Covariance structure models of expectancy

Longitudinal Associations between Sensation Seeking and Its Components and Alcohol Use in Young SWISS Men-Are There Bidirectional Associations?

The association between alcohol use and sensation seeking is well known. Less is known about whether longitudinal changes in alcohol use are associated with changes in sensation seeking and in which direction influence might flow. 5125 men aged 20.0 years old at baseline and 25.4 years old at follow-up responded to the Brief Sensation Seeking Questionnaire, which measures four subscales of experience seeking, boredom susceptibility, thrill- and adventure-seeking, and disinhibition. Alcohol use was measured using volume (drinks per week) and binge drinking (about 60 g or more per occasion). Associations were calculated using cross-lagged panel models and two-wave latent change score models. Correlations between the latent change scores for alcohol use and the sensation-seeking subscales were all positive, being largest for disinhibition (r > 0.3) and much smaller (r ~ 0.1) for the others. Disinhibition was the dominant effect over the entire sensation-seeking scale. Cross-lagged paths were (except for thrill- and adventure-seeking) bidirectional and mostly higher from alcohol use to sensation seeking (e.g., path_{volume-disinhibition} = 0.136, and path_{disinhibition-volume} = 0.072). Again, effects were highest for disinhibition. Given the bidirectional links between sensation seeking and alcohol use, preventive efforts aiming to achieve stable positive changes in alcohol use and personality should target both simultaneously and focus on disinhibition.

Risk for Substance Abuse: Memory as a Common Etiological Pathway

Memory processes may be part of the causal chain by which known antecedents of alcohol and drug abuse influence drinking. Recent findings on alcohol expectancies are consistent with a memory model and help articulate how consumption may be influenced by memory representations of biological and environmental characteristics. This line of research suggests novel prevention and intervention strategies.

Alcohol Expectancies Mediate the Relationship Between Age of First Intoxication and Drinking Outcomes in College Binge Drinkers

BACKGROUND

While prior research has shown that age of first intoxication (AI) is associated with negative alcohol outcomes, limited research has examined factors accounting for this relationship. Alcohol expectancies, or beliefs about the effects of alcohol, may explain such associations as both positive and negative expectancies have been shown to be key predictors of drinking outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

The present study examined expectancies as mediators between early AI and alcohol-related outcomes.

METHOD

Data collection occurred in 2012 and 2013. Participants were college students (N = 562, 65.8% women) who completed an online survey including measures of alcohol use history, alcohol expectancies, typical alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model.

RESULTS

Our findings support a model whereby AI is associated with drinking through its influence on both positive and negative expectancies. Specifically, an earlier AI was associated with stronger alcohol expectancies, which in turn, was associated with heavier alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPORTANCE

These findings are consistent with expectancy theory and previous research suggesting that more experienced drinkers hold stronger drinking-related beliefs, be it positive or negative, and these expectancies ultimately explain variability in alcohol use and problems. Our findings further support that expectancies play an important role in the initiation of drinking behavior.

Disinhibition mediates the relationship between ADHD and problematic alcohol use in college students

OBJECTIVE

High-risk alcohol use among college students has received substantial attention in recent years, and intervention and prevention efforts have increased dramatically. The current study examined ADHD as a risk factor for problematic drinking among college students. Trait disinhibition and difficulty stopping a drinking session were examined as potential mechanisms through which ADHD is associated with alcohol-related problems.

METHOD

Participants included 100 full-time undergraduate students with (n = 48) and without (n = 52) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) ADHD.

RESULTS

Students with ADHD had higher rates of alcohol-related problems and alcohol-use disorders across multiple measures. Both disinhibition and difficulty stopping a drinking session independently mediated the relationship between ADHD and negative consequences of alcohol use.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that college students with ADHD are at increased risk for alcohol-related problems. Trait disinhibition and difficulty stopping a drinking session represent mechanisms of high-risk alcohol use among college students with ADHD.

The association between drinking motives and alcohol-related consequences - room for biases and measurement issues?

