The opposite effects of nandrolone decanoate and exercise on anxiety levels in rats may involve alterations in hippocampal parvalbumin-positive interneurons

Voluntary exercise prevents and eradicates anxiety-like behavior by influencing parvalbumin-positive neurons, perineuronal nets, and microglia activation in corticolimbic regions of neuropathic pain rats

Anxiety-like behavior often emerges in the later stages of neuropathic pain, exacerbating the pain condition and potentially involving parvalbumin-positive (PV+) neurons. This study aimed to investigate the effects of voluntary exercise on neuropathic pain-induced anxiety and its relationship with PV+ neurons, perineuronal nets (PNNs, labeled with Wisteria floribunda agglutinin [WFA]), and microglia in the corticolimbic regions. Male Wistar rats with partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSL) were given access to running wheels either from 3 days (early voluntary exercise [EEx]) or from 4 weeks (late voluntary exercise [LEx]) postoperatively. Nociceptive behaviors were assessed using the von Frey and acetone tests, while anxiety-like behaviors were assessed using the open field and elevated plus maze tests. Brain sections were histologically analyzed using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence 8 weeks post-surgery. Both early and late exercise partially restored the paw withdrawal thresholds and the arousal response. PSL-EEx rats did not exhibit anxiety-like behaviors. PSL-LEx rats transiently showed anxiety-like behaviors, but these were eradicated by exercise. PSL altered PV+ neurons and PNNs in specific corticolimbic subregions. Notably, voluntary exercise restored the densities of PV+-strong WFA+ neurons in the basolateral amygdala, PV+-WFA-, and PV+-WFA+ neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex, and PV+-WFA+ neurons in the hippocampal cornu ammonis 1. These changes correlated with reduced anxiety-like behaviors. Exercise modulated PSL-induced microglial activation and interacted differently with these neurons. These findings suggest that voluntary exercise prevents and eliminates chronic pain-induced anxiety through neuronal mechanisms other than analgesic effects, potentially involving PV+ neurons, PNNs, and microglia in the corticolimbic subregions.

Nandrolone decanoate-induced hypogonadism in male rats: Dose- and time-dependent effects on pituitary and testicular hormonal functions

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) impairment of reproduction has been reported. We investigated dose- and time-dependent effects of Nandrolone decanoate (ND) on reproductive system in comparison with Testosterone enanthate (TE). Male Wistar rats were administrated with 1, 3, and 9 mg/kg/weeks ND or 1 and 3 mg/kg/weeks TE for 8 weeks, and testicular phenotype and reproductive hormones were assessed at 4 and 8 weeks post-treatments. AASs × treatment period interaction was significant for gonadosomatic index (GSI), testosterone (T), 17β-estradiol (E2), and luteinizing hormone (LH). At 4 weeks post-treatment, GSI was decreased in rats treated with 3 mg/kg/weeks ND and T was decreased in all ND-treated groups, while no significant changes in LH levels were observed. At 8 weeks post-treatment, GSI was decreased in rats treated with 1 and 3 mg/kg/weeks ND and with 3 mg/kg/weeks TE, T was decreased in all groups, and E2 and LH were increased and decreased, respectively, in rats treated with 9 mg/kg/weeks ND and with 3 mg/kg/weeks TE. The testes showed histopathological defects in both ND- and TE-treated rats suggesting a delay in seminiferous cycle. This study shows AASs-induced hypogonadism at low-dose that coincided with inhibition of T biosynthesis and disruption of T feedback on pituitary.

