Influence of the way of reporting alpha-Amylase values in saliva in different naturalistic situations: A pilot study

Serpin B12 in saliva of pigs: Development and analytical validation of an assay for its quantification and changes in sepsis and stress conditions

An assay for measuring Serpin B12 in porcine saliva was developed and validated, showing adequate precision, accuracy, and sensitivity. Changes in salivary Serpin B12 concentrations were evaluated under different conditions, including the time of the day, the productive cycle, experimental sepsis and non-septic inflammation, S. suis infection and stress. Serpin B12 were significantly higher at 4 p.m. compared to other times of the day and were higher in piglets before the end of the nursery phase. Significant increases were detected at 6 h and 24 h after the intramuscular administration of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide in pigs and in pigs naturally infected with Streptococcus suis. Non-septic inflammation, induced by subcutaneous administration of turpentine oil and stress caused by transport and a 4 h lairage at the slaughterhouse, also resulted in increased Serpin B12 levels, although these increases were less pronounced than those observed in sepsis. In conclusion, the developed assay effectively measures Serpin B12 in saliva, and its concentrations vary depending on sampling time and animal age. In addition, salivary Serpin B12 increases in situations of sepsis, non-septic inflammation, and stress, with the most substantial changes associated with septic conditions.

Potential use of salivary TNF-α as a vaccine-induced pain biomarker in people with cerebral palsy and communication disorders

BACKGROUND

Pain in people with cerebral palsy (CP) has been classically underestimated and poorly treated, particularly in individuals with impaired communication skills.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze changes in different salivary metabolites and pain behavior scales after a painful procedure in adults with CP and adults with typical development.

METHODS

Salivary levels of sTNF-α, sIgA, Cortisol, FRAP, ADA and Alpha Amylase, as well as 3 observational pain scales (Wong-Baker, Non-Communicating Adults Pain Checklist and Facial Action Coding System) were assessed before and after an intramuscular injection in 30 Individuals with CP and 30 healthy controls. Video recording of face expression was performed during the procedure for offline analysis.

RESULTS

Pain in subjects with CP was higher than in healthy controls after the intramuscular injection as displayed by observational scales. sTNF-α experienced a significant post-stimulus increase in both groups and that increase shows a tendency to correlate with the observational scales scores. Other biomarkers classically associated with stress (cortisol, Alpha Amylase) remain stable.

CONCLUSION

sTNF-α might be a promising pain indicator. Further research using controlled painful stimuli of greater intensity and pain self-reports, would be necessary to better understand its use as a pain biomarker.

Blood Flow Restricted Resistance Exercise in Well-Trained Men: Salivary Biomarker Responses and Oxygen Saturation Kinetics

ABSTRACT

Eserhaut, DA, DeLeo, JM, and Fry, AC. Blood flow restricted resistance exercise in well-trained men: Salivary biomarker responses and oxygen saturation kinetics. J Strength Cond Res 38(12): e716-e726, 2024-Resistance exercise with continuous lower-limb blood flow restriction (BFR) may provide supplementary benefit to highly resistance-trained men. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare cardiovascular and salivary biomarker responses, along with skeletal muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2) during passive lower-limb BFR (pBFR), BFR resistance exercise performed to task failure (BFR+RE), and volume-matched resistance exercise (RE). A within-subjects, repeated measures design was used. Nineteen men (x̄±SD: relative squat 1RM: 1.9 ± 0.3 kg·bw-1) reported for 3 visits. First, body composition, blood pressure, back squat, and leg extension 1 repetition maximums (1RM) were assessed. Resting systolic blood pressure and proximal thigh circumferences were used to estimate arterial occlusion pressures (eAOP). Visit 1 involved pBFR, where BFR cuffs were inflated to 80% eAOP around the proximal thighs for 10 minutes while subjects were seated in a leg extension machine. Then, 24-120 hours later, 4 sets of bilateral seated leg extensions at 30% 1RM were performed to momentary task failure with 1-minute rest at the same 80% eAOP. After 72-120 hours rest, subjects matched the repetition performances from BFR+RE at 30% 1RM for the RE condition. BFR+RE elicited greater (p ≤ 0.05) heart rates, systolic, and diastolic blood pressures relative to pBFR and RE. Significantly elevated (p ≤ 0.05) blood lactate, salivary cortisol concentrations, and α-amylase activity occurred following BFR+RE relative to pBFR and RE. BFR+RE also induced blunted (p < 0.001) SmO2 interset resaturation rates compared with RE. In trained men, continuous BFR+RE seems to significantly alter acute physiological responses to a greater degree than either pBFR alone or volume-matched RE.

Salivary alpha-amylase: A marker of stress in gynecological residents during a shoulder dystocia simulation scenario

OBJECTIVE

Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) has been recently proposed as biomarker of stress responsiveness within the sympathetic nervous system, preferable to cortisol, since limitations related to cortisol measurement (e.g. diurnal and seasonal rhythms, drugs interferences). Several factors, as age, collection device and analytical methods, also influence sAA levels and interpretation. This study aims to assess whether sAA could be useful to evaluate the stress response, also verifying some sources of variability.

METHODS

To identify any sources of sAA variability, saliva samples were collected from eight healthy subjects at five different times (8:00, 10:00, 12:00, 14:00 and 16:00) over five consecutive days using two different collection devices. Saliva was then collected from 35 obstetric residents before and after a simulated shoulder dystocia scenario, one of the most traumatic birth events in the professional life of gynecologists, to assess the stress levels. Samples were analysed throughout two different assays. Heart rate (HR) of residents was also measured before and after simulation scenario. Residents self-collected two saliva samples 10 min apart on a typical day.

RESULTS

Overall, sAA levels increased significantly from morning to afternoon. Levels varied between subjects, but no differences were found between days or sampling devices. sAA activity levels in samples from 35 residents were significantly higher than those obtained before the scenario took place (about ten minutes later). These results were confirmed by two different assays. Moreover, a similar trend was observed when HR was considered. No differences were observed between samples collected 10 minutes apart on a typical day.

CONCLUSIONS

Salivary alpha-amylase activity is a reliable, quick, and efficient marker for stress response, then its measurement will be of potential interest in the field of stress-related disorders. However, it is important to consider the timing of sample collection before introducing sAA in a clinical setting.