AIMS

To investigate whether the predominant finding of generalized positive associations between self-rated motives for drinking alcohol and negative consequences of drinking alcohol are influenced by (i) using raw scores of motives that may weight inter-individual response behaviours too strongly, and (ii) predictor-criterion contamination by using consequence items where respondents attribute alcohol use as the cause.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study within the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD).

SETTING

School classes.

PARTICIPANTS

Students, aged 13-16 (n = 5633).

MEASUREMENTS

Raw, rank and mean-variance standardized scores of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire--Revised (DMQ-R); four consequences: serious problems with friends, sexual intercourse regretted the next day, physical fights and troubles with the police, each itemized with attribution ('because of your alcohol use') and without.

FINDINGS

As found previously in the literature, raw scores for all drinking motives had positive associations with negative consequences of drinking, while transformed (rank or Z) scores showed a more specific pattern: external reinforcing motives (social, conformity) had negative and internal reinforcing motives (enhancement, coping) had non-significant or positive associations with negative consequences. Attributed consequences showed stronger associations with motives than non-attributed ones.

CONCLUSION

Standard scoring of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (Revised) fails to capture motives in a way that permits specific associations with different negative consequences to be identified, whereas use of rank or Z-scores does permit this. Use of attributed consequences overestimates the association with drinking motives.

Modeling the activation of tobacco smoking expectancies in memory in relation to use patterns

Methodology that has led to successful strategies to reduce alcohol use was applied to tobacco smoking expectancies. Individual differences scaling was used to empirically model a semantic network of associations stored in memory and preference mapping was used to model likely paths of expectancy activation for groups with different smoking histories. Smokers emphasized an external appearance-internal experience dimension and were more likely to activate expectancies of negative affect reduction. Nonsmokers emphasized a positive-negative dimension and were more likely to activate expectancies of health risks and reduced physical attractiveness. Proportionate frequencies of first associates' validated findings of the MDS-based solutions. Future efforts to alter likely activation patterns may successfully reduce the onset of smoking, enhance quit rates, and reduce relapse.

Parental alcohol involvement and adolescent alcohol expectancies predict alcohol involvement in male adolescents

Current models of adolescent drinking behavior hypothesize that alcohol expectancies mediate the effects of other proximal and distal risk factors. This longitudinal study tested the hypothesis that the effects of parental alcohol involvement on their children's drinking behavior in mid-adolescence are mediated by the children's alcohol expectancies in early adolescence. A sample of 148 initially 9-11 year old boys and their parents from a high-risk population and a contrast group of community families completed measures of drinking behavior and alcohol expectancies over a 6-year interval. We analyzed data from middle childhood (M age = 10.4 years), early adolescence (M age = 13.5 years), and mid-adolescence (M age = 16.5 years). The sample was restricted only to adolescents who had begun to drink by mid-adolescence. Results from zero-inflated Poisson regression analyses showed that 1) maternal drinking during their children's middle childhood predicted number of drinking days in middle adolescence; 2) negative and positive alcohol expectancies in early adolescence predicted odds of any intoxication in middle adolescence; and 3) paternal alcoholism during their children's middle childhood and adolescents' alcohol expectancies in early adolescence predicted frequency of intoxication in middle adolescence. Contrary to predictions, child alcohol expectancies did not mediate the effects of parental alcohol involvement in this high-risk sample. Different aspects of parental alcohol involvement, along with early adolescent alcohol expectancies, independently predicted adolescent drinking behavior in middle adolescence. Alternative pathways for the influence of maternal and paternal alcohol involvement and implications for expectancy models of adolescent drinking behavior were discussed.

Disinhibited characteristics and binge drinking among university student drinkers

Binge drinking is a major problem at North American universities. Disinhibited traits have provided insight on other patterns of alcohol involvement, but less is known about how they relate to bingeing. Drinkers at a large urban university (n=293) completed the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale 11 (BIS-11), the Aggression Questionnaire, and the Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Boredom Susceptibility scales. Binge drinking was assessed using the NIAAA recommendation for standardizing binge frequency. Hierarchical regression was used to evaluate relationships between disinhibited traits and bingeing. BIS-11 Motor Impulsiveness, Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Boredom Susceptibility predicted bingeing. As about 15% of the variability in bingeing was due to disinhibition facets, they should be considered in future models of student vulnerability to bingeing.

