supplemented with the nanoparticles allowed direct interaction of the cell membrane with the material to be ruled out as the main mechanism of toxicity. In addition, standard techniques such as flow cytometry were inconclusive when used to assess nanoparticles toxicity. Interestingly, the use of intracellular calcium fluorescent probes revealed the presence of a high number of calcium-rich vesicles after nanoparticle supplementation in cell culture. These structures could not be detected by transmission electron microscopy due to their liquid content. However, by using cryo-soft X-ray imaging, which was used to visualise the cellular ultrastructure without further treatment other than vitrification and to quantify the linear absorption coefficient of each organelle, it was possible to identify them as multivesicular bodies, potentially acting as calcium stores. In the study, an advanced state of degradation of the hydroxyapatite and magnesium-doped hydroxyapatite nanoparticles within MG-63 cells was observed. Overall, we demonstrate that the combination of fluorescent calcium probes together with cryo-SXT is an excellent approach to investigate intracellular calcium, especially when found in its soluble form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Bonany
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, UPC, 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Engineering Research Center (CREB), UPC, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Tanja Dučić
- MISTRAL Beamline Experiments Division, ALBA Synchrotron Light Source, 08290 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eva Pereiro
- MISTRAL Beamline Experiments Division, ALBA Synchrotron Light Source, 08290 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Helena Martin-Gómez
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, UPC, 08019 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Mas-Moruno
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, UPC, 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Engineering Research Center (CREB), UPC, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sabine van Rijt
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering, MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, 6200, MD, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Zhitong Zhao
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Montserrat Espanol
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, UPC, 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Engineering Research Center (CREB), UPC, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Maria-Pau Ginebra
- Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Group, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, UPC, 08019 Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Engineering Research Center (CREB), UPC, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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5
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Patel SN, Sonani RR, Roy D, Singh NK, Subudhi S, Pabbi S, Madamwar D. Exploring the structural aspects and therapeutic perspectives of cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins. 3 Biotech 2022; 12:224. [PMID: 35975025 PMCID: PMC9375810 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-022-03284-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) of cyanobacteria and algae possess unique light harvesting capacity which expand the photosynthetically active region (PAR) and allow them to thrive in extreme niches where higher plants cannot. PBPs of cyanobacteria/algae vary in abundance, types, amino acid composition and in structure as a function of species and the habitat that they grow in. In the present review, the key aspects of structure, stability, and spectral properties of PBPs, and their correlation with ecological niche of cyanobacteria are discussed. Besides their role in light-harvesting, PBPs possess antioxidant, anti-aging, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, which can be used in therapeutics. Recent developments in therapeutic applications of PBPs are reviewed with special focus on 'route of PBPs administration' and 'therapeutic potential of PBP-derived peptide and chromophores'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuti N. Patel
- P. D. Patel Institute of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, CHARUSAT Campus, Changa, Anand, Gujarat 388421 India
- Post-Graduate Department of Biosciences, UGC-Centre of Advanced Study, Sardar Patel University, Satellite Campus, Vadtal Road, Bakrol, Anand, Gujarat 388315 India
- Present Address: Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Ravi R. Sonani
- Present Address: Małopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908 USA
| | - Diya Roy
- Centre for Conservation and Utilisation of Blue Green Algae (CCUBGA), Division of Microbiology, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012 India
| | - Niraj Kumar Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Shree A. N. Patel PG Institute of Science and Research, Sardar Patel University, Anand, Gujarat 388001 India
- Present Address: Gujarat Biotechnology Research Centre (GBRC), Deaprtment of Science and Technology (DST), Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382011 India
| | - Sanjukta Subudhi
- The Energy and Resources Institute Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat Centre, Lodi Road, New Delhi, 110003 India
| | - Sunil Pabbi
- Centre for Conservation and Utilisation of Blue Green Algae (CCUBGA), Division of Microbiology, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012 India
| | - Datta Madamwar
- P. D. Patel Institute of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, CHARUSAT Campus, Changa, Anand, Gujarat 388421 India
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6