Changes in saliva analytes in equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) after treatment: a pilot study

Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is a prevalent condition in horses, affecting up to 93% of racehorses. Comprising the equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD) and the equine glandular gastric disease (EGGD), EGUS poses significant health challenges. Saliva, a non-invasive and easily obtainable sample, is increasingly recognized for its potential as a source of biomarkers in horses. This study investigates changes in saliva analytes using automated assays before and after EGUS treatment, aiming to identify biomarkers indicative of treatment success or failure. A total of 28 horses diagnosed with EGUS were treatment with omeprazole for six weeks and further divided into successful (n = 15) or unsuccessful (n = 13) treatment group. Saliva samples were collected before and after treatment, and analytes related to enzymes, metabolites, proteins, redox biomarkers, and minerals were measured using an automated chemistry analyzer. Results revealed that horses with successful treatment, indicated by reduced EGGD and ESGD scores, showed significant increases in bicarbonate and urea, and decreases in adenosine deaminase (ADA), and creatine kinase (CK). Conversely, horses with non-successful treatment showed no significant changes in salivary analytes. These analytes have the advantages of an easy and fast measurement and the possibility of being applied in routine. Further studies with larger populations should be performed to establish the possible practical application of these analytes as biomarkers of treatment.

Welfare Assessment in Pigs Using the Salivary Proteome

Identifying the potential presence of stress at the pig farm is fundamental since it affects pig welfare. As a result, a reliable and straightforward tool to monitor stress could record the welfare status of the animals. Although numerous methods to assess the welfare of pigs have been developed in the past, no gold standard has been established yet. Recently, the value of saliva as a tool to identify chronic stress in piglets was explored, as it can be collected fast and non-invasively. Since the protein composition, i.e., the proteome of porcine saliva, responds to stress, the affected proteins could be used as salivary stress biomarkers. The present review first defines stress and its relationship with welfare. Next, the porcine gland-specific salivary proteome is characterized. Finally, six potential salivary biomarkers for stress are proposed, i.e., odorant-binding protein, vomeromodulin-like protein, chitinase, lipocalin-1, long palate lung and nasal epithelium protein, and alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein.

Extracellular DNA and Markers of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Saliva from Patients with Periodontitis-A Case-Control Study

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease. We have previously shown that salivary DNA is higher in patients with periodontitis. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are involved in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases. The objective of this case-control study was to compare patients with periodontitis and healthy controls regarding the salivary concentrations of extracellular DNA and NET components. Unstimulated saliva samples were collected from 49 patients with periodontitis and 71 controls before an oral examination. Salivary extracellular DNA was isolated and quantified fluorometrically and using PCR. NET-associated markers were assessed using ELISA. We have found significantly higher concentrations of salivary extracellular DNA in samples from periodontitis patients (five-times higher for supernatant and three times for pellet). Our results show that patients also have three-times-higher salivary nucleosomes and NET-associated enzymes-myeloperoxidase and neutrophil elastase (both two-times higher). Neutrophil elastase and salivary DNA in the pellet correlated positively with the pocket depth/clinical attachment level in periodontitis patients (r = 0.31-weak correlation; p = 0.03 and r = 0.41-moderate correlation, p = 0.004). Correlations between salivary extracellular DNA and NET enzymes were positive and significant. Based on our results, the higher salivary extracellular DNA in periodontitis seems to be related to components of NETs, albeit with weak to moderate correlations indicating that NETs are produced in periodontitis and can play a role in its pathogenesis similarly to other inflammatory diseases. Further studies should prove this assumption with potential diagnostic and therapeutic consequences.

Beyond the Bottle: Exploring Health-Promoting Compounds in Wine and Wine-Related Products-Extraction, Detection, Quantification, Aroma Properties, and Terroir Effects

Health-promoting compounds in wine and wine-related products are important due to their potential benefits to human health. Through an extensive literature review, this study explores the presence of these compounds in wine and wine-related products, examining their relationship with terroir and their impact on the aromatic and flavor properties that are perceived orally: sunlight exposure, rainfall patterns, and soil composition impact grapevines' synthesis and accumulation of health-promoting compounds. Enzymes, pH, and the oral microbiome are crucial in sensory evaluation and perception of health promotion. Moreover, their analysis of health-promoting compounds in wine and wine-related products relies on considerations such as the specific target compound, selectivity, sensitivity, and the complexity of the matrix.

Changes in Calprotectin (S100A8-A9) and Aldolase in the Saliva of Horses with Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome

Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is a highly prevalent disease that affects horses worldwide. Within EGUS, two different forms have been described: equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD) and equine glandular gastric disease (EGGD). The associated clinical signs cause detrimental activity performance, reducing the quality of life of animals. Saliva can contain biomarkers for EGUS that could be potentially used as a complementary tool for diagnosis. The objective of this work was to evaluate the measurements of calprotectin (CALP) and aldolase in the saliva of horses as potential biomarkers of EGUS. For this purpose, automated assays for the quantification of these two proteins were analytically validated and applied for detecting EGUS in a total of 131 horses divided into 5 groups: healthy horses, ESGD, EGGD, combined ESGD and EGGD, and horses with other intestinal pathologies. The assays showed good precision and accuracy in analytical validation, and they were able to discriminate between horses with EGUS and healthy horses, especially in the case of CALP, although they did not show significant differences between horses with EGUS and horses with other diseases. In conclusion, salivary CALP and aldolase can be determined in the saliva of horses and further studies are warranted to elucidate the potential of these analytes as biomarkers in EGUS.

Changes in the Saliva Proteome of Pigs with Diarrhoea Caused by Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli represents the main cause of diarrhoea in pigs. Saliva can provide information about the pathophysiology of diseases and be a source of biomarkers. We aimed to identify changes in the salivary proteome of pigs with diarrhoea caused by E. coli. Saliva samples were collected from 10 pigs with this disease and 10 matched healthy controls. SDS-PAGE (1DE) and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) were performed, and significantly different protein bands and spots were identified by mass spectrometry. For validation, adenosine deaminase (ADA) was measured in 28 healthy and 28 diseased pigs. In 1DE, increases in lipocalin and IgA bands were observed for diseased pigs, whereas bands containing proteins such as odorant-binding protein and/or prolactin-inducible protein presented decreased concentrations. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) results showed that saliva from E. coli animals presented higher expression levels of lipocalin, ADA, IgA and albumin peptides, being ADA activity increased in the diseased pigs in the validation study. Spots containing alpha-amylase, carbonic anhydrase VI, and whole albumin were decreased in diseased animals. Overall, pigs with diarrhoea caused by E. coli have changes in proteins in their saliva related to various pathophysiological mechanisms such as inflammation and immune function and could potentially be biomarkers of this disease.

