How do adults and teens with self-declared Autism Spectrum Disorder experience eye contact? A qualitative analysis of first-hand accounts

Gaze behavior, facial emotion processing, and neural underpinnings: A comparison of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and conduct disorder

BACKGROUND

Facial emotion processing deficits and atypical eye gaze are often described in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and those with conduct disorder (CD) and high callous unemotional (CU) traits. Yet, the underlying neural mechanisms of these deficits are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate if eye gaze can partially account for the differences in brain activation in youth with ASD, with CD, and typically developing youth (TD).

METHODS

In total, 105 adolescent participants (NCD = 39, NASD = 27, NTD = 39; mean age = 15.59 years) underwent a brain functional imaging session including eye tracking during an implicit emotion processing task while parents/caregivers completed questionnaires. Group differences in gaze behavior (number of fixations to the eye and mouth regions) for different facial expressions (neutral, fearful, angry) presented in the task were investigated using Bayesian analyses. Full-factorial models were used to investigate group differences in brain activation with and without including gaze behavior parameters and focusing on brain regions underlying facial emotion processing (insula, amygdala, and medial prefrontal cortex).

RESULTS

Youth with ASD showed increased fixations on the mouth compared to TD and CD groups. CD participants with high CU traits tended to show fewer fixations to the eye region compared to TD for all emotions. Brain imaging results show higher right anterior insula activation in the ASD compared with the CD group when angry faces were presented. The inclusion of gaze behavior parameters in the model reduced the size of that cluster.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in insula activation may be partially explained by gaze behavior. This implies an important role of gaze behavior in facial emotion processing, which should be considered for future brain imaging studies. In addition, our results suggest that targeting gaze behavior in interventions might be potentially beneficial for disorders showing impairments associated with the processing of emotional faces. The relation between eye gaze, CU traits, and neural function in different diagnoses needs further clarification in larger samples.

The Social Validity of Behavioral Interventions: Seeking Input from Autistic Adults

Many in the autistic community have expressed concerns regarding the use of behavioral interventions with autistic children, suggesting that these interventions may not be socially valid. Though behavioral interventions have evolved to be more naturalistic and child-centered, little structured research has been done to explicitly seek autistic perspectives on the acceptability of specific components of behavioral interventions. Autistic adults (N = 235) were recruited online to take the Autism Intervention Attitudes Scale (AIAS), a questionnaire designed to gather feedback on common intervention goals and practices. Results indicate that participants find goals and practices that highlight quality of life, safety, and autistic interactions acceptable, while those that focus on normalization based on neurotypical standards are not. An exploratory graph analysis revealed three communities of goals ("uncontroversial goals", "controversial goals", and "social goals"). Comparison between naturalistic and structured intervention components additionally showed that autistic participants favored naturalistic strategies. These findings are in line with known criticisms of behavioral intervention from autistic adults, but also provide more information on the specific ways in which behavioral interventions can be reformed. This information can guide professionals in the development of appropriate goals and decisions around intervention planning.

Preserved but Un-Sustained Responses to Bids for Dyadic Engagement in School-Age Children with Autism

PURPOSE

Dynamic eye-tracking paradigms are an engaging and increasingly used method to study social attention in autism. While prior research has focused primarily on younger populations, there is a need for developmentally appropriate tasks for older children.

METHODS

This study introduces a novel eye-tracking task designed to assess school-aged children's attention to speakers involved in conversation. We focused on a primary outcome of attention to speakers' faces during conversation between three actors and during emulated bids for dyadic engagement (dyadic bids).

RESULTS

In a sample of 161 children (78 autistic, 83 neurotypical), children displayed significantly lower overall attention to faces compared to their neurotypical peers (p <.0001). Contrary to expectations, both groups demonstrated preserved attentional responses to dyadic bids, with no significant group differences. However, a divergence was observed following the dyadic bid: neurotypical children showed more attention to other conversational agents' faces than autistic children (p =.017). Exploratory analyses in the autism group showed that reduced attention to faces was associated with greater autism features during most experimental conditions.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight key differences in how autistic and neurotypical children engage with social cues, particularly in dynamic and interactive contexts. The preserved response to dyadic bids in autism, alongside the absence of post-bid attentional shifts, suggests nuanced and context-dependent social attention mechanisms that should be considered in future research and intervention strategies.

A Comparative Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Different Modes of Oral Health Education Aids in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Aim

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of different oral health education aids in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Materials and methods

The present study included a total of 90 children with ASD aged 10-15 years. The children were assigned to three groups. Group A was provided oral health education using visual cards, group B with a mobile-based application (Brush Monster™), and group C with video modeling. All the children were screened to note the plaque and gingival index (GI) and were assessed at baseline, 6, and 12 weeks.

Results

A significant difference in plaque scores (p = <0.001) and gingival scores (p = <0.001) was observed within the groups after 6 and 12 weeks postintervention. There was no statistically significant difference in dental plaque scores and gingival scores between the groups at all the timelines.

Conclusion

In this study, visual cards, a mobile-based application (Brush Monster™), and video modeling significantly reduced dental plaque and gingival scores. Hence, all these modalities can be used as effective tools in educating children to improve their oral hygiene.

Clinical significance

Poor oral hygiene can result in numerous complications for children with autism. Therefore, providing specialized education to raise awareness about oral hygiene offers significant benefits for these children in multiple aspects.CTRI registration number: CTRI/2023/08/056407.

How to cite this article

Usilla B, Cheruku SR, Silla SS, et al. A Comparative Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Different Modes of Oral Health Education Aids in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2025;18(1):80-85.

Evaluating a screening-to-intervention model with caregiver training for response to name among children with autism

Among the developmental milestones related to language and communication in early childhood, one that has been the subject of considerable research is response to name (RTN). Delayed or absent RTN in early childhood is a diagnostic marker for autism spectrum disorder and a target behavior in many early intervention curricula. This article describes two related studies. Study 1 evaluated the efficacy and efficiency of a behavioral screening-to-intervention model for RTN proposed by recent research. Overall, trials to mastery were reduced relative to previous research. Study 2 evaluated the efficacy of using behavioral skills training to teach caregivers to implement a RTN intervention with their child after that intervention was successful in a clinical setting. Generalized improvements in RTN with caregivers sometimes occurred but did not maintain without programmed reinforcement. Subsequent behavioral skills training was associated with increases in both child RTN and caregiver intervention fidelity.

