Coronary endothelial function is better in healthy premenopausal women than in healthy older postmenopausal women and men

Sexually dimorphic mechanisms of H2O2-mediated dilation in porcine coronary arterioles with ischemia and endurance exercise training

We determined the impact of sex on H2O2-mediated dilation in coronary arterioles and the contribution of K+ channels after exercise training in ischemic heart disease. We hypothesized that arterioles from male and female swine would similarly display impaired H2O2-induced dilation after chronic occlusion that would be corrected by exercise training. Yucatan miniswine were surgically instrumented with an ameroid constrictor around the proximal left circumflex artery, gradually inducing occlusion and a collateral-dependent myocardium. Arterioles from the left anterior descending artery myocardial region served as nonoccluded controls. Eight weeks postoperatively, swine of each sex were separated into sedentary and exercise-trained (progressive treadmill regimen; 5 days/wk for 14 wk) groups. Collateral-dependent arterioles of sedentary female pigs displayed impaired sensitivity to H2O2 that was reversed with exercise training. In contrast, male pigs exhibited enhanced sensitivity to H2O2 in collateral-dependent versus nonoccluded arterioles in both sedentary and exercise-trained groups. Large-conductance, calcium-dependent K+ (BKCa) and 4-aminopyridine (AP)-sensitive voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channels contributed to H2O2-mediated dilation in nonoccluded and collateral-dependent arterioles of exercise-trained females, but not in arterioles of sedentary female or sedentary or exercise-trained male swine. BKCa channel, protein kinase A (PKA), and protein kinase G (PKG) protein levels were not significantly different between groups, nor were kinase enzymatic activities. Taken together, our studies suggest that in female swine, exercise training stimulates the coupling of H2O2 signaling with BKCa and 4-AP-sensitive Kv channels, compensating for impaired dilation in collateral-dependent arterioles. Interestingly, coronary arterioles from neither sedentary female or male swine, regardless of training status, depended upon BKCa or 4-AP-sensitive Kv channels for H2O2-mediated dilation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The current studies reveal sexually dimorphic adaptations to H2O2-mediated dilation, and unique contributions of K+ channels, in coronary arterioles from swine subjected to chronic ischemia and exercise training; findings important for development of therapeutic strategies. In female swine, chronic ischemia attenuates dilation, which is reversed by exercise training via BKCa and Kv channel stimulation. In male swine, ischemia enhances dilation to H2O2, which is further augmented by exercise training and independent of BKCa and Kv channels.

Protective role of the longevity-associated BPIFB4 gene on cardiac microvascular cells and cardiac aging

In recent years, the role of the cardiac microvasculature in modulating the symptoms and disease progression of patients affected by cardiac pathology has been reconsidered. The term cardiac microvascular disease (CMD) describes the set of functional and/or structural alterations of the cardiac microvasculature that reduce the ability of the heart to adequately increase its coronary blood flow to keep up with increased metabolic demand. CMD is involved in the evolution of heart disease of both ischemic and non-ischemic origin as well as in cardiac aging. The primary actors involved in this process are the cells of the stromal compartment, whose nature and biology are now investigated to a new level of detail thanks to single-cell omics studies. Recent studies on the genetics of extreme longevity have identified a polymorphic haplotype variant of the BPIFB4 gene that confers prolonged life span and health span, atheroprotective advantages, and an improved immune response. The aim of this review was to focus on the beneficial effects of the longevity-associated variant (LAV) of BPIFB4 on cardiac microvascular cell biology, providing novel and exciting mechanisms of its action directed against the development or progression of many age-related cardiovascular diseases, thus emphasizing its translational therapeutic potential.