Exploring the Impact of α-Amylase Enzyme Activity and pH on Flavor Perception of Alcoholic Drinks

The introduction of a drink in the mouth and the action of saliva and enzymes cause the perception of basic tastes and some aromas perceived in a retro-nasal way. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of the type of alcoholic beverage (beer, wine, and brandy) on lingual lipase and α-amylase activity and in-mouth pH. It was possible to see that the pH values (drink and saliva) differed significantly from the pH values of the initial drinks. Moreover, the α-amylase activity was significantly higher when the panel members tasted a colorless brandy, namely Grappa. Red wine and wood-aged brandy also induced greater α-amylase activity than white wine and blonde beer. Additionally, tawny port wine induced greater α-amylase activity than red wine. The flavor characteristics of red wines due to skin maceration and the contact of the brandy with the wood can cause a synergistic effect between beverages considered "tastier" and the activity of human α-amylase. We can conclude that saliva-beverage chemical interactions may depend on the saliva composition but also on the chemical composition of the beverage, namely its constitution in acids, alcohol concentration, and tannin content. This work is an important contribution to the e-flavor project, the development of a sensor system capable of mimicking the human perception of flavor. Furthermore, a better understanding of saliva-drink interactions allow us to comprehend which and how salivary parameters can contribute to taste and flavor perception.

Tissue-specific assessment of oxidative status: Wild boar as a case study

In recent decades, there has been a fast-growing interest in using biomarkers of oxidative stress (BOS) in conservation programs of many vertebrate species. Biomarkers of oxidative stress can be measured in different biological samples (e.g., body fluids and tissues). However, since comparisons of the same battery of BOS among tissues of the same individual are scarce in the literature, the chosen target tissues regularly rely on arbitrary decisions. Our research aimed to determine if the oxidative status of free-ranging wild boar (Sus scrofa) naturally infected with Mycobacterium spp (etiological agent of tuberculosis, TB), varies depending on the sample where it was quantified. We compared antioxidant p-nitrophenyl esterase activity (EA), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) concentrations, and total oxidative status (TOS) in serum, lung, spleen, kidney, and muscle of 63 wild boar hunter-harvested in central Spain. Biomarkers of oxidative stress in serum had higher concentrations than in other tissues. The poor agreement between serum and other tissues highlights the importance of running complete BOS assessments in the same fluid or tissue. Further, low concentrations of BOS in tissues of TB-affected individuals were observed, and significant differences between healthy and sick boar were only detected in the serum of individuals developing mild TB and in the muscle of individuals with mild or severe disease status. However, all organs from wild boars affected with mild TB were not in oxidative imbalance compared to healthy control animals, suggesting that wild boars may cope well with TB. Our data indicate that serum and other tissues can be used as BOS in field conservation programs to monitor wildlife population health. Still, context-specific validations are needed to determine the most appropriate samples to use.

Salivary secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor levels in patients with stage 3 grade C periodontitis: a comparative cross-sectional study

Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) is an anti-protease that protects mucosal tissue integrity owing to its anti-microbial and immunomodulatory properties. This study aimed to investigate SLPI levels in periodontal diseases, and analyze the potential correlation with clinical periodontal parameters. Whole saliva samples were obtained from healthy (n = 24), gingivitis (n = 24) and patients with stage 3 grade C periodontitis (n = 24). SLPI was measured by ELISA and normalized by total protein. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve was used for estimating the area under the curve (AUC). The normalized SLPI levels were significantly reduced in periodontitis compared with gingivitis (4.84-fold) or health (1.83-fold) and negatively correlated with periodontal parameters. The ROC curves showed a good predictor value of the SLPI for differentiation of periodontitis versus health or gingivitis (AUC ≥ 0.80). This study demonstrates that the levels of SLPI are high in periodontal health, further elevated in gingivitis, but eventually decreased in severe periodontitis beyond the former two states. This observation may have broader implications in the context of inflammatory diseases affecting the oral mucosa, as it shows that the bacterial burden is disturbing the homeostatic balances of anti-microbial and anti-protease factors in the oral cavity.

Measurement of anti SARS-CoV-2 RBD IgG in saliva: validation of a highly sensitive assay and effects of the sampling collection method and correction by protein

OBJECTIVES

To develop and evaluate a new highly sensitive assay to detect IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 RBD in saliva samples.

METHODS

A two-step sandwich type immunoassay based on the amplified luminescent proximity homogeneous technology was developed and an analytical validation was performed. As a part of this validation, the influence of factors, such as different sampling conditions (stimulated saliva and passive drool) and the correction of values by total protein content, in the ability of saliva to detect increases in antibodies after an immune stimulus and be an alternative to serum, was evaluated. For this purpose, paired samples of saliva and serum at different times after vaccination were used.

RESULTS

Saliva concentrations were lower than serum, but both fluids showed similar kinetics, with higher correlations when saliva was obtained by passive flow and the results were not corrected by protein.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed method showed a good analytical performance and can properly measure antibody concentrations in saliva of vaccinated individuals. However, saliva could have a lower sensitivity compared to serum at initial stages of the immune response and also when the antibody response decreased after a stimulus.

Basics for the potential use of saliva to evaluate stress, inflammation, immune system, and redox homeostasis in pigs

The use of saliva as a biological sample has many advantages, being especially relevant in pigs where the blood collection is highly stressful and painful, both for the animal and the staff in charge of the sampling. Currently one of the main uses of saliva is for diagnosis and detection of infectious diseases, but the saliva can also be used to measure biomarkers that can provide information of stress, inflammation, immune response and redox homeostasis. This review will be focused on the analytes that can be used for such evaluations. Emphasis will be given in providing data of practical use about their physiological basis, how they can be measured, and their interpretation. In addition, some general rules regarding sampling and saliva storage are provided and the concept of sialochemistry will be addressed. There is still a need for more data and knowledge for most of these biomarkers to optimize their use, application, and interpretation. However, this review provides updated data to illustrate that besides the detection of pathogens in saliva, additional interesting applicative information regarding pigs´ welfare and health can be obtained from this fluid. Information that can potentially be applied to other animal species as well as to humans.