Social attention in the wild - fixations to the eyes and autistic traits during a naturalistic interaction in a healthy sample

Attention to social stimuli is a key component of social behavior and facilitates the development of fundamental social skills. Studies investigating social attention in neurotypical or neurodiverse populations have often relied on screen-based experiments using static images or videos, which lack the sensory richness and reciprocity present in real-life social interactions. This can possibly be attributed to the challenges one encounters when creating naturalistic experiments, such as dealing with dynamically moving areas of interest (AOIs), which require either time-intensive manual coding or restraining of participants. Here, we present findings from an experimental paradigm using unrestrained mobile eye-tracking and a face detection algorithm (MTCNN) to measure fixation rates during a semi-structured, face-to-face interview. Data from N = 62 healthy adult participants was analyzed for gaze behavior and related to participants' autistic traits. We observed a significant negative correlation between fixation rates on the eye region averaged over the entire interaction and scores on the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) (r = -0.14), indicating participants with high autistic traits fixated less frequently on the eye region. We also compared different types of interview questions (open vs. closed) to explore whether the reduction in fixation rates was more pronounced for specific time intervals during the interview. Lastly, we discuss both possibilities for extensions as well as limitations of the presented paradigm that could serve as inspiration for future research.

The Experiences of Motor Skill Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Reflected through Parental Responses

Background/Objectives: Understanding movement development in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is critical for creating effective intervention strategies. This study aims to explore parental perspectives on the movement development of children with ASD, focusing on identifying common challenges and successful strategies. The objective is to analyze the experiences of parents to highlight the most effective approaches to support motor, communication, and social skills development in these children. Methods: Using a qualitative approach, we conducted in-depth interviews with parents of children with ASD. The data were analyzed using open and selective coding to identify key themes related to movement development challenges and strategies. The analysis included cross-referencing with the existing literature to support parental insights. Results: This study identified several key themes, including communication barriers, social interaction difficulties, and the importance of personalized movement programs. Parents reported significant challenges in understanding and addressing their children's movement needs, particularly in group settings. However, activities such as water programs, music and dance, and animal-assisted therapies were found to be highly engaging. Motivation was a critical factor, with rewards and active parental involvement enhancing participation. Conclusions: This study highlights the crucial role of a supportive environment, including professional guidance and family support, in the success of movement development programs.

Variations in the Appearance and Interpretation of Interpersonal Eye Contact in Social Categorizations and Psychiatric Populations Worldwide: A Scoping Review with a Critical Appraisal of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Eye contact is one of the most fundamental forms of interhuman communication. However, to date, there has been no comprehensive research comparing how eye contact is made and interpreted in all possible populations worldwide. This study presents a summary of the existing literature on these modalities stratified to social categorizations and psychiatric disorders.

METHOD

A scoping review with critical appraisal of the literature according to the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology. Databases AnthroSource, Medline, CINAHL, the Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection (EBSCO) and PsychInfo were searched.

RESULTS

7068 articles were screened for both the grey literature and reference lists, of which 385 were included, 282 for social categorizations and 103 for psychiatric disorders. In total, 603 thematic clustered outcomes of variations were included. Methodological quality was generally moderate to good.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a great degree of variation in the presentation and interpretation of eye contact between and within populations. It remains unclear why specific variations occur in populations. Additionally, no gold standard for how eye contact should be used or interpreted emerged from the studies. Further research into the reason for differences in eye contact between and within populations is recommended.

Pupil contagion variation with gaze, arousal, and autistic traits

Pupillary contagion occurs when one's pupil size unconsciously adapts to the pupil size of an observed individual and is presumed to reflect the transfer of arousal. Importantly, when estimating pupil contagion, low level stimuli properties need to be controlled for, to ensure that observations of pupillary changes are due to internal change in arousal rather than the external differences between stimuli. Here, naturalistic images of children's faces depicting either small or large pupils were presented to a group of children and adolescents with a wide range of autistic traits, a third of whom had been diagnosed with autism. We examined the extent to which pupillary contagion reflects autonomic nervous system reaction through pupil size change, heart rate and skin conductance response. Our second aim was to determine the association between arousal reaction to stimuli and degree of autistic traits. Results show that pupil contagion and concomitant heart rate change, but not skin conductance change, was evident when gaze was restricted to the eye region of face stimuli. A positive association was also observed between pupillary contagion and autistic traits when participants' gaze was constrained to the eye region. Findings add to a broader understanding of the mechanisms underlying pupillary contagion and its association with autism.

Spontaneous instrumental approach-avoidance learning in social contexts in autism

BACKGROUND

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) are characterized by atypicalities in social interactions, compared to Typically Developing individuals (TD). The social motivation theory posits that these difficulties stem from diminished anticipation, reception, and/or learning from social rewards. Although learning from socioemotional outcomes is core to the theory, studies to date have been sparse and inconsistent. This possibly arises from a combination of theoretical, methodological and sample-related issues. Here, we assessed participants' ability to develop a spontaneous preference for actions that lead to desirable socioemotional outcomes (approaching/avoiding of happy/angry individuals, respectively), in an ecologically valid social scenario. We expected that learning abilities would be impaired in ASC individuals, particularly in response to affiliative social feedback.

METHOD

We ran an online social reinforcement learning task, on two large online cohorts with (n = 274) and without (n = 290) ASC, matched for gender, age and education. Participants had to indicate where they would sit in a waiting room. Each seat was associated with different probabilities of approaching/avoiding emotional individuals. Importantly, the task was implicit, as participants were not instructed to learn, and emotional expressions were never mentioned. We applied both categorical analyses contrasting the ASC and TD groups and dimensional factor analysis on affective questionnaires.

RESULTS

Contrary to our hypothesis, participants showed spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes, regardless of their diagnostic group. Yet, when accounting for dimensional variations in autistic traits, as well as depression and anxiety, two main findings emerged among females who failed to develop explicit learning strategies: (1) autism severity in ASC correlated with reduced learning to approach happy individuals; (2) anxiety-depression severity across both ASC and TD participants correlated with reduced learning to approach/avoid happy/angry individuals, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Implicit spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes is not generally impaired in autism but may be specifically associated with autism severity in females with ASC, when they do not have an explicit strategy for adapting to their social environment. Clinical diagnosis and intervention ought to take into account individual differences in their full complexity, including the presence of co-morbid anxiety and depression, when dealing with social atypicalities in autism.

The Brunswik Lens Model: a theoretical framework for advancing understanding of deceptive communication in autism

Due to differences in social communication and cognitive functioning, autistic adults may have greater difficulty engaging in and detecting deception compared to neurotypical adults. Consequently, autistic adults may experience strained social relationships or face increased risk of victimization. It is therefore crucial that research investigates the psychological mechanisms that are responsible for autistic adults' difficulties in the deception process in order to inform interventions required to reduce risk. However, weaknesses of extant research exploring deception in autism include a heavy focus on children and limited theoretical exploration of underlying psychological mechanisms. To address these weaknesses, this review aims to introduce a system-level theoretical framework to the study of deception in autistic adulthood: The Brunswik Lens Model of Deception. Here, we provide a comprehensive account of how autism may influence all processes involved in deception, including: Choosing to Lie (1), Producing Deception Cues (2), Perceiving Deception Cues (3), and Making the Veracity Decision (4). This review also offers evidence-based, theoretical predictions and testable hypotheses concerning how autistic and neurotypical adults' behavior may differ at each stage in the deception process. The call to organize future research in relation to a joint theoretical perspective will encourage the field to make substantive, theoretically motivated progress toward the development of a comprehensive model of deception in autistic adulthood. Moreover, the utilization of the Brunswik Lens Model of Deception in future autism research may assist in the development of interventions to help protect autistic adults against manipulation and victimization.