Measuring alcohol-related consequences in school surveys: alcohol-attributable consequences or consequences with students' alcohol attribution

In alcohol epidemiology surveys, there is a tradition of measuring alcohol-related consequences using respondents' attribution of alcohol as the cause. The authors aimed to compare the prevalence and frequency of self-attributed consequences to consequences without self-attribution using alcohol-attributable fractions (AAF). In 2007, a total of 7,174 Swiss school students aged 13-16 years reported the numbers of 6 alcohol-related adverse consequences (e.g., fights, injuries) they had incurred in the past 12 months. Consequences were measured with and without attribution of alcohol as the cause. The alcohol-use measures were frequency and volume of drinking in the past 12 months and number of risky single-occasion (> or =5 drinks) drinking episodes in the past 30 days. Attributable fractions were derived from logistic (> or =1 incident) and Poisson (number of incidents) regression analyses. Although relative risk estimates were higher when alcohol-attributed consequences were compared with nonattributed consequences, the use of AAFs resulted in more alcohol-related consequences (10,422 self-attributed consequences vs. 24,520 nonattributed consequences determined by means of AAFs). The likelihood of underreporting was higher among drinkers with intermediate frequencies than among either rare drinkers or frequent drinkers. Therefore, the extent of alcohol-related adverse consequences among adolescents may be underestimated when using self-attributed consequences, because of differential attribution processes, especially among infrequent drinkers.

ALDH2, ADH1B and alcohol expectancies: integrating genetic and learning perspectives

The present study evaluated associations of ALDH2 and ADH1B genotypes with alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior in a sample of Asian American young adults. In addition to assessing global alcohol expectancies, the authors developed a measure of physiological expectancies to evaluate an expectancy phenotype specific to the mechanism by which ALDH2 and ADH1B variations presumably influence drinking behavior. Compared with individuals with the ALDH2*1/*1 genotype, those with the ALDH2*2 allele reported greater negative alcohol expectancies, greater expectancies for physiological effects of alcohol and lower rates of alcohol use. ADH1B was not associated with alcohol expectancies or drinking behavior. Hierarchical models showed that demographic factors, ALDH2 genotype, and expectancy variables explained unique variance in drinking outcomes. Mediation tests showed significant indirect effects of ALDH2 on drinking frequency and peak lifetime consumption through expectancies. These results provide support for influences of genetic factors and alcohol sensitivity on alcohol-related learning and suggest the importance of developing biopsychosocial models of drinking behavior in Asian Americans.

Risk for excessive alcohol use and drinking-related problems in college student athletes

There is compelling evidence that college student athletes engage in frequent episodes of heavy drinking and are prone to negative consequences resulting from such use. This study sought to identify risk and protective factors associated with student-athlete drinking and determine if student-athlete risk factors differed from those of non-athletes. Athletes compared to non-athletes reported more exaggerated perceptions of peer heavy drinking and lower sensation seeking and coping and enhancement motives for drinking, suggesting a risk profile distinct from non-athletes. In the overall sample, higher sensation seeking, overestimation of peer heavy drinking, non-use of protective behaviors while drinking, and higher enhancement and coping drinking motives were associated with greater frequency of heavy episodic drinking and more negative drinking consequences. In athletes compared to non-athletes, sensation seeking was more strongly associated with heavy episodic drinking and drinking to cope was more strongly associated with negative alcohol-related consequences. Overall, the results suggest that already proven brief intervention strategies, with minor adaptations related to the roles of sensation seeking and drinking to cope, may be helpful for student athletes.

Cognitive predictors of alcohol involvement and alcohol consumption-related consequences in a sample of drunk-driving offenders

Motivational theories of alcohol involvement emphasize a wide range of cognitive factors as precursors to "heavy" or high-risk drinking. Central to this consideration has been expectancies, drinking urges, triggers, and situational cues, all of which can synergistically or independently stimulate drinking. Unfortunately, empirical studies have scrutinized low-level or moderate drinkers drawn from the general population, and less is known about the role of cognitive factors as precursors to high-risk drinking. The present study examines the unique contribution of several measures of cognitive motivation to harmful alcohol use in a sample of convicted drunk drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated the psychometric soundness of a model positing four latent predictor constructs assessing drinking urges/triggers, situational cues, positive and negative expectancies and outcome constructs assessing harmful alcohol use and perceived consequences of harmful drinking. A structural equation model indicated that each motivational construct was associated uniquely with both drinking and perceived consequences, with the largest overall effect in both cases associated with situational cues. Results are discussed in terms of identifying prominent cognitive factors that may foster harmful drinking among high-risk populations and their implications for treatment.