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Hausig-Punke F, Richter F, Hoernke M, Brendel JC, Traeger A. Tracking the Endosomal Escape: A Closer Look at Calcein and Related Reporters. Macromol Biosci 2022; 22:e2200167. [PMID: 35933579 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Crossing the cellular membrane and delivering active pharmaceuticals or biologicals into the cytosol of cells is an essential step in the development of nanomedicines. One of the most important intracellular processes regarding the cellular uptake of biologicals is the endolysosomal pathway. Sophisticated nanocarriers have been developed overcoming a major hurdle, the endosomal entrapment, and delivering their cargo to the required site of action. In parallel, in vitro assays have been established analyzing the performance of these nanocarriers. Among them, the release of the membrane-impermeable dye calcein has become a popular and straightforward method. It is accessible for most researchers worldwide, allows for rapid conclusions about the release potential, and enables the study of release mechanisms. This review is intended to provide an overview and guidance for scientists applying the calcein release assay. It comprises a survey of several applications in the study of endosomal escape, considerations of potential pitfalls, challenges and limitations of the assay, and a brief summary of complementary methods. Based on this review, we hope to encourage further research groups to take advantage of the calcein release assay for their own purposes and help to create a database for more efficient cross-correlations between nanocarriers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Hausig-Punke
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Friederike Richter
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Maria Hoernke
- Chemistry and Pharmacy, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 9, 79104, Freiburg i.Br., Germany
| | - Johannes C Brendel
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Anja Traeger
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
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7
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Stimulation of Metabolic Activity and Cell Differentiation in Osteoblastic and Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells by a Nanohydroxyapatite Paste Bone Graft Substitute. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15041570. [PMID: 35208112 PMCID: PMC8877199 DOI: 10.3390/ma15041570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Advances in nanotechnology have been exploited to develop new biomaterials including nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite (nHA) with physical properties close to those of natural bone mineral. While clinical data are encouraging, relatively little is understood regarding bone cells’ interactions with synthetic graft substitutes based on this technology. The aim of this research was therefore to investigate the in vitro response of both osteoblast cell lines and primary osteoblasts to an nHA paste. Cellular metabolic activity was assessed using the cell viability reagent PrestoBlue and quantitative, real-time PCR was used to determine gene expression related to osteogenic differentiation. A potential role of calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in the response of osteoblastic cells to nHA was also investigated. Indirect contact of the nHA paste with human osteoblastic cells (Saos-2, MG63, primary osteoblasts) and human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells enhanced the cell metabolic activity. The nHA paste also stimulated gene expression of runt-related transcription factor 2, collagen 1, alkaline phosphatase, and osteocalcin, thereby indicating an osteogenic response. CaSR was not involved in nHA paste-induced increases in cellular metabolic activity. This investigation demonstrated that the nHA paste has osteogenic properties that contribute to clinical efficacy when employed as an injectable bone graft substitute.
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8
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Białas N, Müller EK, Epple M, Hilger I. Silica-coated calcium phosphate nanoparticles for gene silencing of NF-κB p65 by siRNA and their impact on cellular players of inflammation. Biomaterials 2021; 276:121013. [PMID: 34252802 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The transcription factor NF-κB and its signaling cascade both play key roles in all inflammatory processes. The most critical member of the NF-κB transcription factor family is p65. We investigated the role of cationic silica-coated calcium phosphate nanoparticles (spherical, diameter by SEM 50-60 nm; zeta potential about +26 mV; stabilized by polyethyleneimine) carrying encapsulated siRNA against NF-κB p65 and their influence on inflamed cells. The nanoparticles were taken up by cells of the blood compartment involved in the inflammatory response, particularly by monocytes, and to a lesser extent by endothelial cells and B-cells, but not by T-cells. The particles were found in endolysosomes where they were dissolved at low pH and released the siRNA into the cytoplasm. This was confirmed by dissolution experiments of model nanoparticles in simulated endolysosomal medium (pH 4.7) and by intracellular co-localization studies of double-labeled nanoparticles (using a negatively charged model peptide for siRNA). The encapsulated functional siRNA reverted the p65 gene and protein expression in inflamed monocytes, the main cells in immune response and surveillance, almost back to the non-inflammatory condition. Additionally, the nanoparticles suppressed the pro-inflammatory cytokine expression profiles (TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-β) in inflamed J774A.1 monocytes. Taken together, such nanoparticles can be applied for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataniel Białas
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117, Essen, Germany
| | - Elena K Müller
- Dept. of Experimental Radiology, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Am Klinikum 1, D-07740, Jena, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117, Essen, Germany.
| | - Ingrid Hilger
- Dept. of Experimental Radiology, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Am Klinikum 1, D-07740, Jena, Germany.