Differential Effects of a Behavioral Treatment Probe on Social Gaze Behavior in Fragile X Syndrome and Non-Syndromic Autism Spectrum Disorder

The purpose of this study was to examine potential differences in social learning between individuals with fragile X syndrome (FXS), the leading known inherited cause of intellectual disability, and individuals with non-syndromic autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Thirty school-aged males with FXS and 26 age and symptom-matched males with non-syndromic ASD, were administered a behavioral treatment probe designed to improve levels of social gaze during interactions with others. The treatment probe was administered by a trained behavior therapist over two days in our laboratory and included reinforcement of social gaze in two alternating training conditions - looking while listening and looking while speaking. Prior to each session, children in each group were taught progressive muscle relaxation and breathing techniques to counteract potential increased hyperarousal. Measures included the rate of learning in each group during treatment, in addition to levels of social gaze and heart rate obtained during administration of a standardized social conversation task administered prior to and following the treatment probe. Results showed that learning rates obtained during administration of the treatment probe were significantly less steep and less variable for males with FXS compared to males with non-syndromic ASD. Significant improvements in social gaze were also observed for males with FXS during the social conversation task. There was no effect of the treatment probe on heart rate in either group. These data reveal important differences in social learning between the two groups and have implications for early interventions in the two conditions.

Infant responses to direct gaze and associations to autism: A live eye-tracking study

LAY ABSTRACT

When other people look directly towards us, we often respond by looking back at them, and such direct-gaze responses are important for establishing eye contact. Atypical eye contact is common in autism, but how and when this aspect of autism develops is not well understood. Here, we studied whether how much and how quickly infants respond to others' direct gaze is associated with autism in toddlerhood. We did this by measuring direct-gaze responses in a playful social interaction using live eye tracking. The study included 169 infants, of whom 129 had an elevated likelihood of developing autism due to having a first-degree family member with the condition, and 40 with typical likelihood of autism. In the elevated likelihood group, 35 were diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder at 3 years of age, and 94 were not. The results showed that infants in all three groups tended to increase their looking towards the adult's face after the adult looked directly at them. However, neither how much nor how quickly the infants responded to direct gaze by looking back at the adult reliably differentiated the infants with or without subsequent autism. While infants in the elevated likelihood of autism and subsequent diagnosis group tended to look away quicker from faces with direct gaze than infants in the typical likelihood group, this measure did not differentiate between the two elevated likelihood groups. We interpret the results as supporting the view that atypical direct-gaze responses are not early markers of autism.

Sensorimotor regulation of facial expression - An untouched frontier

Facial expression is a critical form of nonverbal social communication which promotes emotional exchange and affiliation among humans. Facial expressions are generated via precise contraction of the facial muscles, guided by sensory feedback. While the neural pathways underlying facial motor control are well characterized in humans and primates, it remains unknown how tactile and proprioceptive information reaches these pathways to guide facial muscle contraction. Thus, despite the importance of facial expressions for social functioning, little is known about how they are generated as a unique sensorimotor behavior. In this review, we highlight current knowledge about sensory feedback from the face and how it is distinct from other body regions. We describe connectivity between the facial sensory and motor brain systems, and call attention to the other brain systems which influence facial expression behavior, including vision, gustation, emotion, and interoception. Finally, we petition for more research on the sensory basis of facial expressions, asserting that incomplete understanding of sensorimotor mechanisms is a barrier to addressing atypical facial expressivity in clinical populations.

Autistic young people adaptively use gaze to facilitate joint attention during multi-gestural dyadic interactions

LAY ABSTRACT

Autistic people have been said to have 'problems' with joint attention, that is, looking where someone else is looking. Past studies of joint attention have used tasks that require autistic people to continuously look at and respond to eye-gaze cues. But joint attention can also be done using other social cues, like pointing. This study looked at whether autistic and non-autistic young people use another person's eye gaze during joint attention in a task that did not require them to look at their partner's face. In the task, each participant worked together with their partner to find a computer-generated object in virtual reality. Sometimes the participant had to help guide their partner to the object, and other times, they followed their partner's lead. Participants were told to point to guide one another but were not told to use eye gaze. Both autistic and non-autistic participants often looked at their partner's face during joint attention interactions and were faster to respond to their partner's hand-pointing when the partner also looked at the object before pointing. This shows that autistic people can and do use information from another person's eyes, even when they don't have to. It is possible that, by not forcing autistic young people to look at their partner's face and eyes, they were better able to gather information from their partner's face when needed, without being overwhelmed. This shows how important it is to design tasks that provide autistic people with opportunities to show what they can do.

Influence of autistic traits and communication role on eye contact behavior during face-to-face interaction

Eye contact is a central component in face-to-face interactions. It is important in structuring communicative exchanges and offers critical insights into others' interests and intentions. To better understand eye contact in face-to-face interactions, we applied a novel, non-intrusive deep-learning-based dual-camera system and investigated associations between eye contact and autistic traits as well as self-reported eye contact discomfort during a referential communication task, where participants and the experimenter had to guess, in turn, a word known by the other individual. Corroborating previous research, we found that participants' eye gaze and mutual eye contact were inversely related to autistic traits. In addition, our findings revealed different behaviors depending on the role in the dyad: listening and guessing were associated with increased eye contact compared with describing words. In the listening and guessing condition, only a subgroup who reported eye contact discomfort had a lower amount of eye gaze and eye contact. When describing words, higher autistic traits were associated with reduced eye gaze and eye contact. Our data indicate that eye contact is inversely associated with autistic traits when describing words, and that eye gaze is modulated by the communicative role in a conversation.

"It just depends": Parent, teacher, and expert conceptualization of social communication in young autistic children

LAY ABSTRACT

Improving social communication is often one goal during early autism services. However, researchers do not yet know whether their ideas about which social communication skills should be targeted during services for young autistic children are the same as the goals of autism community members, such as parents, teachers, and expert clinicians. This study used focus groups (meetings of small groups of community members) to ask people from these groups about what aspects of social communication are most important to support in young autistic children. A total of 43 people participated in these focus groups. These groups included parents (three groups; 21 people), teachers (two groups; 8 people), and experts in early social communication and autism (two groups; 14 people). Focus group participants talked about several aspects of social communication that were already familiar to the research team, such as problems with expressive communication, language understanding, and social interaction. However, participants also talked about several parts of social communication that were less familiar to the research team and had usually not been mentioned in previous research. These included (1) considering the value of unusual forms of communication, (2) taking context and setting into account when considering social communication, and (3) how communication and emotion regulation impact one another. The information from these focus groups will be helpful to making sure that researchers and clinicians focus their social communication supports on areas that are most important to parents and teachers.

