Direct and biologically significant interactions of human herpesvirus 8 interferon regulatory factor 1 with STAT3 and Janus kinase TYK2

The Role of vIL-6 in KSHV-Mediated Immune Evasion and Tumorigenesis

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a double-stranded DNA gamma herpesvirus. Like other herpesviruses, KSHV establishes a latent infection with limited gene expression, while KSHV occasionally undergoes the lytic replication phase, which produces KSHV progenies and infects neighboring cells. KSHV genome encodes 80+ open reading frames. One of the KSHV genes, K2, encodes viral interleukin 6 (vIL-6), a homolog of human IL-6 (hIL-6), mainly expressed in the lytic phase of the virus. vIL-6 plays a crucial role in regulating the expression of other viral genes and is also associated with inducing angiogenesis, cell survival, and immune evasion, which is suggested to promote the development of KSHV-associated diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on vIL-6. We focus on the vIL-6 regarding its protein structure, transcriptional regulation, cell signaling pathways, and contribution to the KSHV-associated diseases.

Biologically significant interaction of human herpesvirus 8 viral interferon regulatory factor 4 with ubiquitin-specific protease 7

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), associated with Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman disease, encodes four interferon regulatory factor homologs, vIRFs 1-4, that interact with and inhibit various mediators of host-cell defense against virus infection. A cellular protein targeted by all the vIRFs is ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7); while replication-modulatory and latently infected PEL-cell pro-viability phenotypes of USP7 targeting have been identified for vIRFs 1-3, the significance of the interaction of vIRF-4 with USP7 has remained undetermined. Here we show, through genetic ablation of the vIRF-4-USP7 interaction in infected cells, that vIRF-4 association with USP7 is necessary for optimal expression of vIRF-4 and normal HHV-8 replication. Findings from experiments on transfected and infected cells identified ubiquitination of vIRF-4 via K48-linkage and USP7-binding-associated suppression of vIRF-4 ubiquitination and, in infected cells, increased vIRF-4 expression. Analysis of IFN-I induction and associated signaling as a function of vIRF-4 and its interaction with USP7 identified a role of each in innate-immune suppression. Finally, activation via K63-polyubiquitination of the innate-immune signaling mediator TRAF3 was found to be suppressed by vIRF-4 in a USP7-binding-associated manner in infected cells, but not in transfected cells, likely via binding-regulated expression of vIRF-4. Together, our data identify the first examples of vIRF ubiquitination and a vIRF substrate of USP7, enhanced expression of vIRF-4 via its interaction with USP7, and TRAF3-inhibitory activity of vIRF-4. The findings address, for the first time, the biological significance of the interaction of vIRF-4 with USP7 and reveal a mechanism of vIRF-4-mediated innate-immune evasion and pro-replication activity via TRAF3 regulation.

IMPORTANCE

HHV-8 homologs of cellular interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), involved in host-cell defense against virus infection, interact in an inhibitory fashion with IRFs and other mediators of antiviral innate immunity. These interactions are of demonstrated or hypothesized importance for successful primary, productive (lytic), and latent (persistent) infection by HHV-8. While HHV-8 vIRF-4 is known to interact physically with USP7 deubiquitinase, a key regulator of various cellular proteins, the functional and biological significance of the interaction has not been addressed. The present study identifies the interaction as important for HHV-8 productive replication and, indeed, for vIRF-4 expression and reveals a new function of vIRF-4 via inhibition of the activity of TRAF3, a pivotal mediator of host-cell antiviral activity through activation of cellular IRFs and induction of type-I interferons. These findings identify potential targets for the development of novel anti-HHV-8 agents, such as those able to disrupt vIRF-4-USP7 interaction or vIRF-4-stabilizing USP7 activity.

Germinal center cytokine driven epigenetic control of Epstein-Barr virus latency gene expression

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) persistently infects 95% of adults worldwide and is associated with multiple human lymphomas that express characteristic EBV latency programs used by the virus to navigate the B-cell compartment. Upon primary infection, the EBV latency III program, comprised of six Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigens (EBNA) and two Latent Membrane Protein (LMP) antigens, drives infected B-cells into germinal center (GC). By incompletely understood mechanisms, GC microenvironmental cues trigger the EBV genome to switch to the latency II program, comprised of EBNA1, LMP1 and LMP2A and observed in GC-derived Hodgkin lymphoma. To gain insights into pathways and epigenetic mechanisms that control EBV latency reprogramming as EBV-infected B-cells encounter microenvironmental cues, we characterized GC cytokine effects on EBV latency protein expression and on the EBV epigenome. We confirmed and extended prior studies highlighting GC cytokine effects in support of the latency II transition. The T-follicular helper cytokine interleukin 21 (IL-21), which is a major regulator of GC responses, and to a lesser extent IL-4 and IL-10, hyper-induced LMP1 expression, while repressing EBNA expression. However, follicular dendritic cell cytokines including IL-15 and IL-27 downmodulate EBNA but not LMP1 expression. CRISPR editing highlighted that STAT3 and STAT5 were necessary for cytokine mediated EBNA silencing via epigenetic effects at the EBV genomic C promoter. By contrast, STAT3 was instead necessary for LMP1 promoter epigenetic remodeling, including gain of activating histone chromatin marks and loss of repressive polycomb repressive complex silencing marks. Thus, EBV has evolved to coopt STAT signaling to oppositely regulate the epigenetic status of key viral genomic promoters in response to GC cytokine cues.

G. Germinal Center Cytokines Driven Epigenetic Control of Epstein-Barr Virus Latency Gene Expression

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) persistently infects 95% of adults worldwide and is associated with multiple human lymphomas that express characteristic EBV latency programs used by the virus to navigate the B-cell compartment. Upon primary infection, the EBV latency III program, comprised of six Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigens (EBNA) and two Latent Membrane Protein (LMP) antigens, drives infected B-cells into germinal center (GC). By incompletely understood mechanisms, GC microenvironmental cues trigger the EBV genome to switch to the latency II program, comprised of EBNA1, LMP1 and LMP2A and observed in GC-derived Hodgkin lymphoma. To gain insights into pathways and epigenetic mechanisms that control EBV latency reprogramming as EBV-infected B-cells encounter microenvironmental cues, we characterized GC cytokine effects on EBV latency protein expression and on the EBV epigenome. We confirmed and extended prior studies highlighting GC cytokine effects in support of the latency II transition. The T-follicular helper cytokine interleukin 21 (IL-21), which is a major regulator of GC responses, and to a lesser extent IL-4 and IL-10, hyper-induced LMP1 expression, while repressing EBNA expression. However, follicular dendritic cell cytokines including IL-15 and IL-27 downmodulate EBNA but not LMP1 expression. CRISPR editing highlighted that STAT3 and STAT5 were necessary for cytokine mediated EBNA silencing via epigenetic effects at the EBV genomic C promoter. By contrast, STAT3 was instead necessary for LMP1 promoter epigenetic remodeling, including gain of activating histone chromatin marks and loss of repressive polycomb repressive complex silencing marks. Thus, EBV has evolved to coopt STAT signaling to oppositely regulate the epigenetic status of key viral genomic promoters in response to GC cytokine cues.