Complex Hippocampal Response to Thermal Skin Injury and Protocols with Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy and Filipendula ulmaria Extract in Rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate the alterations of the hippocampal function that may be related to anxiogenic response to thermal skin injury, including the morpho-functional alterations, and the effects of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) and Filipendula ulmaria (FU) extract in the treatment of anxiety-like behavior that coincides with thermal skin injury. A rat thermal skin injury experimental model was performed on 2-month-old male Wistar albino rats. The evaluated therapeutic protocols included HBO and/or antioxidant supplementation. HBO was applied for 7 days in the hyperbaric chamber (100% O2, 2.5 ATA, 60 min). Oral administration of FU extract (final concentration of 100 mg/kg b.w.) to achieve antioxidant supplementation was also applied for 7 days. Anxiety level was estimated in the open field and elevated plus-maze test, which was followed by anesthesia, sacrifice, and collection of hippocampal tissue samples. HBO treatment and FU supplementation significantly abolished anxiogenic response to thermal skin injury. This beneficial effect was accompanied by the reduction in hippocampal pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic indicators, and enhanced BDNF and GABA-ARα2S gene expression, previously observed in untreated burns. The hippocampal relative gene expression of melatonin receptors and NPY positively responded to the applied protocols, in the same manner as µ and δ opioid receptors, while the opposite response was observed for κ receptors. The results of this study provide some confirmations that adjuvant strategies, such as HBO and antioxidant supplementation, may be simultaneously applied in the treatment of the anxiety-like behavior that coincides with thermal skin injury.

Adenosine receptors participate in anabolic-androgenic steroid-induced changes on risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors in male and female rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and caffeine can induce several behavioral alterations in humans and rodents. Administration of nandrolone decanoate is known to affect defensive responses to aversive stimuli, generally decreasing inhibitory control and increasing aggressivity but whether caffeine intake influences behavioral changes induced by AAS is unknown. The present study aimed to investigate behavioral effects of caffeine (a non-selective antagonist of adenosine receptors) alone or combined with nandrolone decanoate (one of the most commonly AAS abused) in female and male Lister Hooded rats. Our results indicated that chronic administration of nandrolone decanoate (10 mg/kg, i.m., once a week for 8 weeks) decreased risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors (in the elevated plus maze test), regardless of sex. These effects were prevented by combined caffeine intake (0.1 g/L, p.o., ad libitum). Overall, the present study heralds a key role for caffeine intake in the modulation of nandrolone decanoate-induced behavioral changes in rats, suggesting adenosine receptors as candidate targets to manage impact of AAS on brain function and behavior.

Economic, ecological, and health aspects of β-diketonate application in the process of water purification

Water pollution is a constant challenge for humanity. Sustainable economic development and environmental protection through a green economy structure provide the opportunity to project a model of scientific, social, and economic flows. Considering new chemical use in water treatment, we tested two β-diketonates that we previously synthesized in the reaction between methyl ketone and diethyl oxalate under basic conditions. For water treatment, we used the appropriate salts of the mentioned compounds due to better solubility in water. In cooperation with the partner organizations PUC (public utility companies) Kragujevac, LTD (Private Limited Company), "Rudnik," and FIAT (Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino), we conducted research on their wastewater treatment. The results appeared to be more convincing in practice than the conventional methods. As a result of the study, no negative effects exerted on living organisms were found. Therefore, we are on the right track for potential application in the treatment of drinking water. Appropriate β-diketonates were tested on twelve microorganisms (isolates from the wastewater and standard strains of bacteria and yeast). One of the two tested compounds showed promising antimicrobial activity. Further investigations showed that the tested compounds significantly reduce the concentration of heavy metals, which was confirmed by statistical calculations. Also, the main advantage of this method is a small volume of waste requiring disposal, no need for driving off excess moisture, used recyclability of the coagulants, reducing hazardous waste, and therefore reducing the costs for water treatment.