Salivary Ferritin Changes in Patients with COVID-19

High ferritin serum levels can be found in patients with macrophage activation syndrome, and increased serum ferritin due to cytokine storm have been reported in severe COVID-19 patients. Saliva is being increasingly used in COVID-19 tests as a diagnostic sample for virus detection and quantification. This study aimed to evaluate the possible changes in ferritin in saliva in COVID-19 patients. In addition, the effects of different inactivation SARS-CoV-2 treatments in ferritin measurements in saliva, the correlation between ferritin in saliva and serum, and the possible effects of correction of ferritin values by total protein were assessed. Ferritin was measured in saliva from healthy (n = 30) and COVID-19 (n = 65) patients with severe, (n = 18) or mild (n = 47) disease, depending on the need for nasal flow oxygen or assisted respiration. Ferritin was also measured in paired serum and saliva samples (n = 32) from healthy and COVID-19 patients. The evaluated inactivation protocols did not affect the assay's results except the addition of 0.5% SDS. Significantly higher ferritin was found in the saliva of COVID-19 patients (median; 25-75th percentile) (27.75; 9.77-52.2 µg/L), compared with healthy controls (4.21; 2.6-8.08 µg/L). Individuals with severe COVID-19 showed higher ferritin values in saliva (48.7; 18.7-53.9) than mild ones (15.5; 5.28-41.3 µg/L). Significant correlation (r = 0.425; p < 0.001) was found between serum and saliva in ferritin. Ferritin levels were higher in COVID-19 patients in serum and saliva, and the highest values were found in those patients presenting severe symptomatology. In conclusion, ferritin in saliva has the potential to be a biomarker to evaluate severity in patients with COVID-19.

Changes in salivary biomarkers of oxidative status in calves at weaning and grouping

BACKGROUND

Saliva is being increasingly used as a sample for measuring biomarkers in several species and shows a high potential of use to detect and monitor stress. The weaning and grouping in dairy calves are a particularly stressful time. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate a panel of antioxidant and oxidant biomarkers in the saliva of calves on the day of weaning (W0), 2 days after weaning or milk withdrawal (W + 2), and 4 days after grouping (G + 4). In addition, to verify if cortisol and oxytocin concentrations are related to the biomarkers measured.

RESULTS

Salivary cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), ferric reducing ability of saliva (FRAS), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), and ferrous oxidation-xylenol orange (FOX) were significantly higher (P < 0.02) 4 days after grouping than the day of weaning and 2 days after. The increases were 50 and 54% for CUPRAC, 93 and 116% for FRAS, 117 and 135% for TEAC, 22 and 49% for AOPP and 10 and 5% for FOX in comparison with weaning and 2 days after, respectively. In addition, oxytocin and cortisol showed significant negative and positive correlations (P < 0.05) respectively with the biomarkers of oxidative status.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that calves after grouping show increases in antioxidants and oxidants concentrations, indicating that a balance between these molecules has been tried to maintain during this stressful situation. The dynamic changes of biomarkers of oxidative status should be explored and characterised in other stressful conditions.

Changes in saliva biomarkers during a standardized increasing intensity field exercise test in endurance horses

Salivary biomarkers could be useful to evaluate stress, fitness level, and skeletal muscle damage associated to exercise in horses in an easy and non-painful way. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate if cortisol in saliva (sCor), salivary alpha-amylase (sAMY) and butyrylcholinesterase (sBChE) and lactate (sLA) and creatine kinase (sCK) in saliva of horses can show changes during a standardized exercise test, and if they are related to heart rate variability (HRV) parameters related to sympathetic and parasympathetic tone, fitness level or skeletal muscle damage. For this purpose, ten endurance horses were submitted to a standardized exercise test in field conditions. Saliva and blood were obtained at basal time (TB), after the seven bouts of velocity (T + 01 to T + 07), and 5, 15, 30, and 45 min later (T + 5, T + 15, T + 30, and T + 45). Five endurance horses in resting condition (control group) were also enrolled. HRV and fitness level parameters, and plasma CK as a marker of muscle damage were also evaluated. Salivaryalpha-amylase increased at T + 30 (P = 0.03), sBChE at T + 5 (P = 008), and sCK at T + 07 (P = 0.009) after the exercise test, with significant differences between the exercise and control groups' results. The sCor did not show significant changes during the exercise test in the exercise group but higher concentration compared to the control horses (P < 0.001) were observed. sCor, sAMY, sBChE, and sCK showed a positive correlation (r values between 0.47 and 0.64) with the sympathetic tone and a negative correlation (r values between -0.37 and -0.56) with the parasympathetic tone. In conclusion, sAMY, sBChE, and sCK showed significant increases in ten endurance horses after an increasing intensity velocity exercise. Values of sCor, sAMY, sBChE, and sCK were associated with HRV, which is used to evaluate stress, and therefore, they could be potentially used to assess the exercise-related stress after a physical effort.

Analytical validation of an automated assay for the measurement of adenosine deaminase (ADA) and its isoenzymes in saliva and a pilot evaluation of their changes in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to validate a commercially available automated assay for the measurement of total adenosine deaminase (tADA) and its isoenzymes (ADA1 and ADA2) in saliva in a fast and accurate way, and evaluate the possible changes of these analytes in individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

The validation, in addition to the evaluation of precision and accuracy, included the analysis of the effects of the main procedures that are currently being used for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation in saliva and a pilot study to evaluate the possible changes in salivary tADA and isoenzymes in individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2.

RESULTS

The automated assay proved to be accurate and precise, with intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation below 8.2%, linearity under dilution linear regression with R² close to 1, and recovery percentage between 80 and 120% in all cases. This assay was affected when the sample is treated with heat or SDS for virus inactivation but tolerated Triton X-100 and NP-40. Individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection (n=71) and who recovered from infection (n=11) had higher mean values of activity of tADA and its isoenzymes than healthy individuals (n=35).

CONCLUSIONS

tADA and its isoenzymes ADA1 and ADA2 can be measured accurately and precisely in saliva samples in a rapid, economical, and reproducible way and can be analyzed after chemical inactivation with Triton X-100 and NP-40. Besides, the changes observed in tADA and isoenzymes in individuals with COVID-19 open the possibility of their potential use as non-invasive biomarkers in this disease.

Saliva: What Dental Practitioners Should Know about the Role of This Biofluid in the Transmission and Diagnostic of SARS-CoV-2

A novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak has become a global ongoing pandemic. This pandemic represents a great work risk for all health professionals, it includes dental professionals who are in constant contact with saliva, which represents one of the main routes of transmission of the disease. This is due to the fact that a wide variety of oral tissues and cells are susceptible to infection by SARS-CoV-2 and that they express the ACE2 receptor, which is the main route of entry of the virus into cells, as well as the proteins TMPRSS and furin that contributes to the binding of the virus to the host cells. According to recent studies, some of the oral cells most susceptible to infection by SARS-CoV-2 are the epithelial cells of the salivary glands. This explains the presence of the virus in the saliva of infected patients and provides scientific evidence that supports the use of saliva as a biofluid that offers the opportunity to develop new detection and diagnostic techniques. This is because saliva is much easier to collect compared to nasopharyngeal swab. However, the presence of the virus in saliva, also represents a great source of transmission, since the main form of infection is through microscopic drops that are generated when infected people cough or sneeze. Likewise, health professionals, such as dentists are exposed to contagion through saliva. The objective of this review article is to provide a perspective on the main cells and tissues that can be affected by the virus, the risk of contagion that the presence of the virus in saliva represents for dentists; and the new techniques developed from saliva samples for the diagnosis and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 infection. This review is expected to contribute to the knowledge of oral health professionals about the risk of saliva in the spread of SARS-CoV-2, but also its advantages as a diagnostic tool for pandemic control. In conclusion, the authors can mention that information that provides more scientific evidence of the mechanisms of infection of the coronavirus in oral cells and tissues is being published continually. This also explains the presence of the virus in the saliva of infected people and the risk of contagion that this means. It also provides scientific evidence of the use of saliva as a biofluid for the detection, diagnosis, monitoring, and control of the spread of the virus.