Novel diagnostic approaches and management of coronary microvascular dysfunction

The mechanism underlying ischaemic heart disease (IHD) has been primarily attributed to obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD). However, non-obstructive coronary arteries are identified in >50% of patients undergoing elective coronary angiography, recently leading to growing interest in the investigation and management of angina/ischaemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA/INOCA). INOCA is an umbrella term encompassing a multiple spectrum of possible pathogenetic entities, including coronary vasomotor disorders which consist of two major endotypes: coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) and vasospastic angina. Both conditions can coexist and be associated with concomitant obstructive CAD. Particularly, CMD refers to myocardial ischaemia due to reduced vasodilatory capacity of coronary microcirculation secondary to structural remodelling or impaired resting microvascular tone (functional) or a combination of both. CMD is not a benign condition and is more prevalent in women presenting with chronic coronary syndrome compared to men. In this setting, an impaired coronary flow reserve has been associated with increased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events. ANOCA/INOCA patients also experience impaired quality of life and associated increased healthcare costs. Therefore, research in this scenario has led to better definition, classification, and prognostic stratification based on the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The development and validation of non-invasive imaging modalities, invasive coronary vasomotor function testing and angiography-derived indices provide a comprehensive characterisation of CMD. The present narrative review aims to summarise current data relating to the diagnostic approach to CMD and provides details on the sequence that therapeutic management should follow.

Coronary artery endothelial function and aging in people with HIV and HIV-negative individuals

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a common comorbidity in people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (PWH) and impaired coronary endothelial function (CEF) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of CAD. Age-related impaired CEF among PWH, however, is not well characterized. We investigated the association between CEF and age in males and females with and without HIV using 3-T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We measured the changes in coronary cross-sectional area (CSA) and coronary blood flow during isometric handgrip exercise (IHE), an established endothelial-dependent stressor with smaller increases in CSA and coronary blood flow indicative of impaired CEF. We included 106 PWH and 82 individuals without HIV. Differences in demographic and clinical characteristics between PWH and individuals without HIV were explored using Pearson's χ2 test for categorical variables and Welch's t test for continuous variables. Linear regression models were used to examine the association between CEF and age. CEF was significantly lower in PWH as compared with individuals without HIV. Coronary endothelial dysfunction was also present at younger ages in PWH than in the individuals without HIV and there were significant differences in CEF between the PWH and individuals without HIV across age groups. Among the individuals without HIV, the percent changes in CSA were inversely related to age in unadjusted and adjusted models. There was no significant association between CEF and age in PWH. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the relationship between age and CEF in PWH, and our results suggest that factors other than age significantly impair CEF in PWH across the life span.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to examine the relationship between age and coronary endothelial function (CEF) in people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (PWH). CEF was assessed using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in people with and without HIV. Although age and CEF were significantly inversely related in individuals without HIV, there was no association between age and CEF in PWH.

Gender differences in vascular aging and in coronary artery disease pathophysiology

Women have a clinical advantage over men in relation to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) (morbidity and mortality). This advantage disappears once women become older, and in their seventh decade, the risk to develop CVD equals men at that age. There have been several theories about this gender difference that were related to hormones, and the different morphology and physiology that characterize the cardiovascular system in women. In this review, the different mechanisms will be reviewed and discussed.

Cardiac Imaging in Women with Ischemic Heart Disease

Cardiac diseases are the main cause of death for both sexes worldwide. Treatment varies widely according to the sex of a patient, as there are differences in physiopathology, epidemiology, clinical presentation and management. However, women have been largely excluded from research studies in this field. At present, differences are starting to be recognized and more attention is being paid to the identification of female-specific (or emergent) atherosclerotic risk factors. Diagnostic testing also merits attention because cardiac imaging offers important information to help diagnosis and guide cardiac disease management. In this sense, multimodal imaging should be used with the most cost-effective approach, integrating this information into the clinical sphere according to the pretest probability of the disease. In this review, we address sex-specific features of ischemic heart disease that should be considered in the clinical assessment of women, as well as the value of different imaging techniques (including technical and clinical aspects) for management of women with ischemic heart disease, and identify future areas of action concerning ischemic heart disease in women.