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9
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Abstract
Calcium phosphate nanoparticles have a high biocompatibility and biodegradability due to their chemical similarity to human hard tissue, for example, bone and teeth. They can be used as efficient carriers for different kinds of biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, antibodies, or drugs, which alone are not able to enter cells where their biological effect is required. They can be loaded with cargo molecules by incorporating them, unlike solid nanoparticles, and also by surface functionalization. This offers protection, for example, against nucleases, and the possibility for cell targeting. If such nanoparticles are functionalized with fluorescing dyes, they can be applied for imaging in vitro and in vivo. Synthesis, functionalization and cell uptake mechanisms of calcium phosphate nanoparticles are discussed together with applications in transfection, gene silencing, imaging, immunization, and bone substitution. Biodistribution data of calcium phosphate nanoparticles in vivo are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriya Sokolova
- Inorganic chemistryUniversity of Duisburg-EssenUniversitaetsstr. 5–745117EssenGermany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic chemistryUniversity of Duisburg-EssenUniversitaetsstr. 5–745117EssenGermany
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10
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Hosseini S, Epple M. Suppositories with bioactive calcium phosphate nanoparticles for intestinal transfection and gene silencing. NANO SELECT 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/nano.202000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Hosseini
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg‐Essen (CeNIDE) University of Duisburg‐Essen Essen Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg‐Essen (CeNIDE) University of Duisburg‐Essen Essen Germany
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Wey K, Epple M. Ultrasmall gold and silver/gold nanoparticles (2 nm) as autofluorescent labels for poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (140 nm). JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2020; 31:117. [PMID: 33247365 PMCID: PMC7695662 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-020-06449-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ultrasmall metallic nanoparticles show an efficient autofluorescence after excitation in the UV region, combined with a low degree of fluorescent bleaching. Thus, they can be used as fluorescent labels for polymer nanoparticles which are frequently used for drug delivery. A versatile water-in-oil-in-water emulsion-evaporation method was developed to load poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles with autofluorescent ultrasmall gold and silver/gold nanoparticles (diameter 2 nm). The metallic nanoparticles were prepared by reduction of tetrachloroauric acid with sodium borohydride and colloidally stabilised with 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid. They were characterised by UV-Vis and fluorescence spectroscopy, showing a large Stokes shift of about 370 nm with excitation maxima at 250/270 nm and emission maxima at 620/640 nm for gold and silver/gold nanoparticles, respectively. The labelled PLGA nanoparticles (140 nm) were characterised by dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and UV-Vis and fluorescence spectroscopy. Their uptake by HeLa cells was followed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The metallic nanoparticles remained inside the PLGA particle after cellular uptake, demonstrating the efficient encapsulation and the applicability to label the polymer nanoparticle. In terms of fluorescence, the metallic nanoparticles were comparable to fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolin Wey
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5-7, 45117, Essen, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5-7, 45117, Essen, Germany.
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Hosseini S, Wey K, Epple M. Enteric Coating Systems for the Oral Administration of Bioactive Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles Carrying Nucleic Acids into the Colon. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202002846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Hosseini
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE)University of Duisburg-Essen Universitaetsstr. 5–7 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Karolin Wey
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE)University of Duisburg-Essen Universitaetsstr. 5–7 45117 Essen Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE)University of Duisburg-Essen Universitaetsstr. 5–7 45117 Essen Germany
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Kollenda S, Kopp M, Wens J, Koch J, Schulze N, Papadopoulos C, Pöhler R, Meyer H, Epple M. A pH-sensitive fluorescent protein sensor to follow the pathway of calcium phosphate nanoparticles into cells. Acta Biomater 2020; 111:406-417. [PMID: 32439614 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Calcium phosphate nanoparticles (100 nm) were fluorescently labelled with poly(ethyleneimine) (PEIATTO490LS; red fluorescence). They were loaded with a Tandem fusion protein consisting of mRFP1-eGFP (red and green fluorescence in the same molecule)that acts as smart biological pH sensor to trace nanoparticles inside cells. Its fluorescence is also coupled to the structural integrity of the protein, i.e. it is also a label for a successful delivery of a functional protein into the cell. At pH 7.4, the fluorescence of both proteins (red and green) is detectable. At a pH of 4.5-5 inside the lysosomes, the green fluorescence is quenched due to the protonation of the eGFP chromophore, but the pH-independent red fluorescence of mRFP1 remains. The nanoparticles were taken up by cells (cell lines: HeLa, Caco-2 and A549) via endocytic pathways and then directed to lysosomes. Time-resolved confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed mRFP1 and nanoparticles co-localizing with lysosomes. The fluorescence of eGFP was only detectable outside lysosomes, i.e. most likely inside early endosomes or at the cell membrane during the uptake, indicating the neutral pH at these locations. The Tandem fusion protein provides a versatile platform to follow the intracellular pathway of bioactive nanocarriers, e.g. therapeutic proteins. The transfection with a Tandem-encoding plasmid by calcium phosphate nanoparticles led to an even intracellular protein distribution in cytosol and nucleoplasm, i.e. very different from direct protein uptake. Neither dissolved protein nor dissolved plasmid DNA were taken up by the cells, underscoring the necessity for a suitable carrier like a nanoparticle. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A pH-sensitive protein ("tandem") was used to follow the pathway of calcium phosphate nanoparticles. This protein consists of a pH-sensitive fluorophore (eGFP; green) and a pH-independent fluorophore (mRFP1; red). This permits to follow the pathway of a nanoparticle inside a cell. At a low pH inside an endolysosome, the green fluorescence vanishes but the red fluorescence persists. This is also a very useful model for the delivery of therapeutic proteins into cells. The delivery by nanoparticles was compared with the protein expression after cell transfection with plasmid DNA encoding for the tandem protein. High-resolution image analysis gave quantitative data on the intracellular protein distribution.