Alcohol outcome expectancies and drinking motives mediate the association between sensation seeking and alcohol use among adolescents

Sensation seeking is a strong correlate of alcohol consumption among young people, yet the research on mediators of this association is mainly limited to English-speaking adolescents. The proposed model of the present study includes antecedent variables (sensation seeking, age and gender), mediators (positive and negative expectancies and drinking motives), and one outcome variable (a composite score of alcohol use). Self-reported data obtained from Hungarian high school students (N=707, mean age 16.6, SD=1.5) were analyzed with structural equation modeling. The general model fit was excellent, and this study supported the proposed sensation seeking --> positive and negative expectancies --> drinking motives --> alcohol use indirect effects. The total indirect effect explains 38% of sensation seeking and alcohol use association. Results support the notion that positive expectancy mediates between sensation seeking and drinking motives, and finally, positive expectancy and drinking motives are mediators between sensation seeking and alcohol use.

The P300 as an electrophysiological probe of alcohol expectancy

Language-based measures indicate that alcohol expectancies influence alcohol consumption. To relate these measures to brain actions that precede verbal output, the P300 component of the Event-related potentials (ERPs) was used to detect violations of individually held alcohol expectancies. As predicted, P300 amplitude elicited by negative alcohol expectancy stimuli was positively correlated with endorsement of positive/arousing alcohol expectancies on the language-based measures, such that the higher an individual's positive/arousing expectancies, the larger was the P300 elicited by negative alcohol expectancy stimuli. These results demonstrated concordance between language-based measures of alcohol expectancies and electrophysiological probes of expectancy. While it remains unknown whether these expectancy processes are integral to decision pathways that influence consumption, these findings suggest that such processing can occur very quickly outside of conscious deliberation.

Modeling the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors: a test and extension of the theory of normative social behavior (TNSB)

Informed by the theory of normative social behavior, this article sought to determine the underlying mediating and moderating factors in the relationship between descriptive norms and behavioral intentions. Furthermore, the theory was extended by asking whether and what role behavioral identity played in normative influences. Simulating the central message of norms-based interventions to reduce college students' alcohol consumption, in this field experiment, descriptive norms were manipulated by informing half of the students (n = 665) that their peers consumed less alcohol than they might believe. Others (n = 672) were not provided any norms information. students' injunctive norms, outcome expectations, group identity, behavioral identity, and behavioral intention surrounding alcohol consumption were then measured. Exposure to the low-norms information resulted in a significant drop in estimates of the prevalence of consumption. Injunctive norms and outcome expectations partially mediated and also moderated the relationship between descriptive norms and behavioral intentions. Group identity and behavioral identity also moderated the relationship between descriptive norms and behavioral intentions, but the effect size was relatively small for group identity. Implications for health campaigns are also discussed.

Executive dysfunction as a risk marker for substance abuse: the role of impulsive personality traits

The relationships between family history of substance use, executive functions, impaired decision making, and current substance dependence are the focus of this study. Thirty-eight substance-dependent inpatients were compared with 30 community controls on performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail-Making Test-B, the Stroop Color Word Test, the Wais-II Digit Span, and the Iowa Gambling Task. Recent alcohol use, depressive symptoms, and impulsivity were also assessed. As hypothesized, individuals with substance dependence exhibited poorer executive functioning. Family history status was modestly related to impaired performance on tests designed to measure the integrity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. In particular, substance-dependent, family history positive individuals performed less well on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test than substance-dependent individuals without a family history. Digit Span performances were worse among family history positive controls when compared with family history negative controls. Impulsive personality traits--specifically, difficulty thinking before acting (Urgency)--were related, as hypothesized, to executive functioning. Results indicate that family history status confers an increased risk of impairment beyond that conferred by recent substance abuse, and that impulsive personality traits are related to performance on tests of executive functions. Implications for criminality are discussed.