Effect of Sex on Coronary Endothelial Dysfunction in People Living With HIV

Background Impaired coronary endothelial function (CEF) predicts cardiovascular events and occurs in people living with HIV (PLWH). Women compared with men living with HIV have worse cardiovascular outcomes, but prior CEF studies included few women. The authors aimed to compare CEF in women with HIV versus without HIV, investigate sex differences in CEF and PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) (a proinflammatory biomarker), and evaluate whether increased serum levels of PCSK9 are associated with CEF in PLWH. Methods and Results Magnetic resonance imaging was performed to measure CEF (as percent change in coronary cross-sectional area and coronary blood flow during isometric handgrip exercise, an endothelial-dependent stressor) and serum PCSK9 levels were measured in 106 PLWH and 76 people without HIV. CEF was significantly reduced in women with versus without HIV (cross-sectional area change -0.5%±9.7 versus 9.5%±3.2, respectively). After adjustment for age, body mass index, and menopausal status, women with HIV still had reduced CEF (percentage of cross-sectional area: ß -8.3 [-13 to -3.6], P=0.001) compared with women without HIV. PCSK9 was elevated in women living with HIV versus without (306 ng/mL [200-412 ng/mL] versus 180 ng/mL [154-223 ng/mL], P<0.001), and no sex differences in either CEF or PCSK9 were detected in PLWH. Elevated PCSK9 was associated with impaired CEF in PLWH; however, no significant sex differences in the association were detected. Conclusions Among PLWH, coronary endothelial dysfunction is present in women and comparable to men. PCSK9 is higher in women with versus without HIV and a significant inverse relationship between PCSK9 and CEF was shown. Future studies should determine whether PLWH would benefit from interventions to improve endothelial function.

Coronary Arterial Function and Disease in Women With No Obstructive Coronary Arteries

Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is the leading cause of mortality in women. While traditional cardiovascular risk factors play an important role in the development of IHD in women, women may experience sex-specific IHD risk factors and pathophysiology, and thus female-specific risk stratification is needed for IHD prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Emerging data from the past 2 decades have significantly improved the understanding of IHD in women, including mechanisms of ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries and myocardial infarction with no obstructive coronary arteries. Despite this progress, sex differences in IHD outcomes persist, particularly in young women. This review highlights the contemporary understanding of coronary arterial function and disease in women with no obstructive coronary arteries, including coronary anatomy and physiology, mechanisms of ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries and myocardial infarction with no obstructive coronary arteries, noninvasive and invasive diagnostic strategies, and management of IHD.

The Association of Triglyceride Glucose index for Coronary Artery Disease in Postmenopausal Women

This study aimed to explore the association between the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index and coronary artery disease (CAD) in postmenopausal women. This study enrolled 869 postmenopausal women and classified them into two groups: CAD group (n  =  538) and control group (n  =  331). The TyG index was significantly higher in patients with CAD than in controls (P < 0.05).Receiver operator characteristic curves showed that the TyG index was more discriminative for CAD than for control group, and after adjusting for the traditional clinical prognostic factors, including age (>60 years), diabetes, ischemic stroke, systolic blood pressure (≥140), and ejection fraction (<50%), we found that the TyG index could be an independent risk factor for CAD (P < 0.05). The risk of increased TyG index was greater in the <50 years subgroup than in the >50 years subgroup (P < 0.05). The TyG index may be a valuable clinical predictor of CAD risk in postmenopausal women.

Influence of ischemia-reperfusion injury on endothelial function in men and women with similar serum estradiol concentrations

Prior data suggest that, relative to the early follicular phase, women in the late follicular phase are protected against endothelial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury when estradiol concentrations are highest. In addition, endothelial I/R injury is consistently observed in men with naturally low endogenous estradiol concentrations that are similar to those of women in the early follicular phase. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether the vasodeleterious effect of I/R injury differs between women in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle and age-matched men. We tested the hypothesis that I/R injury would attenuate endothelium-dependent vasodilation to the same extent in women and age-matched men with similar circulating estradiol concentrations. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation was assessed via brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (duplex ultrasound) in young healthy men (n = 22) and women (n = 12) before (pre-I/R) and immediately after (post-I/R) I/R injury, which was induced via 20 min of arm circulatory arrest followed by 20-min reperfusion. Serum estradiol concentrations did not differ between sexes (men 115.0 ± 33.9 pg·mL^-1 vs. women 90.5 ± 40.8 pg·mL^-1; P = 0.2). The magnitude by which I/R injury attenuated endothelium-dependent vasodilation did not differ between men (pre-I/R 5.4 ± 2.4% vs. post-I/R 3.0 ± 2.7%) and women (pre-I/R 6.1 ± 2.8% vs. post-I/R 3.7 ± 2.7%; P = 0.9). Our data demonstrate that I/R injury similarly reduces endothelial function in women in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle and age-matched men with similar estradiol concentrations.