Changes Occurring on the Activity of Salivary Alpha-Amylase Proteoforms in Two Naturalistic Situations Using a Spectrophotometric Assay

Simple Summary

Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) is considered a biomarker of acute stress since this enzyme is released in saliva after autonomic nervous system activation, in response to psychological or physical stress situations. This enzyme has different isoforms that could be differentially expressed depending on the stressful situation. The aims of the present research were (1) to develop and validate an easy and fast method to estimate the activity of the major sAA proteoforms (both non-glycosylated and glycosylated proteoforms) in saliva samples, and (2) to evaluate the possible changes occurring in the activity of both proteoforms when measured by this method in two different stress models (physical effort and psychological challenge). This new method was precise and, when applied to the different stress models, allowed to detect changes of different magnitudes in both proteoforms. Therefore, this research opens a new field for the evaluation of isoforms of sAA as potential biomarkers of stress.

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the changes in the activity of total salivary alpha-amylase (TsAA) and both the non-glycosylated and glycosylated salivary alpha-amylase proteoforms (NGsAA and GsAA, respectively) in physical and psychological stress models, estimated using a simple and easily set-up method. The method used was a spectrophotometric assay with 2-chloro-4-nitrophenyl-α-D-maltotriose (CNPG3) as a substrate, incubated with Concanavalin A (ConA) to remove most of the glycosylated protein from the sample. This method allowed the measurement of TsAA and estimation of NGsAA and GsAA activities with imprecision lower than 10%. When this method was applied to two different stress models, differences in the responses of the proteoforms were observed, with the NGsAA activity showing changes of higher magnitude after stress induction than the GsAA activity, and the highest correlation with the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory Scale in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). In conclusion, the activity of the two main sAA proteoforms can be easily estimated in saliva, and their measurement can provide additional information on TsAA activity in physical or psychological stress situations.

Stress-Related Responses to Alternations between Repetitive Physical Work and Cognitive Tasks of Different Difficulties

Alternating between physical and cognitive tasks has been proposed as an alternative in job rotation, allowing workers to recover from the physical work while still being productive. However, effects of such alternations on stress have not been investigated. This controlled experiment aimed at determining the extent to which stress-related responses develop during alternating physical and cognitive work, and to determine the extent to which cognitive task (CT) difficulty influences these responses. Fifteen women performed three sessions of 10 consecutive work bouts each including a seven-minute repetitive physical task (pipetting) and a three-minute CT (n-back) at one of three difficulty levels. Stress was assessed in terms of changes in heart rate variability, blood pressure, salivary alpha-amylase, salivary cortisol, perceived stress, and cognitive performance. The work session did not result in any marked stress response, and CT difficulty did not significantly influence stress, apart from alpha-amylase being higher at the easiest CT (F = 5.34, p = 0.02). Thus, according to our results, alternating between repetitive physical tasks and cognitive tasks may be a feasible alternative to classic job rotation between physical tasks only, even if the cognitive task is quite difficult. Future studies should address possible effects of the temporal pattern of alternations, and combine even other occupationally relevant tasks, preferably for extended periods of time.

Clinical oral profile of pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

This work aims to describe oral health conditions, eating habits, and oral hygiene in pediatric and adolescent patients with atopic dermatitis and correlate them with the severity of the Scoring Atopic Dermatitis (SCORAD). Also, we aim to estimate the effect of several variables on the diagnosis of dental caries in these patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 92 children and adolescents with atopic dermatitis had their oral cavities examined. The effect of independent variables on the diagnosis of dental caries (outcome) was assessed using multiple binary logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Mild patients presented higher score of decayed, missing, and filled teeth in permanent dentition than moderate patients (p = 0.040). In the multivariable regression final model, the covariates using inhaled corticoid (OR = 6.4; p = 0.003), type of teething [deciduous dentition (OR = 7.9; p = 0.027) and mixed dentition (OR = 10.5; p = 0.007)], and brushing quality [poor mechanical control (OR = 10.6; p < 0.0001)] demonstrated significant direct effect on the diagnosis of dental caries.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the presence of dental biofilm, use of inhaled corticoid, and type of teething are related to the presence of caries in atopic dermatitis patients.

Changes in Saliva Analytes Associated with Lameness in Cows: A Pilot Study

Simple Summary

Saliva may contain useful biomarkers which provide information about animal welfare using convenient and non-invasive sampling methods. In addition, the development of automated techniques of measuring analytes in saliva provides advantages from the technical point of view since they are cost-effective, reliable, and replicable. In this study, 21 salivary analytes measured by automated assays were tested as potential biomarkers of lameness, one of the most prevalent diseases in dairy cows producing significant economic losses. As a result, total esterase (TEA) showed increases in saliva in a group of 11 cows with lameness, decreasing when the lameness was solved after a specific treatment consisting of a hoof trimming and a medical treatment. In addition, TEA activity correlated with the severity of the lameness. Further studies using a larger population of cows with different causes of lameness and severity should be performed to determine the potential of TEA as a biomarker of lameness in cows.