Measurement properties of the Body Awareness Scale Movement Quality (BAS MQ) in persons on the autism spectrum: A preliminary Rasch analysis

BACKGROUND

Persons on the autism spectrum exhibit poorer body awareness than neurotypical persons. Since movement quality may be regarded as an expression of body awareness, assessment of movement quality is important. Sound assessments of measurement properties are essential if reliable decisions about body awareness interventions for persons on the autism spectrum are to be made, but there is insufficient research.

OBJECTIVE

To assess measurement properties of the Body Awareness Scale Movement Quality (BAS MQ) in an autism and a neurotypical reference group.

METHODS

Persons on the autism spectrum (n=108) and neurotypical references (n=32) were included. All were assessed with BAS MQ. Data were analyzed according to the Rasch model.

RESULTS

BAS MQ was found to have acceptable unidimensionality, supported by the fit statistics. The hierarchical ordering showed that coordination ability was the most difficult, followed by stability and relating. Response category functioning worked as intended for 19 out of 23 items. There were few difficult items, which decreased targeting. Reliability measures were good. BAS MQ discriminated between the autism and the reference groups, with the autism group exhibiting poorer movement quality, reflecting clinical observations and previous research.

CONCLUSIONS

BAS MQ was found to have acceptable measurement properties, though suffering from problems with targeting item difficulty to person ability for persons on the autism spectrum. The BAS MQ may, along with experienced movement quality, contribute to clinically relevant information of persons on the autism spectrum, although we encourage refinements and further analyses to improve its measurement properties.

Mice with an autism-associated R451C mutation in neuroligin-3 show intact attention orienting but atypical responses to methylphenidate and atomoxetine in the mouse-Posner task

RATIONALE

Atypical attention orienting has been associated with some autistic symptoms, but the neural mechanisms remain unclear. The human Posner task, a classic attention orienting paradigm, was recently adapted for use with mice, supporting the investigation of the neurobiological underpinnings of atypical attention orienting in preclinical mouse models.

OBJECTIVE

The current study tested mice expressing the autism-associated R451C gene mutation in neuroligin-3 (NL3) on the mouse-Posner (mPosner) task.

METHODS

NL3R451C and wild-type (WT) mice were trained to respond to a validly or invalidly cued target on a touchscreen. The cue was a peripheral non-predictive flash in the exogenous task and a central spatially predictive image in the endogenous task. The effects of dopaminergic- and noradrenergic-modulating drugs, methylphenidate and atomoxetine, on task performance were assessed.

RESULTS

In both tasks, mice were quicker and more accurate in the validly versus invalidly cued trials, consistent with results in the human Posner task. NL3R451C and WT mice showed similar response times and accuracy but responded differently when treated with methylphenidate and atomoxetine. Methylphenidate impaired exogenous attention disengagement in NL3R451C mice but did not significantly affect WT mice. Atomoxetine impaired endogenous orienting in WT mice but did not significantly affect NL3R451C mice.

CONCLUSIONS

NL3R451C mice demonstrated intact attention orienting but altered responses to the pharmacological manipulation of the dopaminergic and noradrenergic networks. These findings expand our understanding of the NL3R451C mutation by suggesting that this mutation may lead to selective alterations in attentional processes.

The domestic chick as an animal model of autism spectrum disorder: building adaptive social perceptions through prenatally formed predispositions

Equipped with an early social predisposition immediately post-birth, humans typically form associations with mothers and other family members through exposure learning, canalized by a prenatally formed predisposition of visual preference to biological motion, face configuration, and other cues of animacy. If impaired, reduced preferences can lead to social interaction impairments such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) via misguided canalization. Despite being taxonomically distant, domestic chicks could also follow a homologous developmental trajectory toward adaptive socialization through imprinting, which is guided via predisposed preferences similar to those of humans, thereby suggesting that chicks are a valid animal model of ASD. In addition to the phenotypic similarities in predisposition with human newborns, accumulating evidence on the responsible molecular mechanisms suggests the construct validity of the chick model. Considering the recent progress in the evo-devo studies in vertebrates, we reviewed the advantages and limitations of the chick model of developmental mental diseases in humans.

Multimodal job interview simulator for training of autistic individuals

Autistic individuals face difficulties in finding and maintaining employment, and studies have shown that the job interview is often a significant barrier to obtaining employment. Prior computer-based job interview training interventions for autistic individuals have been associated with better interview outcomes. These previous interventions, however, do not leverage the use of multimodal data that could give insight into the emotional underpinnings of autistic individuals' challenges in job interviews. In this article, the authors present the design of a novel multimodal job interview training platform called CIRVR that simulates job interviews through spoken interaction and collects eye gaze, facial expressions, and physiological responses of the participants to understand their stress response and their affective state. Results from a feasibility study with 23 autistic participants who interacted with CIRVR are presented. In addition, qualitative feedback was gathered from stakeholders on visualizations of data on CIRVR's visualization tool called the Dashboard. The data gathered indicate the potential of CIRVR along with the Dashboard to be used in the creation of individualized job interview training of autistic individuals.

A Passing Problem: Evaluating Harm and Benefit in Autism Research

Autism research frequently seeks to evaluate interventions or inform their development. Unfortunately, researchers often assume that autism intervention should reduce autistic traits, effectively setting as a goal of treatment that autistic people attempt to "pass" as nonautistic. A growing body of evidence highlights serious potential harms from passing demands. We discuss why it is important for institutional review boards (IRBs) to scrutinize autism research for clinical passing demands, and we document the existence of such demands in outcome measures commonly employed in autism research. We propose an ethical framework for IRBs and others to make use of in evaluating the ethical appropriateness of particular treatment goals in autism intervention or intervention-adjacent research, emphasizing that treatment goals should be in pursuit of a beneficial nonpassing purpose and be the least burdensome means of accomplishing such a purpose. We also highlight potential promising practices for IRBs, investigators, and other stakeholders seeking to address these issues in autism research.

Effectiveness of DIR/Floor Time Play Therapy in Social Skills and Emotion Regulation of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Background: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their families need to use rehabilitation services to improve their functions in social interactions and communication skills. Objectives: The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of DIR/floor time play therapy in the social skills and emotion regulation of children with ASD. Methods: The present study was a quasi-experimental with a pretest/posttest design. The statistical population included all the autistic children visiting Golhay-e Behesht Autism Center in Qom, Qom Province, Iran. The convenience sampling method was employed to select 30 participants, who were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15). The experimental group received the DIR/floor time play therapy intervention for 23 twenty-minute sessions. The research instrument included Bellini’s Social Skills Profile Questionnaire and Emotion Regulation Checklist. Descriptive statistics and the repeated measures ANOVA were adopted for data analysis in SPSS 22. Results: According to the results, the DIR/floor time play therapy method improved emotion regulation components (i.e., instability/negativity and emotion regulation) and the indices of social skills (i.e., social interaction, social participation, and detrimental behavior). The results lasted until the follow-up step (P < 0.001). Conclusions: The DIR/floor time play therapy method caused positive changes to emotion regulation and social skills in autistic children. Therefore, it can be an effective intervention in children with ASD.