Orally administered fluorescent nanosized polystyrene particles affect cell viability, hormonal and inflammatory profile, and behavior in treated mice

Commercially manufactured or generated through environmental degradation, microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) considerably contribute to environmental pollution. There is a knowledge gap in how exposure to MPs/NPs changes cellular function and affects animal and human health. Here, we demonstrate that after oral uptake, fluorescent polystyrene (PS) nanoparticles pass through the mouse digestive system, accumulate and aggregate in different organs, and induce functional changes in cells and organs. Using cochlear explant as a novel in vitro system, we confirmed the consequences of PS-MP/NP interaction with inner ear cells by detecting aggregates and hetero-aggregates of PS particles in hair cells. The testes of treated males accumulated MPs/NPs in the interstitial compartment surrounding the seminiferous tubules, which was associated with a statistically significant decrease in testosterone levels. Male mice showed increased secretion of interleukins (IL-12p35 and IL-23) by splenocytes while cyto- and genotoxicity tests indicated impaired cell viability and increased DNA damage in spleen tissue. Males also showed a broad range of anxiogenic responses to PS nanoparticles while hippocampal samples from treated females showed an increased expression of Bax and Nlrp3 genes, indicating a pro-apoptotic/proinflammatory effect of PS treatment. Taken together, induced PS effects are also gender-dependent, and therefore, strongly motivate future research to mitigate the deleterious effects of nanosized plastic particles.

Nandrolone supplementation does not improve functional recovery in an aged animal model of volumetric muscle loss injury

Aging hinders the effectiveness of regenerative medicine strategies targeting the repair of volumetric muscle loss (VML) injury. Anabolic steroids have been shown to improve several factors which contribute to the age-related decline in muscle's regenerative capacity. In this study, the impact of exogenous nandrolone decanoate (ND) administration on the effectiveness of a VML regenerative repair strategy was explored using an aged animal model. Unilateral tibialis anterior VML injuries were repaired in 18-month-aged animal models (male Fischer 344 rat) using decellularized human skeletal muscle scaffolds supplemented with autologous minced muscle. The contralateral limb was left untreated/uninjured. Following repair, ND(+) or a carrier control (ND-) was delivered via weekly injection for a period of 8 weeks. At 8 weeks, muscle isometric torque, gene expression, and tissue structure were assessed. ND(+) treatment did not improve contractile torque recovery following VML repair when compared to carrier only ND(-) injection controls. Peak isometric torque in the ND(+) VML repair group remained significantly below contralateral uninjured control values (4.69 ± 1.18vs. 7.46 ± 1.53 N mm/kg) and was statistically indistinguishable from carrier only ND(-) VML repair controls (4.47 ± 1.18 N mm/kg). Gene expression for key myogenic genes (Pax7, MyoD, MyoG, IGF-1) were not significantly elevated in response to ND injection, suggesting continued age related myogenic impairment even in the presence of ND(+) treatment. ND injection did reduce the histological appearance of fibrosis at the site of VML repair, and increased expression of the collagen III gene, suggesting some positive effects on repair site matrix regulation. Overall, the results presented in this study suggest that a decline in regenerative capacity with aging may present an obstacle to regenerative medicine strategies targeting VML injury and that the delivery of anabolic stimuli via ND administration was unable to overcome this decline.

Neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus: a systematic review

Forced swimming is a common exercise method used for its low cost and easy management, as seen in studies with the hippocampus. Since it is applied for varied research purposes many protocols are available with diverse aspects of physical intensity, time and periodicity, which produces variable outcomes. In the present study, we performed a systematic review to stress the neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus. Behavior, antioxidant levels, neurotrophins and inflammatory markers were the main topics examined upon the swimming effects. Better results among these analyses were associated with forced exercise at moderate intensity with an adaptation period and the opposite for continuous exhausting exercises with no adaptation. On further consideration, a standard swimming protocol is necessary to reduce variability of results for each scenario investigated about the impact of the forced swimming on the hippocampus.

Forced swimming is a common exercise method used for its low cost and easy management, as seen in studies with the hippocampus. Since it is applied for varied research purposes many protocols are available with diverse aspects of physical intensity, time and periodicity, which produces variable outcomes. In the present study, we performed a systematic review to stress the neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus. Behavior, antioxidant levels, neurotrophins and inflammatory markers were the main topics examined upon the swimming effects. Better results among these analyses were associated with forced exercise at moderate intensity with an adaptation period and the opposite for continuous exhausting exercises with no adaptation. On further consideration, a standard swimming protocol is necessary to reduce variability of results for each scenario investigated about the impact of the forced swimming on the hippocampus.