Network analysis of the left anterior descending coronary arteries in swim-trained rats by an in situ video microscopic technique

BACKGROUND

We aimed to identify sex differences in the network properties and to recognize the geometric alteration effects of long-term swim training in a rat model of exercise-induced left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy.

METHODS

Thirty-eight Wistar rats were divided into four groups: male sedentary, female sedentary, male exercised and female exercised. After training sessions, LV morphology and function were checked by echocardiography. The geometry of the left coronary artery system was analysed on pressure-perfused, microsurgically prepared resistance artery networks using in situ video microscopy. All segments over > 80 μm in diameter were studied using divided 50-μm-long cylindrical ring units of the networks. Oxidative-nitrative (O-N) stress markers, adenosine A2A and estrogen receptor (ER) were investigated by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The LV mass index, ejection fraction and fractional shortening significantly increased in exercised animals. We found substantial sex differences in the coronary network in the control groups and in the swim-trained animals. Ring frequency spectra were significantly different between male and female animals in both the sedentary and trained groups. The thickness of the wall was higher in males as a result of training. There were elevations in the populations of 200- and 400-μm vessel units in males; the thinner ones developed farther and the thicker ones closer to the orifice. In females, a new population of 200- to 250-μm vessels appeared unusually close to the orifice.

CONCLUSIONS

Physical activity and LV hypertrophy were accompanied by a remodelling of coronary resistance artery network geometry that was different in both sexes.

The Cardiovascular Stress Response as Early Life Marker of Cardiovascular Health: Applications in Population-Based Pediatric Studies-A Narrative Review

Stress inducement by physical exercise requires major cardiovascular adaptations in both adults and children to maintain an adequate perfusion of the body. As physical exercise causes a stress situation for the cardiovascular system, cardiovascular exercise stress tests are widely used in clinical practice to reveal subtle cardiovascular pathology in adult and childhood populations with cardiac and cardiovascular diseases. Recently, evidence from small studies suggests that the cardiovascular stress response can also be used within research settings to provide novel insights on subtle differences in cardiovascular health in non-diseased adults and children, as even among healthy populations an abnormal response to physical exercise is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. This narrative review is specifically focused on the possibilities of using the cardiovascular stress response to exercise combined with advanced imaging techniques in pediatric population-based studies focused on the early origins of cardiovascular diseases. We discuss the physiology of the cardiovascular stress response to exercise, the type of physical exercise used to induce the cardiovascular stress response in combination with advanced imaging techniques, the obtained measurements with advanced imaging techniques during the cardiovascular exercise stress test and their associations with cardiovascular health outcomes. Finally, we discuss the potential for cardiovascular exercise stress tests to use in pediatric population-based studies focused on the early origins of cardiovascular diseases.

Non-Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease in Women: Current Evidence and Future Directions

BACKGROUND

Over half of women who present with angina are found to have negative coronary angiographic assessments. Of these patients, up to 50% are diagnosed with coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD), which refers to pathologic changes within the small vessels of the coronary circulation. The hallmark of the pathophysiology of CMD is that endothelial damage, which occurs due to a multitude of conditions and risk factors, is the inciting event for the development and progression of CMD. CMD leads to a mismatch in myocardial demand and perfusion, leading to signs and symptoms of cardiac ischemia in the absence of obstructive lesions in the major vessels. CMD can be diagnosed through a variety of both invasive methods that allow a more specific evaluation of the microvasculature and non-invasive imaging techniques, such as cardiac positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Risk factors for CMD overlap significantly with those of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) - hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes remain salient predictors. However, these conditions only account for 20% of CMD cases in females.