The development of alcohol use disorders

Pathological alcohol use is a complex and costly problem. This chapter focuses on recent developments in the etiology of alcohol use disorders. Literature is reviewed from the fields of epidemiology, genetics, personality, neuropsychology, parenting, and social influences. In addition, theoretical models that describe pathways to the development of alcohol use disorders are presented. Particular emphasis is given to ways in which genetic, environmental, psychopharmacological, and personological literatures can inform one another.

Impulsivity and expectancy in risk for alcohol use: comparing male and female college students in Taiwan

This was a longitudinal study designed to examine whether gender differences would exist in acquired preparedness model (APM) for explaining the risk of alcohol use in Chinese college students. Impulsivity was assessed for 3,584 students in 2002. In 2003, 1,377 students were traced and assessed in alcohol outcome expectancy, drinking behavior, and alcohol related problems, with 1,122 valid data (male=438). Separated by gender, the data was analyzed with the Structural Equation Model. Results showed that positive, not negative, outcome expectancy for alcohol mediated impulsivity's effect on alcohol use, and alcohol use had a direct effect on alcohol related problems in both males and females. In males, both negative and positive outcome expectancies failed to mediate impulsivity and alcohol related problems. In females, only positive outcome expectancy mediated the relation between impulsivity and alcohol related problems. This longitudinal data supported the acquired preparedness model for the risk in alcohol use among Chinese college students, providing a reference for designing prevention and intervention strategies guided towards both genders.

Automatic and controlled processes and the development of addictive behaviors in adolescents: a review and a model

This paper presents a review and a model of the development of addictive behaviors in (human) adolescents, with a focus on alcohol. The model proposes that addictive behaviors develop as the result of an imbalance between two systems: an appetitive, approach-oriented system that becomes sensitized with repeated alcohol use and a regulatory executive system that is not fully developed and that is compromised by exposure to alcohol. Self-regulation critically depends on two factors: ability and motivation to regulate the appetitive response tendency. The motivational aspect is often still weak in heavy drinking adolescents, who typically do not recognize their drinking as problematic. Motivation to regulate use often develops only years later, after the individual has encountered serious alcohol-related problems. Unfortunately, at that point behavioral change becomes harder due to several neurocognitive adaptations that result from heavy drinking. As we document, there is preliminary support for the central elements of the model (appetitive motivation vs. self-regulation), but there is a paucity of research directly addressing these mechanisms in human adolescents. Further, we emphasize that adolescent alcohol use primarily takes place in a social context, and that therefore studies should not solely focus on intra-individual factors predicting substance use and misuse but also on interpersonal social factors. Finally, we discuss implications of the model for interventions.

Sensation seeking and alcohol use: a meta-analytic review

A meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the association between sensation seeking and alcohol use. Analysis of 61 studies revealed a small to moderate size, heterogeneous effect (mean weighted r=.263) between alcohol use and sensation seeking total scale scores. Analysis of the four sensation seeking components indicated that disinhibition was most strongly correlated with alcohol use (mean weighted r=.368). Categorical moderator analyses revealed that studies that did, versus did not, analyze covariates yielded smaller effect sizes. Continuous moderator analyses indicated that earlier published studies and higher percentages of male and white Caucasian participants were associated with stronger effect sizes between sensation seeking and alcohol use. Novel statistical methodologies for analyzing the association between sensation seeking and alcohol use were proposed and recommendations for future research were suggested.

Alcohol expectancies, conduct disorder and early-onset alcoholism: negative alcohol expectancies are associated with less drinking in non-impulsive versus impulsive subjects

AIMS

Research suggests that positive alcohol expectancies promote excessive alcohol use while negative alcohol expectancies discourage excessive alcohol use. Evidence suggests that disinhibitory characteristics, such as conduct disorder and impulsivity, are associated with a general neglect of long-term negative outcomes. This study assessed whether negative expectancies would be associated more strongly with lower levels of alcohol use for low- compared with high-impulsive individuals.