Abstract

The possible changes in a panel of 21 salivary analytes on a population of cows with lameness before and after treating lameness by hoof trimming were analyzed. Then, the analytes that showed significant changes were studied in a larger population of cows with lameness and compared with healthy cows For this purpose, two groups of cows were made by a specialized veterinarian. One consisted of healthy cows with no external signs of diseases and no hematological or biochemical abnormalities, and showing no signs of lameness according to the numerical rating system of severity (NRS, 5-point scale); and the other composed of cows showing only lameness with a NRS of 3.1 ± 0.87 and a lesion scoring system (LSS, 4-point scale) of 3.3 ± 0.89. Both groups did not differ in parity (p = 0.140), days in milk (DIM) (p = 0.780), and body condition score (BCS) (p = 0.074). Initially, 21 biochemical analytes were determined in the saliva of six cows with lameness at the diagnosis time (T0) and twenty days after hoof trimming that successfully solved the lameness (TF). This exploratory study only showed significantly higher values in lipase (Lip) and total esterase (TEA) at T0 compared to TF (p < 0.001 and p = 0.034, respectively). When both analytes were measured in the additional five lame cows and the results of all the animals of the lame group (n = 11) were compared with the healthy group (n = 11), only TEA showed higher activities in the group of lame cows than healthy cows (p = 0.004). TEA was positively correlated with both NRS and LSS (r = 0.43, p = 0.004 and r = 0.35, p = 0.003). In conclusion, this study showed that cows with lameness in our experimental conditions had higher TEA values than healthy cows, and these values decreased after treatment. This is a pilot study, and further studies using a larger population of cows with lameness due to different causes and severity should be performed to determine the potential of TEA as a biomarker of lameness in cows.

Changes in Markers of Oxidative Stress and α-Amylase in Saliva of Children Associated with a Tennis Competition

The purpose of this paper was to analyze the changes caused by a one-day tennis tournament in biomarkers of oxidative stress and α-amylase in saliva in children. The sample was 20 male active children with the following characteristics: (a) age of players = 9.46 ± 0.66 years; (b) weight = 34.8 ± 6.5 kg; (c) height = 136.0 ± 7.9 cm; (d) mean weekly training tennis = 2.9 ± 1.0 h. The tennis competition ran for one day, with four matches for each player. Data were taken from the average duration per match and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Four biomarkers of antioxidant status: uric acid (AU), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), ferric reducing ability of saliva (FRAS, cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) as a biomarker of psychological stress were measured in saliva. The time points were baseline (at home before the tournament), pre-competition (immediately before the first match) and post-match (after each match) measurements. The four biomarkers of antioxidant status showed a similar dynamic with lower values at baseline and a progressive increase during the four matches. Overall one-day tennis competition in children showed a tendency to increase antioxidant biomarkers in saliva. In addition, there was an increase in pre-competition sAA possibly associated with psychological stress. Further studies about the possible physiological implications of these findings should be performed in the future.

The Effect of Acute Hypohydration on Indicators of Glycemic Regulation, Appetite, Metabolism and Stress: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Evidence synthesizing the effects of acute body water losses on various markers of glycemic regulation, appetite, metabolism, and stress is lacking. Thus, the purpose of this review was to summarize the response of various hormonal changes involved in these physiologic functions to dehydration. A comprehensive literature search for peer-reviewed research in the databases PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and SportDiscus was conducted. Studies were included if they contained samples of adults (>18 years) and experimentally induced dehydration as measured by acute body mass loss. Twenty-one articles were eligible for inclusion. Findings suggested cortisol is significantly elevated with hypohydration (standard mean difference [SMD] = 1.12, 95% CI [0.583, 1.67], p < 0.0001). Testosterone was significantly lower in studies where hypohydration was accompanied by caloric restriction (SMD= -1.04, 95% CI [-1.93, -0.14], p = 0.02), however, there were no changes in testosterone in studies examining hypohydration alone (SMD = -0.17, 95% CI [-0.51 0.16], p = 0.30). Insulin and ghrelin were unaffected by acute total body water losses. Acute hypohydration increases markers of catabolism but has a negligible effect on markers of glycemic regulation, appetite, anabolism and stress. Given the brevity of existing research, further research is needed to determine the impact of hydration on glucagon, leptin, peptide YY and the subsequent outcomes relevant to both health and performance.

Salivary biomarkers in breast cancer: a cross-sectional study

AIM

The objective was to evaluate the diagnostic value of salivary biomarkers in breast cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective study was carried out of 91 consecutive breast cancer patients and 60 controls without neoplastic disease. Demographic data were recorded, along with the Hospital Anxiety Depression (HAD), risk for development periodontal diseases questionnaire and Mini-Nutritional Assessment (MNA) scores, and the TNM classification and stage of the primary tumor. Unstimulated basal saliva samples were collected and stored at - 80 °C until analysis.

RESULTS

The mean salivary CA125 concentration was 102.1 pg/ml in the control group and 267.6 pg/ml in the breast cancer group (p = 0.005). The soluble Fas (sFas) concentration in turn was 84.1 pg/ml and 145.9 pg/ml, respectively (p = 0.008). None of the biomarkers was related to questionnaire-assessed risk for development of periodontal diseases. The area under the ROC curve was 0.68 for CA125 (95% CI, 0.05-0.56) and 0.67 for sFas (95% CI, 0.08-0.55).

CONCLUSIONS

The salivary biomarkers CA125 and sFas appear to be promising tools in the diagnosis of breast cancer.

Use of Saliva for Diagnosis and Monitoring the SARS-CoV-2: A General Perspective

In this report, updated information and future perspectives about the use of saliva as a sample for laboratory analysis of the Covid-19 are highlighted. Saliva can be used for the direct detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the quantification of the specific immunoglobulins produced against it, and for the evaluation of the non-specific, innate immune response of the patient. Moreover, a deeper knowledge of potential changes in the saliva proteome in this disease may allow the identification of new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, or even help our understanding of the mechanisms associated with the disease. With the development of appropriate sample collection and processing methods and the use of adequate assays, saliva can provide useful clinical information about the disease and could be potentially included in guidelines for sample collection for the diagnosis, disease management, and control of Covid-19.

Salivary Biomarkers and Their Correlation with Pain and Stress in Patients with Burning Mouth Syndrome

Objective: To evaluate a panel of salivary analytes involving biomarkers of inflammation, stress, immune system and antioxidant status in patients with burning mouth syndrome (BMS) and to study their relationship with clinical variables. Materials and Methods: A total of 51 patients with BMS and 31 controls were consecutively enrolled in the study, with the recording of oral habits, the severity of pain using a visual analogue scale (VAS), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) score and the Oral Health Impact Profile-14 (OHIP14) score. Resting whole saliva was collected with the drainage technique, followed by the measurement of 11 biomarkers. Results: The salivary flow was higher in patients with BMS. Among all the biomarkers studied, significantly higher levels of alpha-amylase, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and macrophage inflammatory protein-4 (MIP4) and lower levels of uric acid and ferric reducing activity of plasma (FRAP) were observed in the saliva of patients with BMS as compared to the controls (p < 0.05 in all cases). Positive correlations were found between pain, oral quality of life and anxiety scores and salivary biomarkers. Conclusions: BMS is associated with changes in salivary biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress and stress, being related to the degree of pain and anxiety.