No transfer of arousal from other's eyes in Williams syndrome

Typically developing humans automatically synchronize their arousal levels, resulting in pupillary contagion, or spontaneous adaptation of pupil size to that of others. This phenomenon emerges in infancy and is believed to facilitate social interaction. Williams syndrome (WS) is a genetic condition characterized by a hyper-social personality and social interaction challenges. Pupillary contagion was examined in individuals with WS (n = 44), age-parallel-matched typically developing children and adults (n = 65), and infants (n = 79). Bayesian statistics were used. As a group, people with WS did not show pupillary contagion (Bayes factors supporting the null: 25-50) whereas control groups did. This suggests a very early emerging atypical developmental trajectory. In WS, higher pupillary contagion was associated with lower autistic symptoms of social communication. Diminished synchronization of arousal may explain why individuals with WS have social challenges, whereas synchronization of arousal is not a necessary correlate of high social motivation.

Neurotypical, but not autistic, adults might experience distress when looking at someone avoiding eye contact: A live face-to-face paradigm

LAY ABSTRACT

What is already known about the topic?Autistics are usually reported to share less eye contact than neurotypicals with their interlocutors. However, the reason why autistics might pay less attention to eyes looking at them is still unknown: some autistics express being hyper-aroused by this eye contact, while some eye-tracking studies suggest that eye contact is associated with hypo-arousal in autism.What this paper adds?This study is based on a highly controlled live face-to-face paradigm, combining a wearable eye-tracker (to study eye behaviours) with electrodermal activity sensors (to assess potential stress). We draw a nuanced picture of social attention in autism, as our autistic participants did not differ from our neurotypical group in their eye behaviours nor their skin conductance responses. However, we found that neurotypicals, compared to autistics, seemed to be much more distressed when their interlocutor did not gaze at them during the experiment.Implications for practice, research or policy:Our study encourages to consider social interaction difficulties in autism as a relational issue, instead as an individual deficit. This step might be first taken in research, by implementing paradigms sensitive to the experimenter's role and attitude.

Addressing the autism mental health crisis: the potential of phenomenology in neurodiversity-affirming clinical practices

The neurodiversity movement has introduced a new era for autism research. Yet, the neurodiversity paradigm and the autism clinic remain largely unconnected. With the present work, we aim to contribute to filling this lacuna by putting forward phenomenology as a foundation for developing neurodiversity-affirming clinical interventions for autism. In the first part of this paper, we highlight that autistic people face a severe mental health crisis. We argue that approaches focused on reducing autistic 'symptoms' are unlikely to solve the problem, as autistic mental health is positively correlated with autism acceptance and perceived quality of support provided, not necessarily with lack of 'symptomatologic severity'. Therefore, the development and dissemination of neurodiversity-affirming clinical interventions is key for addressing the autism mental health crisis. However, therapists and researchers exploring such neurodiversity-affirming practices are faced with two significant challenges. First, they lack concrete methodological principles regarding the incorporation of neurodiversity into clinical work. Second, they need to find ways to acknowledge rightful calls to respect the 'autistic self' within the clinic, while also challenging certain beliefs and behaviors of autistic clients in a manner that is sine qua non for therapy, irrespective of neurotype. In the second part of the paper, we introduce phenomenological psychology as a potential resource for engaging with these challenges in neurodiversity-affirming approaches to psychotherapy. In this vein, we put forward specific directions for adapting cognitive behavioral and interpersonal psychotherapy for autism.

Impairment in reading negative social cues extends beyond the face in autism

Nonverbal expressions are essential to regulating social communication and interaction. Impaired emotion recognition from facial expressions has been linked to various psychiatric conditions characterized by severe social deficits such as autism. As body expressions as an additional source of social-emotional information have attracted little research attention, little is known about whether emotion recognition impairments are specific to faces, or extend to body expressions. This study explored and compared emotion recognition from face versus body expressions in autism spectrum disorder. We compared 30 men with autism spectrum disorder to 30 male age- and IQ-matched control participants in their ability to recognize angry, happy, and neutral expressions from dynamic face and body expressions. Participants with autism spectrum disorder showed impaired recognition of angry expressions from both faces and bodies, while there were no group differences in recognizing happy and neutral expressions. In autism spectrum disorder, recognizing angry face expressions was inversely predicted by gaze avoidance, while recognizing angry body expressions was inversely predicted by impairments in social interaction and autistic traits. These findings suggest that distinct mechanisms may underlie the impaired emotion recognition from face and body expressions in autism spectrum disorder, respectively. Overall, our study demonstrates that emotion-specific recognition difficulties in autism spectrum disorder are not limited to face expressions but extend to emotional body expressions.

The effects of face masks on emotional appraisal ability of students with autism spectrum disorder

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has drastically altered the ways in which people are able to communicate effectively. The addition of the face mask as a distracting stimulus interrupts the holistic process that people use to interpret facial expressions. The present study seeks to investigate the impact of face masking and gaze direction on emotion recognition in students with autism. We predicted that students with autism (n = 14), who characteristically experience difficulties when appraising emotions, would struggle to assess the emotions of people wearing face masks. We did not find a significant three-way interaction of emotion, mask, and gaze on classification accuracy. We did, however, find that face masks reduced participants' ability to emotionally appraise sad faces. Further, participants showed better accuracy appraising faces with a direct gaze. Exploring how face masks impact autistic individuals' emotion recognition will benefit special educators as they adapt to teaching during the pandemic, as well as the general population that seeks to improve communication with neurodiverse persons. Future studies should examine emotional appraisal ability and additional emotions as well as different kinds of emotional stimuli.