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Sokolova V, Rojas-Sánchez L, Białas N, Schulze N, Epple M. Calcium phosphate nanoparticle-mediated transfection in 2D and 3D mono- and co-culture cell models. Acta Biomater 2019; 84:391-401. [PMID: 30503560 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.11.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The transfer of nucleic acids into living cells, i.e. transfection, is a major technique in current molecular biology and medicine. As nucleic acids alone are not able to penetrate the cell membrane, an efficient carrier is needed. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles can serve as carrier due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability and high affinity to nucleic acids like DNA or RNA. Their application was extended here from two-dimensional (2D) to three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, including co-cultures. Compared to 2D monolayer cell cultures, a 3D culture system represents a more realistic spatial, biochemical and cellular environment. The uptake of fluorescent calcium phosphate nanoparticles (diameter 40-70 nm; cationic) was studied in 2D and 3D cell culture models by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The transfection of eGFP by calcium phosphate nanoparticles was compared in 2D and 3D cell culture, including co-cultures of green fluorescing HeLa-eGFP cells and MG-63 cells in 2D and in 3D models with the red fluorescent protein mCherry. This permitted a cell-specific assessment of the local transfection efficiency. In general, the penetration of nanoparticles into the spheroids was significantly higher than that of a model oligonucleotide carried by Lipofectamine. The transfection efficiency was comparable in 3D cell cultures with 2D cell cultures, but it occurred preferentially at the surface of the spheroids, following the uptake pathway of the nanoparticles. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Three-dimensional cell culture models can serve as a bridge between the in-vitro cell cultures and the in-vivo situation, especially when mass transfer effects have to be considered. This is the case for nanoparticles where the incubation effect in a two-dimensional cell culture strongly differs from a three-dimensional cell culture or a living tissue. We have compared the uptake of nanoparticles and a subsequent transfection of fluorescent proteins in two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture models. An elegant model to investigate the transfection in co-cultures was developed using HeLa-eGFP cells (green fluorescent) together with MG-63 cells (non-fluorescent) that were transfected with the red-fluorescing protein mCherry. Thereby, the transfection of both cell types in the co-culture was easily distinguished.
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Induction of herpes simplex virus type 1 cell-to-cell spread inhibiting antibodies by a calcium phosphate nanoparticle-based vaccine. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2018; 16:138-148. [PMID: 30594660 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 are among the most ubiquitous human infections and persist lifelong in their host. Upon primary infection or reactivation from ganglia, the viruses spread by direct cell-cell contacts (cell-to-cell spread) and thus escape from the host immune response. We have developed a monoclonal antibody (mAb 2c), which inhibits the HSV cell-to-cell spread, thereby protecting from lethal genital infection and blindness in animal models. In the present study we have designed a nanoparticle-based vaccine to induce protective antibody responses exceeding the cell-to-cell spread inhibiting properties of mAb 2c. We used biodegradable calcium phosphate (CaP) nanoparticles coated with a synthetic peptide that represents the conformational epitope on HSV-1 gB recognized by mAb 2c. The CaP nanoparticles additionally contained a TLR-ligand CpGm and were formulated with adjuvants to facilitate the humoral immune response. This vaccine effectively protected mice from lethal HSV-1 infection by inducing cell-to-cell spread inhibiting antibodies.