DESIGN

Positive and negative alcohol expectancies, alcohol use and impulsivity were assessed in a sample of 99 young adults with alcohol dependence (AD) and conduct disorder (CD), 77 with AD and no CD and 124 controls.

FINDINGS

AD/CD subjects had higher proximal (same day) and distal (next day) negative alcohol expectancies, even though they drank more alcohol, compared with AD-alone and control subjects. Distal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with lower levels of drinking for low-impulsive compared with high-impulsive subjects. Proximal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with higher alcohol consumption for high- versus low-impulsive subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Impulsivity and conduct disorder may be important factors in determining how much distal negative alcohol expectancies may discourage excessive alcohol consumption.

Alcohol expectancies in relation to personality and aggression among juvenile delinquents in Northern Russia

The relationships between alcohol expectancies, level of alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, aggression, and personality factors in 198 Russian male juvenile delinquents were assessed. A clustering procedure was used in order to establish main patterns of alcohol expectancies, yielding three major clusters. Level of alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, aggression, and personality factors were compared across the identified clusters. It was established that juvenile delinquents with a high level of positive alcohol expectancies and aggression represented a risk-group for higher involvement in drinking behavior as well as problem drinking, which in turn are related to specific personality traits. Implications of these findings for alcohol prevention among the youth are discussed.

Alcohol expectancy mediation of biopsychosocial risk: complex patterns of mediation

Alcohol expectancies' mediation of many known antecedents' influence on drinking has been well established, but most models have omitted theoretically relevant mediational pathways through both common (overlapping) and unique (nonshared) expectancy variance. The authors of this study evaluated expectancy mediation using a hierarchical expectancy model that specified both common and unique expectancy factors. The hierarchical model mediated a significantly (p <.05) larger percentage of the antecedent influences than a model specifying only common expectancy variance, revealed previously unseen mediational paths, and showed, to the authors' knowledge for the first time, expectancy mediation of protective as well as risk-related antecedents. It also allows the modeling of specific pathways for particular antecedents, rather than treating all expectancy mediation as though it flows through a general expectancy factor.

Is Risk for Alcoholism Mediated by Individual Differences in Drinking Motivations?

BACKGROUND

Individual differences in motivations to drink have been proposed as a mechanism that mediates risk for alcoholism. We investigated the genetic and environmental sources of variation in motivations for drinking, as assessed by four scales of the Alcohol Use Inventory (AUI), and then examined the extent to which genetic and environmental variations in risk for alcoholism are mediated by individual differences in drinking motives.

METHODS

Data on four AUI scales (assessing drinking to manage mood states, to relieve social anxiety, in social situations, and to improve mental functioning) and lifetime DSM-IV alcohol abuse and/or dependence (AAD) were obtained from 2529 female and 3709 male adult twins, including 2229 complete twin pairs, from the population-based Virginia Twin Registry.

RESULTS

Logistic regression analyses indicated that higher scores on each of the four AUI variables were significantly associated with AAD, with increases in risk for diagnosis of 40% to 141% per standard deviation increase in AUI score. Structural modeling analyses conducted using Mplus indicated that individual differences in AUI scores were in part due to genetic variation, particularly among women. Among males, genetic factors were substantial for drinking to alter mood but small for other measures. A substantial portion of the genetic variation in AAD overlapped with drinking to manage mood states. Results from bivariate twin models of AAD and the AUI scales were consistent with the mediation hypothesis for the social anxiety and social interaction scales but not drinking to manage mood or to enhance mental functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic contributions to variation in risk for alcoholism may be mediated in part by individual differences in motivations related to drinking in social settings. Drinking to manage mood indexes genetic risk for alcoholism but does not appear to act as a direct cause of alcoholism.