Diminished Repetition Suppression Reveals Selective and Systems-Level Face Processing Differences in ASD

Repeated exposure to a stimulus results in reduced neural response, or repetition suppression, in brain regions responsible for processing that stimulus. This rapid accommodation to repetition is thought to underlie learning, stimulus selectivity, and strengthening of perceptual expectations. Importantly, reduced sensitivity to repetition has been identified in several neurodevelopmental, learning, and psychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges in social communication and repetitive behaviors and restricted interests. Reduced ability to exploit or learn from repetition in ASD is hypothesized to contribute to sensory hypersensitivities, and parallels several theoretical frameworks claiming that ASD individuals show difficulty using regularities in the environment to facilitate behavior. Using fMRI in autistic and neurotypical human adults (females and males), we assessed the status of repetition suppression across two modalities (vision, audition) and with four stimulus categories (faces, objects, printed words, and spoken words). ASD individuals showed domain-specific reductions in repetition suppression for face stimuli only, but not for objects, printed words, or spoken words. Reduced repetition suppression for faces was associated with greater challenges in social communication in ASD. We also found altered functional connectivity between atypically adapting cortical regions and higher-order face recognition regions, and microstructural differences in related white matter tracts in ASD. These results suggest that fundamental neural mechanisms and system-wide circuits are selectively altered for face processing in ASD and enhance our understanding of how disruptions in the formation of stable face representations may relate to higher-order social communication processes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A common finding in neuroscience is that repetition results in plasticity in stimulus-specific processing regions, reflecting selectivity and adaptation (repetition suppression [RS]). RS is reduced in several neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Theoretical frameworks of ASD posit that reduced adaptation may contribute to associated challenges in social communication and sensory processing. However, the scope of RS differences in ASD is unknown. We examined RS for multiple categories across visual and auditory domains (faces, objects, printed words, spoken words) in autistic and neurotypical individuals. We found reduced RS in ASD for face stimuli only and altered functional connectivity and white matter microstructure between cortical face-recognition areas. RS magnitude correlated with social communication challenges among autistic individuals.

A Scoping Review of Behavioral Interventions for Promoting Social Gaze in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Disabilities

Background

Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly experience difficulties maintaining social gaze with others during interactions. Although behavioral interventions targeted to promote social gaze in ASD are evident in the literature, to our knowledge, no review of the literature has been conducted to summarize and evaluate the evidence for these interventions.

Methods

We reviewed and summarized behavioral intervention studies designed to promote social gaze in individuals diagnosed with ASD and other developmental disabilities published in English between 1977 and January 2022 using PsychINFO and PubMed databases.

Results

41 studies met the inclusion criteria describing interventions conducted on 608 individuals. A variety of intervention strategies were employed to promote social gaze in these individuals including discrete trial instruction, prompting, modeling, and imitation. Most studies employed single-case research designs and reported successful outcomes, but limited data were available concerning the generalization, maintenance and social validity of these interventions. An increasing number of studies utilized technology-based procedures including computer application gameplay, gaze-contingent eye tracking devices and humanoid robots.

Conclusions

The present review indicates that behavioral interventions can be successfully employed to promote social gaze in individuals with ASD and other developmental disabilities. However, future research is needed to establish the generalization, maintenance and social validity of these interventions. There are also important ethical issues to be addressed given the increasing divide between treatment advocates and proponents of the neurodiversity movement.

Novel Screening Tool and Considerations for Music Therapists Serving Autistic Individuals via Telehealth: Qualitative Results from a Survey of Clinicians' Experiences

During the COVID-19 pandemic, music therapists transitioned services from in-person to telehealth due to health and safety concerns. Though online delivery of music therapy services for autistic individuals occurred prior to 2020, the number of North American music therapists using telehealth with autistic clients rose substantially during the pandemic. The current paper's objective was to delineate music therapists' perceptions regarding factors that helped or hindered autistic persons' engagement in online music therapy sessions. In total, 192 participants completed the survey. Qualitative content analysis of an open-ended question identified seven overarching themes regarding the benefits and challenges of telehealth music therapy for autistic clients. Findings were used to create a screening tool to help music therapists evaluate autistic persons' suitability for telehealth and meet the needs of those who can benefit from telehealth music therapy.

Neural correlates of eye contact and social function in autism spectrum disorder

Reluctance to make eye contact during natural interactions is a central diagnostic criterion for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the underlying neural correlates for eye contacts in ASD are unknown, and diagnostic biomarkers are active areas of investigation. Here, neuroimaging, eye-tracking, and pupillometry data were acquired simultaneously using two-person functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during live "in-person" eye-to-eye contact and eye-gaze at a video face for typically-developed (TD) and participants with ASD to identify the neural correlates of live eye-to-eye contact in both groups. Comparisons between ASD and TD showed decreased right dorsal-parietal activity and increased right ventral temporal-parietal activity for ASD during live eye-to-eye contact (p≤0.05, FDR-corrected) and reduced cross-brain coherence consistent with atypical neural systems for live eye contact. Hypoactivity of right dorsal-parietal regions during eye contact in ASD was further associated with gold standard measures of social performance by the correlation of neural responses and individual measures of: ADOS-2, Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, 2nd Edition (r = -0.76, -0.92 and -0.77); and SRS-2, Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition (r = -0.58). The findings indicate that as categorized social ability decreases, neural responses to real eye-contact in the right dorsal parietal region also decrease consistent with a neural correlate for social characteristics in ASD.

Predictability modulates neural response to eye contact in ASD

BACKGROUND

Deficits in establishing and maintaining eye-contact are early and persistent vulnerabilities of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and the neural bases of these deficits remain elusive. A promising hypothesis is that social features of autism may reflect difficulties in making predictions about the social world under conditions of uncertainty. However, no research in ASD has examined how predictability impacts the neural processing of eye-contact in naturalistic interpersonal interactions.

METHOD

We used eye tracking to facilitate an interactive social simulation wherein onscreen faces would establish eye-contact when the participant looked at them. In Experiment One, receipt of eye-contact was unpredictable; in Experiment Two, receipt of eye-contact was predictable. Neural response to eye-contact was measured via the N170 and P300 event-related potentials (ERPs). Experiment One included 23 ASD and 46 typically developing (TD) adult participants. Experiment Two included 25 ASD and 43 TD adult participants.

RESULTS

When receipt of eye-contact was unpredictable, individuals with ASD showed increased N170 and increased, but non-specific, P300 responses. The magnitude of the N170 responses correlated with measures of sensory and anxiety symptomology, such that increased response to eye-contact was associated with increased symptomology. However, when receipt of eye-contact was predictable, individuals with ASD, relative to controls, exhibited slower N170s and no differences in the amplitude of N170 or P300.

LIMITATIONS

Our ASD sample was composed of adults with IQ > 70 and included only four autistic women. Thus, further research is needed to evaluate how these results generalize across the spectrum of age, sex, and cognitive ability. Additionally, as analyses were exploratory, some findings failed to survive false-discovery rate adjustment.

CONCLUSIONS

Neural response to eye-contact in ASD ranged from attenuated to hypersensitive depending on the predictability of the social context. These findings suggest that the vulnerabilities in eye-contact during social interactions in ASD may arise from differences in anticipation and expectation of eye-contact in addition to the perception of gaze alone.

Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework

Proponents of autism intervention and those of the neurodiversity movement often appear at odds, the former advocating for intensive treatments and the latter arguing that autism must be accepted as a form of diversity. The history of behavioral intervention has understandably outraged many in the Autistic community, though many still value supports focused on quality of life. This commentary argues that Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs) hold promise for bridging the gap between early intervention and the neurodiversity movement. However, we recognize NDBIs have much room to grow and suggest multiple strategies for improvement. We believe these updates are not only feasible for clinicians and researchers to implement but will ultimately lead to improved quality of life for Autistic individuals.