Involvement of kynurenine pathway in depressive-like behaviour induced by nandrolone decanoate in mice

Nandrolone decanoate (ND) belongs to the class II of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), which is composed of 19-nor-testosterone-derivatives. AAS represent a group of synthetic testosterone that is used in clinical treatment. However, these drugs are widely abused among individuals as a means of promoting muscle growth or enhancing athletic performance. AAS in general and ND in particular have been associated with several behavioral disturbances, such as anxiety, aggressiveness and depression. A factor that contributes to the development of depression is the brain activation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), the rate-limiting enzyme of kynurenine pathway (KP). In the present study, we examined the involvement of KP in depressive phenotype induced by a ND treatment (10 mg/kg/day/s.c., for 28 days) that mimics human abuse system (e.g. supraphysiological doses) in C57B/6J mice. Our results showed that ND caused depressive like-behavior in the tail suspension test and anhedonic-like state measured in the sucrose preference test. ND administration decreased the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 and reduced Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity in the hippocampus, striatum and prefrontal cortex. We also found that ND elicited KP activation, as reflected by the increase of IDO activity and kynurenine levels in these brain regions. Moreover, ND decreased serotonin levels and increased 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels in the brain. Treatment with IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-dl-trypthophan (1 mg/kg/i.p.) reversed the behavioral and neurochemical alterations induced by ND. These results indicate for the first time that KP plays a key role in depressive-like behavior and neurotoxicity induced by supraphysiologicaldoses of ND in mice.

Nandrolone Decanoate: Use, Abuse and Side Effects

Background and Objectives: Androgens play a significant role in the development of male reproductive organs. The clinical use of synthetic testosterone derivatives, such as nandrolone, is focused on maximizing the anabolic effects and minimizing the androgenic ones. Class II anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), including nandrolone, are rapidly becoming a widespread group of drugs used both clinically and illicitly. The illicit use of AAS is diffused among adolescent and bodybuilders because of their anabolic proprieties and their capacity to increase tolerance to exercise. This systematic review aims to focus on side effects related to illicit AAS abuse, evaluating the scientific literature in order to underline the most frequent side effects on AAS abusers’ bodies. Materials and Methods: A systematic review of the scientific literature was performed using the PubMed database and the keywords “nandrolone decanoate”. The inclusion criteria for articles or abstracts were English language and the presence of the following words: “abuse” or “adverse effects”. After applying the exclusion and inclusion criteria, from a total of 766 articles, only 148 were considered eligible for the study. Results: The most reported adverse effects (found in more than 5% of the studies) were endocrine effects (18 studies, 42%), such as virilization, gynecomastia, hormonal disorders, dyslipidemia, genital alterations, and infertility; cardiovascular dysfunctions (six studies, 14%) such as vascular damage, coagulation disorders, and arteriosus hypertension; skin disorders (five studies, 12%) such as pricking, acne, and skin spots; psychiatric and mood disorders (four studies, 9%) such as aggressiveness, sleep disorders and anxiety; musculoskeletal disorders (two studies, 5%), excretory disorders (two studies, 5%), and gastrointestinal disorders (two studies, 5%). Conclusions: Based on the result of our study, the most common adverse effects secondary to the abuse of nandrolone decanoate (ND) involve the endocrine, cardiovascular, skin, and psychiatric systems. These data could prove useful to healthcare professionals in both sports and clinical settings.