Alcohol expectancies, alcohol consumption, and problem drinking: the moderating role of family history

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the moderating role of family history (FH) of alcohol use disorders on the association between positive alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior (quantity/frequency of drinking and alcohol-related problems). Lifetime DSM-III-R diagnoses of alcohol abuse/dependence in probands from the Yale Family Study were used to classify FH status of adult relatives, yielding 149 relatives of probands with alcohol abuse/dependence and 110 relatives of controls. Significant main effects were found for FH of alcoholism on problem drinking symptoms and for alcohol expectancies concerning both problem drinking symptoms and quantity/frequency of alcohol use. Regarding moderating effects, there was a significant interaction between alcohol expectancies and FH only for problem drinking symptoms. When familial density of alcoholism was examined as a moderator, significant effects were found for all drinking variables, thus demonstrating that the degree to which alcohol expectancies was associated with the drinking outcomes varied by the extent to which alcohol use disorders clustered in families. The findings are discussed in terms of the interaction of alcohol-related risk factors and the importance of using multiple indicators of familial vulnerability.

A classification of substance-dependent men on temperament and severity variables

This study examined the validity of classifying substance abusers based on temperament and dependence severity, and expanded the scope of typology differences to proximal determinants of use (e.g., expectancies, motives). Patients were interviewed about substance use, depression, and family history of alcohol and drug abuse. Self-report instruments measuring temperament, expectancies, and motives were completed. Participants were 147 male veterans admitted to inpatient substance abuse treatment at a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs medical center. Cluster analysis identified four types of users with two high substance problem severity and two low substance problem severity groups. Two, high problem severity, early onset groups differed only on the cluster variable of negative affectivity (NA), but showed differences on antisocial personality characteristics, hypochondriasis, and coping motives for alcohol. The two low problem severity groups were distinguished by age of onset and positive affectivity (PA). The late onset, low PA group had a higher incidence of depression, a greater tendency to use substances in solitary contexts, and lower enhancement motives for alcohol compared to the early onset, high PA cluster. The four-cluster solution yielded more distinctions on external criteria than the two-cluster solution. Such temperament variation within both high and low severity substance abusers may be important for treatment planning.

Educational and occupational attainment and drinking behavior: an expectancy model in young adulthood

AIMS

The socio-economic status (SES) variables of education level and occupational functioning have been found to be correlated negatively with alcohol use. The present study examined prospectively the relationship between these functioning measures, alcohol expectancies and alcohol involvement. We propose that expectancies function as a mediator of the relationship between educational/occupational attainment and drinking behavior. We hypothesized that changes in young adult functioning are linked to changes in social context and/or the availability of non-alcohol reinforcers, which in turn affect the reinforcement expected from alcohol.

PARTICIPANTS AND DESIGN

Participants were 172 young adults from an ongoing longitudinal study of long-term clinical course of adolescent substance use treatment. Data from 6- and 8-year follow-ups were used in the present analyses. The treated sample (n=100) was recruited from in-patient substance abuse treatment programs for adolescents. A community sample (n=72) was matched on family history of substance abuse and SES at intake.

FINDINGS

A cross-lag panel analysis indicated that education had a unique longitudinal relationship with expectancy for both the treated and community sample, over and above previous alcohol use and expectancy. Occupational variables did not have a longitudinal relationship with alcohol use and expectancy for either sample. Expectancies mediated the education/drinking relationship for the treated sample only.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest one means through which changes in functioning may alter alcohol involvement over time: alteration of the reinforcement expected from alcohol.

Structural equation modeling of drinking motives in male DUI offenders

Measures completed by 250 men convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) were analyzed to examine the direct effects of parental problem drinking and the mediational influence of drinking motives on alcohol use and drinking-related problem outcomes. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate competing models in the cross-sectional data set. Results indicated that: 1) reported parental problem drinking modestly predicted both alcohol use and problem outcomes when tested in the absence of influence from drinking motives; 2) confirmatory factor analysis yielded a 4-factor drinking motives solution consisting of social, enhancement, coping with negative emotions, and interpersonal facilitation; and 3) both enhancement and interpersonal facilitation drinking motives mediated parental problem drinking's direct effect on alcohol use and problem outcomes. Drinking to cope with negative emotions, while not mediational in nature, produced a direct effect pathway to problem outcomes. The findings extend predictive utility of specific drinking motive dimensions on alcohol use and problem outcomes from previous research in community and university samples to men convicted of driving while intoxicated.