Biomarkers of health and welfare: A One Health perspective from the laboratory side

A biomarker is any measurement reflecting an interaction between a biological system and a potential hazard, which may be chemical, physical, or biological. The One World, One Health concept established that human and animal health and the environmental state are highly interconnected, sharing common aspects that can be applied globally in these three components. In this paper, we review how the concept of One Health can be applied to biomarkers of health and welfare, with a special focus on five points that can be applied to any biomarker when it is expected to be used to evaluate the human, animal or environmental health. Three of these points are: (1) the different biomarkers that can be used, (2) the different sample types where the biomarkers can be analysed, and (3) the main methods that can be used for their measurement. In addition, we will evaluate two key points needed for adequate use of a biomarker in any situation: (4) a proper analytical validation in the sample that it is going to be used, and (5) a correct selection of the biomarker. It is expected that this knowledge will help to have a broader idea about the use of biomarkers of health and welfare and also will contribute to a better and more accurate use of these biomarkers having in mind their One Health perspective.

Evaluation of the circadian rhythm of anti-Leishmania IgG2 and IgA antibodies in serum and saliva of dogs with clinical leishmaniosis

In this study, the circadian rhythm of IgG2 and IgA specific antibodies in serum and saliva samples of 6 dogs experimentally infected with Leishmania infantum was assessed. Sampling was performed at 8.00, 12.00, 16.00, 20.00, and 00.00 h on two consecutive days. Anti-Leishmania antibody levels in serum were expressed without any correction, whereas in saliva were shown in different ways: without any correction, adjusted by protein concentration and corrected by the salivary flow rate. No significant differences in anti-Leishmania IgG2 antibody levels in serum and saliva samples with or without correction were found. Significant differences were found when anti-Leishmania IgA levels were corrected by the salivary flow rate. In addition, a greater intra-individual variation of antibody levels was observed in saliva than in serum. However, this variation did not modify the serological status of the dogs. Therefore, it could be concluded that there is no circadian rhythm in serum and saliva samples and sampling can be performed at any time of the day.

Influence of Sampling Conditions, Salivary Flow, and Total Protein Content in Uric Acid Measurements in Saliva

Uric acid (UA) is the most abundant antioxidant compound in saliva and one of the most sensitive biomarkers for detecting changes in the oxidative status of the organism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of: (i) different methods of saliva sampling and (ii) the correction by salivary flow or total protein on UA concentrations in saliva. Paired saliva (collected by two different methods, passive drooling and using Salivette cotton rolls) and serum samples were obtained from 12 healthy men after the performance of two resistance training exercises of different level of effort that can produce different concentrations in UA in saliva. There were no significant differences between values of uric acid in saliva using Salivette and passive drool. Correlations between UA in serum and saliva and increases in UA in saliva after exercise were detected when saliva samples were obtained by passive drool and Salivette and were not corrected by salivary flow or total protein concentration. Therefore for UA measurements in saliva it would not be recommended to normalize the results by salivary flow or protein concentration. This study highlights the importance of choosing an adequate sampling method selection as well as the expression of results when analytes are measured in saliva.

Variation of human salivary alpha-amylase proteoforms in three stimulation models

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the sAA proteoforms' expression during different stimulation situations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study evaluated the salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) proteoforms' behavior by western blot (WB) analysis and high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in different situations that produce increases in sAA activity. For this purpose, six healthy women with a similar body mass index, age, and fit, underwent different sAA stimulation tests, such as acetic acid stimulation, psychological stress using the standardized Trier social stress test, and physical effort using the Cooper treadmill test.

RESULTS

The three models showed an increase in sAA activity. The WB demonstrated seven common bands observed in the six women (band one at 59 kDa, two at 56 kDa, three at 48 kDa, four at 45 kDa, five at 41 kDa, six at 36 kDa, and seven at 14 kDa), in which sAA protein was identified. The individual WB analysis showed that band two, which corresponded to the native non-glycosylated sAA proteoform, had a higher increase after the three sAA stimulation inducers, and this band was also the only proteoform correlated with sAA activity (r = 0.56, P = 0.001). In addition, when the label-free quantification analysis was performed, the different proteoforms showed different responses depending on the type of stimulation.

CONCLUSIONS

This preliminary study showed that the diverse sAA proteoforms' expression depends on the different stimulation models.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study opens new perspectives and challenges for the use of the different alpha-amylase proteoforms as possible biomarkers in addition to the sAA activity.

Acute phase proteins, saliva and education in laboratory science: an update and some reflections

This manuscript provides updated knowledge and some ideas and reflections about three areas which are currently of interest in the field of the animal laboratory science. These areas are the study of acute phase proteins (APPs) as biomarkers of inflammation, the use of saliva as a non-invasive sample for analyte measurements, and the development of education in the field of laboratory medicine. In the APPs, a seven-point plan for their interpretation in all veterinary species containing updated knowledge and future perspectives is described. Regarding the saliva, general concepts, examples of practical applications and the limitations and points to improve for the use of this fluid are explained. Finally, the recent evolution, current situation and possible ideas for future development of education in this field are commented. In addition to review the knowledge in these three specific areas, this report can help to provide a wide vision of the potential and future perspectives in veterinary laboratory science.

Salivary alpha-amylase activity and concentration in horses with acute abdominal disease: Association with outcome

BACKGROUND

Salivary biomarkers could be useful to objectively evaluate critical illness and prognosis for survival in horses with acute abdominal disease.

OBJECTIVES

To compare salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) activity and concentration in healthy horses and horses with acute abdominal disease, and evaluate the association between sAA activity and concentration with disease severity and outcome.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective cohort.

METHODS

sAA activity, measured using a colorimetric commercial kit, and concentration, measured using a Time-resolved immunofluorometric assay, in 25 healthy horses and in 33 horses with acute abdominal disease was compared using an ANOVA. Associations between survival to discharge and sAA activity and concentration and other clinical parameters were examined using univariable logistic regression and Spearman correlation.

RESULTS

sAA activity and concentration were different between healthy (median = 4.3 [2.6-11.2] IU/L and 58.4 [53.4-80.6] ng/mL, respectively) and diseased (median = 29.8 [14.2-168.9] IU/L and 388.3 [189.1-675.8] ng/mL, respectively) (P<0.001). The sAA activity was higher in non-survivors (median = 479.0 [78.7-2064.0] IU/L, n = 8) compared to survivors (median = 19.3 [12.1-103.7] IU/L, n = 25, P<0.001) and sAA activity and concentration correlated (P<0.001) moderately with HR (r = 0.66 and r = 0.61, respectively). sAA activity correlated weakly with salivary cortisol (r = 0.45, P<0.001) and systemic inflammatory response syndrome score (r = 0.43, P<0.05), while activity and concentration correlated (P<0.001) moderately with plasma lactate concentration (r = 0.57 and r = 0.60, respectively). The sAA activity was significantly (P = 0.01) associated with increased risk of nonsurvival.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Pain scores were not recorded. The sample population was small.