Anabolic steroids and their effects of on neuronal density in cortical areas and hippocampus of mice

Anabolic substances have been increasingly used by bodybuilders and athletes with the goal of improving performance and aesthetics. However, this practice has caused some concern to physicians and researchers because of unknowledge of consequences that the indiscriminate and illicit use of these substances can cause. Thus, this study analyzed the effects of two commercially available anabolic steroids (AS), Winstrol Depot® (Stanozolol) and Deposteron® (Testosterone Cypionate), in the neuronal density of limbic, motor and sensory regions on the cerebral cortex and in CA1, CA2, CA3 regions of the hippocampus. A total of 60 Swiss mice were used (30 males and 30 females), separated into three groups: control and two experimental groups, which received the AAS. From each brain, homotypic and semi-serial samples were taken in frontal sections from areas established for the study. The results showed that females treated with testosterone cypionate presented a reduction in all regions tested and the ones treated with Stanozolol showed a decrease in some hippocampal areas. Regarding male animals, stanozolol led to a decrease in neuron number in one hippocampal region. These data allow us to conclude that supra-physiological doses of steroids used in this study, can cause considerable damage to nervous tissue with ultrastructural and consequently behavioral impairment. These changes could interfere with the loss of physical yield and performance of athletes and non-athletes and may cause irreparable damage to individuals making irresponsible use of anabolic steroids.

Immunohistomorphometric and Hormonal Analysis of the Pituitary Gonadotropic Cells After Application of the Nandrolone Decanoate and Swimming Training in Adult Male Rats

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment and/or swimming training on immunohistomorphometric parameters on rat pituitary gonadotropic cells. Male Wistar albino rats, 10 weeks old, were classified into four groups: control (T−N−), nandrolone (T−N+), swimming training (T+N−), and swimming training with nandrolone (T+N+). The T+ groups swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The N+ groups received nandrolone decanoate (20 mg/kg) once per week for 4 weeks. Pituitary tissue sections were processed and stained for immunohistochemical analysis and immunofluorescence. The volume density of luteinizing hormone (LH) cells was decreased by 48% in T−N+ and for 35% in the T+N+ group. The volume density of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) cells was decreased by 39% in T−N+ and for 30% in T+N+ compared to the control. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased the number of LH/FSH cells compared to the control. The levels of the immunofluorescent signal of LH/FSH cells were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone decreased the serum level of LH by 17%, whereas swimming training alone increased FSH levels by 11% compared to the control. Serum levels of testosterone were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased immunohistomorphometric parameters of gonadotropic cells, whereas the levels of immunofluorescent signal were increased.

The role of galectin-3 in modulation of anxiety state level in mice

Galectin-3 (Gal-3), a member of lectin family that binds to oligosaccharides, is involved in several biological processes, including maturation and function of nervous system. It had been reported that Gal-3 regulates oligodendrocytes differentiation and that Gal-3/Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) axis is involved in neuroinflammation. As both, central nervous system (CNS) maturation and neuroinflammation may affect behavior, the principle aim of this study was to examine the effects of Gal-3 gene deletion on behavior. Here we provide the evidence that Gal-3 deficiency shows clear anxiogenic effect in mature untreated animals (basal conditions). This was accompanied with lower interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) relative gene expression and hippocampal content, with no effect on TLR4 expression. Gal-3 deficiency was also accompanied with lower brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) relative gene expression and immunoreactivity in hippocampus (predominantly in CA1 region). Besides, the Gal-3 gene deletion resulted in attenuation of the hippocampal relative gene expression of GABA-A receptor subunits 2 and 5 (GABA-AR2S and GABA-AR5S), On the other hand, Gal-3 deficiency attenuates LPS-induced neuroinflammation. The anxiogenic effect of acute neuroinflammation was accompanied with increased hippocampal IL-6, TNF-α and TLR4 gene expression, as well as decreased gene and immunohistochemical BDNF expression in hippocampus, with significant decline in GABA-AR2S in wild type (WT) mice in comparison to basal conditions. Gal-3 gene deletion prevented the increase in IL-6, the decline in BDNF gene expression and immunoreactivity, and reduction in hippocampal GABA-AR2S, and therefore attenuated the anxiogenic effect of neuroinflammation. In summary, our data demonstrate that apparently opposite effects of Gal-3 deficiency on anxiety levels (anxiogenic effect under basal conditions and anxiolytic action during neuroinflammation) seem to be related to the shift in IL-6, TNF-α and hippocampal BDNF.