The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test Shows Poor Psychometric Properties in a Large, Demographically Representative U.S. Sample

The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET) is a widely used measure of theory of mind (ToM). Despite its popularity, there are questions regarding the RMET's psychometric properties. In the current study, we examined the RMET in a representative U.S. sample of 1,181 adults. Key analyses included conducting an exploratory factor analysis on the full sample and examining whether there is a different factor structure in individuals with high versus low scores on the 28-item autism spectrum quotient (AQ-28). We identified overlapping, but distinct, three-factor models for the full sample and the two subgroups. In all cases, each of the three models showed inadequate model fit. We also found other limitations of the RMET, including that nearly a quarter of the RMET items did not meet the criteria for inclusion in the RMET that were established in the original validation study. Due to the RMET's weak psychometric properties and the uncertain validity of individual items, as indicated by our study and previous studies, we conclude that significant caution is warranted when using the RMET as a measure of ToM.

Integrating autistic perspectives into autism science: A role for autistic autobiographies

LAY ABSTRACT

Autism science faces challenges in how to think about autism and what questions to focus on, and sometimes contributes to stigma against autistic people. We examine one way that non-autistic researchers may start to combat these challenges: by reading and reflecting on autistic people's descriptions of their personal experiences (e.g. autobiographies) of what it is like to be autistic. In this article, we review some of the advantages and challenges of this approach and how it may help combat some of the challenges currently facing autism science by focusing studies on the questions autistic people find most important, counteracting stereotypes, and increasing understanding of autistic experiences.

Effects of an Educational Presentation About Autism on High School Students' Perceptions of Autistic Adults

Background

Social communication difficulties are a clinical characteristic of autism, but social interactions are reciprocal in nature and autistic individuals' social abilities may not be the only factor influencing their social success. Nonautistic individuals' social perceptions and behavior also contribute to autistic individuals' social difficulties. Previous research has identified that nonautistic individuals' perception of autistic individuals is influenced by autism knowledge and the quantity and quality of exposure to autistic people. The current research aimed to examine how autistic adults are perceived by high school students, assess whether quality and quantity of autism contact predicts these perceptions, and explore whether these perceptions are malleable.

Methods

One hundred fifty-one senior high school students (15-19 years old) completed the First Impression Scale after viewing video recordings of 20 autistic and 20 nonautistic adults in social situations, either before or after viewing a 50-minute educational presentation detailing the everyday experiences of autistic people and participating in a question-and-answer session. We assessed students' prior experiences with autistic people using the Quantity and Quality of Contact Scale and their own self-perceived social competence using the Multidimensional Social Competence Scale.

Results

Consistent with previous studies, students rated autistic adults less favorably than nonautistic adults. However, the educational presentation produced modest but significant improvements on these ratings, with students who viewed the presentation rating autistic adults as more attractive and likable and reporting greater social interest in them compared to those who had not yet viewed the presentation. Furthermore, consistent with a double empathy framework, exploratory analyses indicated that self-reports of greater social competence among students was associated with greater bias against autistic adults, whereas reports of higher quality interactions with autistic people were associated with less bias.

Conclusion

Previous research has demonstrated that nonautistic adults evaluate autistic people less favorably and report lower social interest in them relative to nonautistic controls. In this study, we extend these findings to adolescents but find these biases are somewhat malleable, with education about autism exerting some modest benefits. Changing nonautistic attitudes about autistic differences may provide an avenue for improving interactions for autistic individuals without putting the onus on autistic individuals to change or mask their behavior and identity.

Discrepancy between high non-verbal intelligence and low accuracy at reading emotional expressions in the eyes reflects the magnitude of social-emotional difficulties in autism

Many so-called "high functioning" autistic individuals struggle with daily living skills, and have poorer than expected adult outcomes in employment, relationships, and quality of life. Significant discrepancies between non-verbal intelligence and emotional processing can be observed in autism, but the role of the magnitude of this gap in achieving potential psychosocial outcome is not known. Here, we show in a large group of participants (n = 107), that only among those with an autism diagnosis (n = 33), the gap between non-verbal intelligence (as measured by Raven's matrices) and the ability to perform the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test significantly predicts self-perceived emotional/social difficulties as assessed by the Empathy Quotient. Our results suggest that it is specifically the magnitude of the gap between (high) levels of abstract reasoning skills and poor proficiency in reading emotions expressed by the eyes that predicts self-perceived difficulties in emotional and social interactions among adults with autism. A better understanding of the underlying causes of the discrepancy between potential and actual psychosocial outcomes is the first step toward developing the most appropriate support for this vulnerable population, and our study offers some potentially important insights in this regard.

The Quality of Everyday Eye Contact in Williams Syndrome: Insights From Cross-Syndrome Comparisons

Past research shows that individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) have heightened and prolonged eye contact. Using parent report measures, we examined not only the presence of eye contact but also its qualitative features. Study 1 included individuals with WS (n = 22, ages 6.0-36.3). Study 2 included children with different neurodevelopmental (ND) conditions (WS, autism spectrum condition, fragile X syndrome, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) and children with neurotypical development (NT; n = 262, ages 4.0-17.11). Unusual eye contact features, including staring, were found in approximately half of the WS samples. However, other features such as brief glances were frequently found in WS and in all ND conditions, but not NT. Future research in ND conditions should focus on qualitative as well as quantitative features of eye contact.

Eye-Tracking Studies in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Eye-tracking studies have shown potential in effectively discriminating between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and non-ASD groups. The main objective of the present study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of eye-tracking studies in adults with ASD. A total of 22 studies were included for meta-analysis. Eyes and Non-Social regions proved better for discriminating between ASD and non-ASD adults, while fixation duration seems to be the outcome to choose. Active engaged tasks seem to reduce differences between ASD and non-ASD adults, regardless of the emotional content of the stimuli/task. Proportional fixation duration on eyes and non-social areas in non-active tasks (e.g. free viewing) seems to be the best eye-tracking design for increasing the sensitivity and specificity in ASD adults.

Eye Gaze in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review of Neural Evidence for the Eye Avoidance Hypothesis

Reduced eye contact early in life may play a role in the developmental pathways that culminate in a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. However, there are contradictory theories regarding the neural mechanisms involved. According to the amygdala theory of autism, reduced eye contact results from a hypoactive amygdala that fails to flag eyes as salient. However, the eye avoidance hypothesis proposes the opposite-that amygdala hyperactivity causes eye avoidance. This review evaluated studies that measured the relationship between eye gaze and activity in the 'social brain' when viewing facial stimuli. Of the reviewed studies, eight of eleven supported the eye avoidance hypothesis. These results suggest eye avoidance may be used to reduce amygdala-related hyperarousal among people on the autism spectrum.