FINDINGS

Women have sex-specific risk factors such as menopause, pregnancy, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), and a higher proclivity toward chronic inflammatory disorders. Estrogen has a cardioprotective effect by increasing production of nitric oxide, a potent vasodilator released by endothelial cells. As a result, the hormonal changes of menopause may accelerate endothelial damage, and in turn, CMD. Current treatments focus on addressing the risk factors of cardiovascular disease, such as anti-hypertensive drugs, weight loss, and glucose control.

CONCLUSION

Given the multifactorial nature of CMD in women, and the extensive atypical risk factors for cardiac disease, a more nuanced approach is needed that addresses the varied pathophysiology of CMD.

Modulatory influence of sex hormones on vascular aging

This review summarizes a presentation given during the "Countermeasures to Cardiovascular Aging Symposium" that was part of the American Physiological Society Conference on Cardiovascular Aging: New Frontiers and Old Friends held in Westminster, CO, in August 2017. Endothelial dysfunction, a characteristic of vascular aging, is a major risk factor for age-associated cardiovascular diseases. In women, the decline in endothelial function is attenuated until menopause, whereafter the rate of decline accelerates to match that seen in men. Sex differences in the decline in endothelial function have been attributed to changes in sex hormones with aging. Women have a progressive impairment in endothelial function across the stages of the menopause transition, related in part to declining estradiol levels. In contrast to women, little is known about the impact of declining testosterone levels on endothelial function in men. Some evidence suggests greater endothelial dysfunction in men with low testosterone compared with men with higher testosterone. The underlying causes of endothelial dysfunction with sex hormone deficiency are unknown but may be related to endothelial nitric oxide synthase dysfunction and oxidative stress. Lifestyle behaviors, including habitual endurance exercise, attenuates and reverses the age-associated decline in endothelial function in older men. However, in older women, these exercise adaptations are diminished or absent, possibly related to estrogen deficiency. Understanding how declines in sex hormones contribute to the vascular aging process in both women and men will inform effective sex-specific intervention strategies to preserve vascular health and prevent cardiovascular diseases.

Inflammation, depression and cardiovascular disease in women: the role of the immune system across critical reproductive events

Women are at increased risk for developing depression and cardiovascular disease (CVD) across the lifespan and their comorbidity is associated with adverse outcomes that contribute significantly to rates of morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Immune-system activity has been implicated in the etiology of both depression and CVD, but it is unclear how inflammation contributes to sex differences in this comorbidity. This narrative review provides an updated synthesis of research examining the association of inflammation with depression and CVD, and their comorbidity in women. Recent research provides evidence of pro-inflammatory states and sex differences associated with alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the serotonin/kynurenine pathway, that likely contribute to the development of depression and CVD. Changes to inflammatory cytokines in relation to reproductive periods of hormonal fluctuation (i.e. the menstrual cycle, perinatal period and menopause) are highlighted and provide a greater understanding of the unique vulnerability women experience in developing both depressed mood and adverse cardiovascular events. Inflammatory biomarkers hold substantial promise when combined with a patient's reproductive and mental health history to aid in the prediction, identification and treatment of the women most at risk for CVD and depression. However, more research is needed to improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying inflammation in relation to their comorbidity, and how these findings can be translated to improve women's health.

A heartfelt message, estrogen replacement therapy: use it or lose it

The issue of cardiovascular and cognitive health in women is complex. During the premenopausal phase of life, women have healthy blood pressure levels that are lower than those of age-matched men, and they have less cardiovascular disease. However, in the postmenopausal stage of life, blood pressure in women increases, and they are increasingly susceptible to cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairments, and dementia, exceeding the incidence in men. The major difference between pre- and postmenopausal women is the loss of estrogen. Thus, it seemed logical that postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy, with or without progestin, generally referred to as menopausal hormone treatment (MHT), would prevent these adverse sequelae. However, despite initially promising results, a major randomized clinical trial refuted the benefits of MHT, leading to its falling from favor. However, reappraisal of this study in the framework of a "critical window," or "timing hypothesis," has changed our perspective on the benefit-to-risk ratio of MHT, and this review discusses the historical, current, and future approaches to MHT.