The Benefits of Using New Tools for Behavioral Investigations in Animal Experimental Models

The animal experimental models of emotional disorders attempt to reproduce features of human psychiatric disorders in laboratory animals by correlating the physiological and behavioral changes associated with specific emotional states, the etiology of disorders, and responses on drug treatments. Animal experimental models that accurately recapitulate clinical pathology are indispensable for understanding molecular mechanisms and advancing preclinical studies. Behavioral tests on animal models have been developed over time in two directions: to enable the acquisition of as many valid behavior data as possible, and constructing experimental models and procedures that represent a parallel with certain conditions in humans. In this review we discuss more information for the new tools in behavioral investigations in animal experimental models. Here we described evoked beam-walking (EBW) test as a new test for estimation of anxiety levels. The reliability of that test was confirmed in our studies by using nandrolone decanoate (ND) and testosterone enanthate (TE) in supraphysiological doses. Also, we defined a new approach to estimation of exploratory activity by using these tests and an improvement of detectability in standard evaluation of depressive state levels. Taking into account that behavioral investigation in animal models still has to remain indispensable in conducting of preclinical studies, we assume that new tools that can be applied in this field may improve the quality of research.

Exercise Attenuates Anabolic Steroids-Induced Anxiety via Hippocampal NPY and MC4 Receptor in Rats

The aim of our study was to evaluate the effects of chronic administration of nandrolone-decanoate (ND) or testosterone-enanthate (TE) in supraphysiological doses and a prolonged swimming protocol, alone and in combination with ND or TE, on anxiety-like behavior in rats. We investigated the immunohistochemical alterations of the hippocampal neuropeptide Y (NPY) and melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) neurons, as a possible underlying mechanism in a modulation of anxiety-like behavior in rats. Both applied anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) induced anxiogenic effect accompanied with decreased serum and hippocampal NPY. The exercise-induced anxiolytic effect was associated with increased hippocampal NPY expression. ND and TE increased the number of MC4R, while the swimming protocol was followed by the reduction of MC4R in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. However, NPY/MC4R ratio in hippocampus was lowered by AASs and elevated by exercise in all hippocampal regions. An augmentation of this ratio strongly and positively correlated to increased time in open arms of elevated plus maze, in the context that indicates anxiolytic effect. Our findings support the conclusion that alterations in both hippocampal NPY and MC4R expression are involved in anxiety level changes in rats, while their quantitative relationship (NPY/MC4R ratio) is even more valuable in the estimation of anxiety regulation than individual alterations for both NPY and MC4R expression in the hippocampus.

The Impact of Hippocampal Sex Hormones Receptors in Modulation of Depressive-Like Behavior Following Chronic Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Exercise Protocols in Rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate alterations in depressive-like behaviors in rats following chronic administration of a supraphysiological dose of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) as well as exposure to a prolonged exercise protocol. The role of hippocampal sex hormones receptors in the modulation of depressive-like behavior was also assessed. A total of 48 male Wistar albino rats were divided into six groups: control, exercise (1 h/day, five consecutive days), nandrolone-decanoate (ND, 20 mg/kg/week, in a single dose), exercise plus ND, testosterone-enanthate (TE, 20 mg/kg/week, in a single dose), and exercise plus TE. After the 6-week protocols were complete, the rats underwent behavioral testing in the tail suspension test (TST). Rats were sacrificed for the collection of blood samples, to determine sex hormones levels, and isolation of the hippocampus, to determine [androgen receptors (AR) and estrogen receptors α (ERα)] expression. ND and TE treatment induced significant depressive-like behavior, opposing the antidepressant effect of exercise. Chronic TE administration elevated testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) serum levels, and this was augmented by exercise. In contrast, ND and exercise alone did not alter T or DHT levels. There were no changes in serum estradiol levels in any of the groups. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that exercise reduced AR immunoreactivity in all hippocampal regions and increased the ERα expression in the CA1, dentate gyrus (DG), and total hippocampal sections, but not in the CA2/3 region. AASs administration increased AR expression in all hippocampal regions, although not the total hippocampal section in the TE group and did not significantly decrease ERα. The hippocampal AR/ERα expression index was lowered while parvalbumin (PV)-immunoreactivity was enhanced by exercise. AASs administration increased the AR/ERα index and reduced PV-immunoreactivity in the hippocampus. The number of PV-immunoreactive neurons negatively correlated with the antidepressant effects and the AR/ERα ratio. Our results suggest a potential role of the numerical relationship between two sex hormones receptors (stronger correlation than for each individual receptor) in the regulation of depressive-like behavior via the hippocampal GABAergic system in rats, which allow better understanding of the hippocampal sex hormones receptors role in modulation of depressive-like behavior.