CONCLUSIONS

The sAA activity, but not concentration, shows potential as a biomarker of prognosis for survival in horses with acute abdominal disease. The summary is available in Spanish - see Supporting Information.

Changes in alpha-amylase activity, concentration and isoforms in pigs after an experimental acute stress model: an exploratory study

BACKGROUND

Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) is considered a non-invasive biomarker of acute stress that can be evaluated by changes in activity and concentration, and also by changes in its isoforms, although this last way of evaluation has never been used in veterinary medicine. This research evaluated the changes of sAA by three different ways in which sAA can be evaluated in an experimental acute stress model in six pigs based in a technique of temporarily restraining. These ways of evaluation were 1) activity by a spectrophotometric assay, 2) concentration by a fluorometric assay, and 3) isoforms of the enzyme by a Western blot.

RESULTS

Although salivary cortisol significantly increased due to the stimulus of stress and all the pigs manifested signs of stress by high-pitched vocalization, sAA activity showed an increase of different degree in the six pigs after the stress stimulus, while sAA concentration showed decreases in four of the six pigs. sAA activity did not correlate with sAA concentration or salivary cortisol, and a low correlation was observed between sAA concentration and salivary cortisol (r = 0.48, p = 0.003). The inter-individual variability was higher in sAA activity than in sAA concentration and salivary cortisol. Finally, three possible isoforms of sAA at 154-160 kDa, 65-66 kDa and 59-60 kDa were observed that showed different dynamics after the stress induction.

CONCLUSIONS

Although this pilot study's results should be taken with caution due to the low sample size, it reveals a different behavior between sAA activity and concentration in pig after an acute stressful stimulus leading to evident external signs of stress by high-pitched vocalization, and opens a new field for the evaluation of possible selected isoforms of sAA as potential biomarkers of stress.

Salivary adiponectin, but not adenosine deaminase, correlates with clinical signs in women with Sjögren's syndrome: a pilot study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate salivary adiponectin and adenosine deaminase (ADA) in women suffering from Sjögren's syndrome (SS).

METHODS

Salivary adiponectin and ADA were measured in patients with SS (n = 17) and compared to their values in healthy controls (n = 13) and patients suffering from drug-induced xerostomia (non-SS sicca group; n = 19). A clinical history was made for each patient, patients were examined clinically, and xerostomia inventory (XI) was performed.

RESULTS

Salivary adiponectin corrected by total protein was higher in patients with SS than in healthy individuals (P < 0.05) or patients with non-SS sicca (P < 0.01) and correlated with XI (r = 0.555; P < 0.05). Salivary ADA was higher in patients with SS and non-SS sicca compared to controls (P < 0.05 in both cases).

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate that adiponectin and ADA are increased in the saliva of patients with SS.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Salivary adiponectin corrected by total protein can be a potential biomarker of SS.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT03156569.

Measurement of urea and creatinine in saliva of dogs: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

Urea and creatinine in saliva have been reported to be possible markers of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in humans. The aim of this study was to assess if urea and creatinine could be measured in canine saliva, and to evaluate their possible changes in situations of CKD.

RESULTS

The spectrophotometric assays for urea and creatinine measurements in saliva of dogs showed intra- and inter-assay imprecision lower than 12% and coefficients of correlation close to 1 in linearity under dilution tests. Healthy dogs showed median salivary concentrations of urea of 39.6 mg/dL and creatinine of 0.30 mg/dL, whereas dogs with CKD showed median salivary urea of 270.1 mg/dL and creatinine of 1.86 mg/dL. Positive high correlations were found between saliva and serum activities of the two analytes (urea, r = 0.909; P < 0.001; creatinine, r = 0.819; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Urea and creatinine concentrations can be measured in canine saliva with commercially available spectrophotometric assays. Both analytes showed higher values in saliva of dogs with CKD compared with healthy dogs and their values were highly correlated with those in serum in our study conditions.

A Review of Selected Studies That Determine the Physical and Chemical Properties of Saliva in the Field of Dental Treatment

Physiological whole saliva is a unique body fluid constantly washing the mucous membranes of the mouth, throat, and larynx. Saliva is a clear, slightly acidic mucinous-serous secretion, composed of various electrolytes, small organic substances, proteins, peptides, and polynucleotides. There are many ways to use saliva as a biological fluid (biofluid). The significant advantages of saliva as a unique diagnostic material are its availability and the noninvasive method of collection. The aim of this review is to emphasize the diagnostic value of saliva as a research material in the configuration of its structure and secretion disorders. The data were obtained using the MEDLINE (PubMed) search engine, as well as an additional manual search. The analysis covered 77 articles selected from a group of 1986 publications and initially qualified for devising. The results were evaluated and checked for the correctness of qualifying in accordance with inclusion and exclusion criteria. The diagnostic use of saliva has attracted the attention of many researchers due to its noninvasive nature and relative simplicity of collection. In addition, it should be noted that the determination of chemical and physical saliva parameters can be effectively performed in the patient's presence in the dental office.

Detection and measurement of alpha-amylase in canine saliva and changes after an experimentally induced sympathetic activation

BACKGROUND

Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) is considered a biomarker of sympathetic activation in humans, but there is controversy regarding the existence of sAA in dogs. The hypothesis of this study was that sAA exists in dogs and it could change in situations of sympathetic stimulation. Therefore, the aims of this study were: 1) to demonstrate the presence of alpha-amylase in saliva of dogs by Western-Blot, 2) to validate an spectrophotometric method for the measurement of sAA activity and 3) to evaluate the possible changes in sAA activity after the induction of an ejaculation in dogs which is known to produce a sympathetic activation.

RESULTS

Western-Blot demonstrated a band in dog saliva specimens between 60 kDa and 50 kDa, similar to purified sAA. The spectrophotometric assay validated showed an adequate inter- and intra-assay precision, and a high correlation coefficient (r = 0.999) in the linearity under dilution study. sAA median activity significantly increased just after ejaculation compared with just before the ejaculation (2.06-fold, P = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the existence of alpha-amylase in saliva of dogs and that this enzyme can be measured by a spectrophotometric assay. In addition, results showed that sAA increase after a sympathetic activation and could be potentially used as non-invasive biomarker of sympathetic activity in this species.