The Association between Antihypertensive Medication Use and Blood Pressure Is Influenced by Obesity

Introduction

One in three US adults is living with obesity or hypertension, and more than 75% of hypertensive individuals are using antihypertensive medications. Therefore, it is important to examine blood pressure (BP) differences in populations that are using these medications with differing obesity status.

Aim

We examined whether BP attained when using various antihypertensive medications varies amongst different body mass index (BMI) categories and whether antihypertensive medication use is associated with differences in other metabolic risk factors, independent of BMI.

Methods

Adults with hypertension from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999 to 2014 were used (n=15,285). Linear regression analyses were used to examine the main effects and interaction between antihypertensive use and BMI.

Results

In general, users of antihypertensive medications had lower BP than those not taking BP medications (NoBPMed) (P < 0.05), whereby in women, the differences in systolic BP between angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) users and NoBPMed were greater in those with obesity (ACE inhibitors: -14 ± 1 mmHg; ARB: -16 ± 1 mmHg) compared to normal weight individuals (ACE inhibitors: -9 ± 1 mmHg; ARB: -11 ± 1 mmHg) (P < 0.05). Diastolic BP differences between women ARB users and NoBPMed were also greatest in obesity (-5 ± 1 mmHg) (P < 0.05) whilst there were no differences in normal weight individuals (-1 ± 1 mmHg) (P>0.05). Furthermore, glucose levels and waist circumference in women were higher in those using ACE inhibitors compared to diuretics (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

ACE inhibitors and ARBs may be associated with more beneficial BP profiles in women with obesity, with no obesity-related BP differences for antihypertensive medication in men. However, there could be potential cardiometabolic effects for some antihypertensive medications that should be explored further.

Beneficial effects of Cirsium japonicum var. maackii on menopausal symptoms in ovariectomized rats

In women, menopause refers to a series of physiological and mental symptoms of distress that result from a decrease in 17β-estradiol. In addition to the loss of fertility, the symptoms include facial flushing, depression, osteoporosis, sexual dysfunction, and genitourinary atrophy. Cirsium japonicum var. maackii is a perennial herbaceous species found in the mountains and fields of Korea, China, and Japan. The medicinal uses of C. japonicum include antioxidant, antidiabetic, antitumor, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory activities. We investigated the effect of C. japonicum extract in a rat model of menopause that exhibited rapid estrogen decline induced by ovariectomy (OVX rats). The rats were treated with C. japonicum extract for 10 weeks and the following parameters were measured: food intake, feed efficiency, body weight, total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, liver weight, 17β-estradiol, uterus weight, AST, ALT, bone mineral density (BMD), bone alkaline phosphatase, calcitonin, and osteocalcin. In OVX rats, the administration of 50 and 100 mg kg-1C. japonicum extract significantly decreased body weight, total cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL-cholesterol, and LDL-cholesterol and significantly increased 17β-estradiol and BMD. During the light/dark box test, the C. japonicum treatment group (100 mg kg-1) spent more time in the light chamber than in the dark area, which was reflective of their diurnal nature. Using a molecular docking simulation, we predicted the plausible binding mode of the active compounds of C. japonicum with the ligand binding domain of estrogen receptor (ER)-α and ER-β. These results showed that C. japonicum extract can treat the symptoms before and after the menopause.

Extragonadal Effects of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease in Women during Menopausal Transition

The risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease increases significantly in postmenopausal women. Until recently, the underlying mechanisms have been primarily attributed to estrogen decline following menopause. However, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels rise sharply during menopausal transition and are maintained at elevated levels for many years. FSH receptor has been detected in various extragonadal sites, including osteoclasts and endothelial cells. Recent advances suggest FSH may contribute to postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Here, we review the key actions through which FSH contributes to the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease in women as they transition through menopause. Advancing our understanding of the precise mechanisms through which FSH promotes osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease may provide new opportunities for improving health-span for postmenopausal women.