The anxiolytic effects of atorvastatin and simvastatin on dietary-induced increase in homocysteine levels in rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of atorvastatin and simvastatin on behavioral manifestations that followed hyperhomocysteinemia induced by special dietary protocols enriched in methionine and deficient in B vitamins (B6, B9, B12) by means of alterations in anxiety levels in rats. Simultaneously, we investigated the alterations of oxidative stress markers in rat hippocampus induced by applied dietary protocols. Furthermore, considering the well-known antioxidant properties of statins, we attempted to assess their impact on major markers of oxidative stress and their possible beneficial role on anxiety-like behavior effect in rats. The 4-week-old male Wistar albino rats were divided (eight per group) according to basic dietary protocols: standard chow, methionine-enriched, and methionine-enriched vitamins B (B6, B9, B12) deficient. Each dietary protocol (30 days) included groups with atorvastatin (3 mg/kg/day i.p.) and simvastatin (5 mg/kg/day i.p.). The behavioral testing was performed in the open field and elevated plus maze tests. Parameters of oxidative stress (index of lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, catalase activity, glutathione) were determined in hippocampal tissue samples following decapitation after anesthesia. Methionine-load dietary protocols induced increased oxidative stress in rat hippocampus, which was accompanied by anxiogenic behavioral manifestations. The methionine-enriched diet with restricted vitamins B intake induced more pronounced anxiogenic effect, as well as increased oxidative stress compared to the methionine-load diet with normal vitamins B content. Simultaneous administration of statins showed beneficial effects by means of both decreased parameters of oxidative stress and attenuation of anxiety. The results obtained with simvastatin were more convincible compared to atorvastatin.

Nandrolone decanoate and physical activity affect quadriceps in peripubertal rats

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are synthetic analogs of testosterone often used by athletes to increase the skeletal muscle mass. Our goal was to examine the effects of physical activity and physical activity combined with supraphysiological doses of nandrolone on functional morphology of the quadriceps muscle. The study included 32 peripubertal Wistar rats, divided into 4 groups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), physical activity (T+N-) and physical activity plus nandrolone (T+N+) groups. The T+N- and T+N+ group swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The T-N+ and T+N+ groups received nandolone decanoate (20 mg/kg b.w.) once per week, subcutaneously. Subsequently, the rats were sacrificed and muscle specimens were prepared for the processing. Tissue sections were histochemically and immunohistochemically stained, while the image analysis was used for quantification. Longitudinal diameter of quadriceps muscle cells was increased for 21% in T-N+, for 57% in T+N- and for 64% in T+N+ group while cross section muscle cell area was increased in T-N+ for 19%, in T+N- for 47% and in T+N+ group for 59%, compared to the control. Collagen fibers covered area was increased in T-N+ group for 36%, in T+N- for 109% and in T+N+ group for 159%, compared to the control. Erythrocyte depots were decreased in T-N+ group and increased in T+N- and T+N+ group, in comparison with T-N-. VEGF depots were increased in all treated groups. Chronic administration of supraphysiological doses of AASs alone or in combination with physical activity induces hypertrophy and significant changes in the quadriceps muscle tissue structure.