The Bidirectional Social-Cognitive Mechanisms of the Social-Attention Symptoms of Autism

Differences in social attention development begin to be apparent in the 6th to 12th month of development in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and theoretically reflect important elements of its neurodevelopmental endophenotype. This paper examines alternative conceptual views of these early social attention symptoms and hypotheses about the mechanisms involved in their development. One model emphasizes mechanism involved in the spontaneous allocation of attention to faces, or social orienting. Alternatively, another model emphasizes mechanisms involved in the coordination of attention with other people, or joint attention, and the socially bi-directional nature of its development. This model raises the possibility that atypical responses of children to the attention or the gaze of a social partner directed toward themselves may be as important in the development of social attention symptoms as differences in the development of social orienting. Another model holds that symptoms of social attention may be important to early development, but may not impact older individuals with ASD. The alterative model is that the social attention symptoms in infancy (social orienting and joint attention), and social cognitive symptoms in childhood and adulthood share common neurodevelopmental substrates. Therefore, differences in early social attention and later social cognition constitute a developmentally continuous axis of symptom presentation in ASD. However, symptoms in older individuals may be best measured with in vivo measures of efficiency of social attention and social cognition in social interactions rather than the accuracy of response on analog tests used in measures with younger children. Finally, a third model suggests that the social attention symptoms may not truly be a symptom of ASD. Rather, they may be best conceptualized as stemming from differences domain general attention and motivation mechanisms. The alternative argued for here that infant social attention symptoms meet all the criteria of a unique dimension of the phenotype of ASD and the bi-directional phenomena involved in social attention cannot be fully explained in terms of domain general aspects of attention development.

Atypical interoception as a common risk factor for psychopathology: A review

The inadequacy of a categorial approach to mental health diagnosis is now well-recognised, with many authors, diagnostic manuals and funding bodies advocating a dimensional, trans-diagnostic approach to mental health research. Variance in interoception, the ability to perceive one's internal bodily state, is reported across diagnostic boundaries, and is associated with atypical functioning across symptom categories. Drawing on behavioural and neuroscientific evidence, we outline current research on the contribution of interoception to numerous cognitive and affective abilities (in both typical and clinical populations), and describe the interoceptive atypicalities seen in a range of psychiatric conditions. We discuss the role that interoception may play in the development and maintenance of psychopathology, as well as the ways in which interoception may differ across clinical presentations. A number of important areas for further research on the role of interoception in psychopathology are highlighted.

When Disability Is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote "Passing"

When disability is defined by behavior, researchers and clinicians struggle to identify appropriate measures to assess clinical progress. Some choose the reduction or elimination of diagnostic traits, implicitly defining typical appearance as the goal of service provision. Such an approach often interferes with more meaningful, person-centered goals; causes harm to people with disabilities; and is unnecessary for dealing with traits that are intrinsically harmful or personally distressing, such as self-injury. Disability stakeholders should reevaluate outcome measures that seek to eliminate disability-related traits that are stigmatized but not harmful. Using autism and the emergent neurodiversity movement as a case study, this article explores ethical challenges in selecting outcome measures in behaviorally defined disability diagnoses.

Presymptomatic Detection and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Universal screening for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is recommended during pediatric primary care visits in the first 2 years of life. However, many children are missed by initial screening and not diagnosed with ASD until years later. Research efforts are underway to develop and evaluate new objective measures of risk for ASD that can be used in infancy, before symptoms emerge. Initial studies with these tests, particularly MRI-based screening for infants at high familial risk, have shown promise but have not yet been evaluated in clinical trials. We present the study design for a hypothetical clinical trial that would combine presymptomatic detection and intervention for ASD and consider, through commentaries from diverse perspectives, the ethical issues that should be anticipated in advance of beginning such trials. Commentators Drs Pruett and Piven address the social value of the proposed research and importance of researcher-bioethicist collaborations. Drs Estes and Wolff discuss the clinical potential and challenges of developing presymptomatic interventions for infants at risk for ASD. Dr Harrington takes a neurodiversity view of presymptomatic prediction and intervention and their implications for autistic identity and quality of life. Finally, Drs MacDuffie, Peay and Wilfond consider the potential risks and benefits that must be evaluated and weighed in the next phases of research on presymptomatic detection and intervention for ASD.

Shifting Focus From Impairment to Inclusion: Expanding Occupational Therapy for Neurodivergent Students to Address School Environments

Social participation in schools is critical to student academic and psychosocial outcomes. Neurodivergent students, however, often experience environmental barriers to social participation, such as lack of awareness and negative attitudes among peers and school staff, including teachers. Although authentic social participation is composed of dynamic interactions between a person and the external environments, occupational therapy's role in addressing student social participation primarily focuses on internal social characteristics. Barriers within school environments often remain unaddressed, with no clear role for occupational therapy practitioners. We advocate an expansion of occupational therapy's role to address school environments, especially the social, physical, and policy aspects, to promote social participation and inclusion. We also discuss the need for change and present a framework guiding intervention in school environments.

Scan path during change-detection visual search

When observing a particular image or object, one's perception depends upon prior expectations, memory, and cognitive abilities. It is hypothesized that cognitive processing in the form of top-down or bottom-up processing could be determined via analysis of the eye fixation scan path. To assess the variations in scan paths, 7 subjects underwent 5 change-detection trials. During each trial, they were presented with a specific set of images via a MATLAB program, in which the original image alternated with a modified image consisting of a single change. An open-source program called GazeRecorder was used to track the subject's eye movements and to record the eye fixations. The scan path was then analyzed through the use of a 4 by 4 grid pattern superimposed on the image to determine the subject's eye fixation distribution pattern in terms of Boxes Viewed and Concentration within a single area. It was determined that higher Concentration was positively correlated with faster Detection Speed (R = 0.84), while higher number of Boxes Viewed was negatively correlated with Detection Speed (R = -0.71). Among the subjects, the more optimal scan paths were found in those with a balance between Concentration and Boxes Viewed, as subjects with a more balanced approach had the greatest Accuracy (p = 0.02). This indicates an optimal scan path involves both top-down and bottom-up processing to more efficiently identify a change. Moreover, the methodology developed in this study could be used in the home or clinic for quantitative assessment of improvement following therapy in patients with neurological deficits.

First-Hand Accounts of Interoceptive Difficulties in Autistic Adults

Interoceptive awareness refers to one's ability to detect, discriminate, and regulate internal bodily and mental processes. Interoceptive challenges in ASD remain under researched and poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed texts of adults who self-identify as autistic describing their interoceptive challenges. Many individuals described limited awareness of hunger, satiation, or thirst, which contributed to eating disordered behavior in some instances. Others described limited awareness or difficulty understanding affective arousal, pain or illness, and difficulty differentiating benign body signals from signals that represent medical concerns. Findings from this study call for increased research attention on this topic, and a need for valid and objective measures for assessing interoception in ASD.