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Review of potential health risks associated with nanoscopic calcium phosphate. Acta Biomater 2018; 77:1-14. [PMID: 30031162 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 07/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Calcium phosphate is applied in many products in biomedicine, but also in toothpastes and cosmetics. In some cases, it is present in nanoparticulate form, either on purpose or after degradation or mechanical abrasion. Possible concerns are related to the biological effect of such nanoparticles. A thorough literature review shows that calcium phosphate nanoparticles as such have no inherent toxicity but can lead to an increase of the intracellular calcium concentration after endosomal uptake and lysosomal degradation. However, cells are able to clear the calcium from the cytoplasm within a few hours, unless very high doses of calcium phosphate are applied. The observed cytotoxicity in some cell culture studies, mainly for unfunctionalized particles, is probably due to particle agglomeration and subsequent sedimentation onto the cell layer, leading to a very high local particle concentration, a high particle uptake, and subsequent cell death. There is no risk from an oral uptake of calcium phosphate nanoparticles due to their rapid dissolution in the stomach. The risk from dermal or mucosal uptake is very low. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles can enter the bloodstream by inhalation, but no adverse effects have been observed, except for a prolonged exposition to high particle doses. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles inside the body (e.g. after implantation or due to abrasion) do not pose a risk as they are typically resorbed and dissolved by osteoclasts and macrophages. There is no indication for a significant influence of the calcium phosphate phase or the particle shape (e.g. spherical or rod-like) on the biological response. In summary, the risk associated with an exposition to nanoparticulate calcium phosphate in doses that are usually applied in biomedicine, health care products, and cosmetics is very low and most likely not present at all. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Calcium phosphate is a well-established biomaterial. However, there are occasions when it occurs in a nanoparticulate form (e.g. as nanoparticle or as nanoparticulate bone substitution material) or after abrasion from a calcium phosphate-coated metal implant. In the light of the current discussion on the safety of nanoparticles, there have been concerns about potential adverse effects of nano-calcium phosphate, e.g. in a statement of a EU study group from 2016 about possible dangers associated with non-spherical nano-hydroxyapatite in cosmetics. In the US, there was a discussion in 2016 about the dangers of nano-calcium phosphate in babyfood. In this review, the potential exposition routes for nano-calcium phosphate are reviewed, with special emphasis on its application as biomaterial.
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Sokolova V, Shi Z, Huang S, Du Y, Kopp M, Frede A, Knuschke T, Buer J, Yang D, Wu J, Westendorf AM, Epple M. Delivery of the TLR ligand poly(I:C) to liver cells in vitro and in vivo by calcium phosphate nanoparticles leads to a pronounced immunostimulation. Acta Biomater 2017; 64:401-410. [PMID: 28963016 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The selective activation of the immune system is a concurrent problem in the treatment of persistent diseases like viral infections (e.g. hepatitis). For the delivery of the toll-like receptor ligand poly(I:C), an immunostimulatory action was discovered earlier by hydrodynamic injection. However, this technique is not clinically transferable to human patients. A modular system where the immunoactive toll-like-receptor ligand 3 (TLR-3) poly(I:C) was incorporated into calcium phosphate nanoparticles was developed. The nanoparticles had a hydrodynamic diameter of 275nm and a zeta potential of +20mV, measured by dynamic light scattering. The diameter of the solid core was 120nm by scanning electron microscopy. In vitro, the nanoparticle uptake was investigated after 1 and 24h of incubation of THP-1 cells (macrophages) with nanoparticles by fluorescence microscopy. After intravenous injection into BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice, respectively, the in vivo uptake was especially prominent in lung and liver, 1 and 3h after the injection. Pronounced immunostimulatory effects of the nanoparticles were found in vitro with primary liver cells, i.e. Kupffer cells (KC) and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) from wild-type C57BL/6J mice. Thus, they represent a suitable alternative to hydrodynamic injection treatments for future vaccination concepts. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE The selective activation of the immune system is a concurrent problem in the treatment of persistent diseases like viral infections (e.g. hepatitis). For the delivery of the toll-like receptor ligand poly(I:C), an immunostimulatory action has been discovered earlier by hydrodynamic injection. However, this technique is not clinically transferable to human patients. We have developed a modular system where poly(I:C) was incorporated into calcium phosphate nanoparticles. The uptake into relevant liver cells was studied both in vitro and in vivo. After intravenous injection into mice, the in vivo uptake was especially prominent in lung and liver, 1 and 3h after the injection. The corresponding strong immune reaction proves their high potential to turn up the immune system, e.g. against viral infections, without adverse side reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriya Sokolova
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Zou Shi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue 1277, 430030 Wuhan, PR China
| | - Shunmei Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue 1277, 430030 Wuhan, PR China
| | - Yanqin Du
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue 1277, 430030 Wuhan, PR China
| | - Mathis Kopp
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Annika Frede
- Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Torben Knuschke
- Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Jan Buer
- Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Dongliang Yang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue 1277, 430030 Wuhan, PR China
| | - Jun Wu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue 1277, 430030 Wuhan, PR China
| | - Astrid Maria Westendorf
- Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany.
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