Alcohol expectancies and motives in a substance abusing male treatment sample

Although prior research has demonstrated the utility of both alcohol expectancies and drinking motives in the prediction of alcohol use and problems, the specific relationship between these domains has not been examined in a clinical sample. One-hundred, forty-seven veterans on an inpatient substance abuse unit completed questionnaires measuring alcohol expectancies and alcohol motives and provided information on their alcohol consumption and related problems. Covariance structure modeling was used to test four theoretically competing models. Findings indicated that: (1) motives mediate the effects of expectancies on use and problems and expectancies do not exert an independent influence on consumption and alcohol problems and (2) contrary to past findings, alcohol use only partially mediates the relationship between enhancement motives and alcohol problems.

Concepts of dependence among Brazilian alcohol- and drug-dependent patients

Studies suggest that the concepts that drug dependent persons have about their problems could influence adherence to treatment and outcome. The objective of this study was to compare these concepts in different groups of patients. Three groups of drug-dependent patients (diagnosed according to DSM-III-R criteria) were compared: 64 dependent on alcohol only, 56 dependent only on other drugs and 39 dependent on both alcohol and drugs. They were asked: "What do you think about your problem?" and the responses were qualitatively analyzed and classified into themes. For the whole sample, the main themes mentioned were: the function of alcohol and drugs in their lives (50%), the etiology of dependence (32%) and reasons for initial use (21%). Patients dependent on alcohol associated their use with coping, while patients dependent on other drugs reported pleasure seeking. In regard to etiology, most patients classified their dependence as a habit. Patients dependent on alcohol tended to attribute an organic etiology to their problem, while those dependent on other drugs most frequently considered moral aspects as important. This study suggests that there are differences between these three groups in the appraisal of their problem. Professionals interested in treatment matching need to take these findings into account, as they may influence compliance and treatment outcome.

The effects of familial risk, personality, and expectancies on alcohol use and abuse

This study tested a structural model of the association between familial risk, personality risk, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol abuse in a sample of 224 young adult offspring of alcoholics and 209 offspring of nonalcoholics. The results provided support for 2 personality-risk pathways, a social deviance proneness and an excitement/pleasure seeking path, that accounted for a significant portion of the association between a familial alcoholism and alcohol abuse. The path from familial alcoholism to social deviance proneness lead directly to alcohol problems. The path from familial alcoholism to excitement/pleasure seeking was associated with increased drinking, which, in turn, was associated with alcohol problems. Positive alcohol expectancies accounted for part of the association between excitement seeking and alcohol use. The results suggest 2 different biopsychosocial mechanisms that elevate risk for abuse in the offspring of alcoholics.

Validation of cocaine and marijuana effect expectancies in a treatment setting

This study sought to establish the validity of the Cocaine Effect Expectancy Questionnaire (CEEQ), and the Marijuana Effect Expectancy Questionnaire (MEEQ) in discriminating between patterns of drug use in a clinical population. Prior research with these questionnaires has involved primarily nonclinical samples. Expectancy literature has yielded ambiguous results in demonstrating the role of both positive and negative expectancies in regards to drug use patterns. The sample consisted of 149 males on an inpatient V.A. substance abuse unit. On the CEEQ, cocaine users, particularly frequent users, endorsed fewer global positive cocaine expectancies than infrequent or nonusers. Present-infrequent users endorsed greater arousal effects than either present-frequent or nonusers. Nonusers of cocaine endorsed greater relaxation than present users. On the MEEQ, nonusers expected more negative effects from marijuana than users. Present users expected greater relaxation and craving effects than past users or nonusers. These results indicate different roles for positive and negative expectancies in cocaine and marijuana use.

Temperament Style and Substance Abuse Characteristics

The relationship of temperament to different patterns and types of alcohol abuse has received much attention over the last decade in order to provide clues to matching patients optimally to treatment strategies. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of temperament with a number of relevant substance abuse characteristics in a substance abusing population. One hundred forty-five male veterans were interviewed on their lifetime use of substances and on their psychiatric symptoms, problems associated with use, context, and family history of substance abuse. Subjects filled out the TPQ and the MPQ, which were subjected to factor analysis and revealed four factors: (1) Negative Affectivity/Impulsivity, (2) Positive Affectivity/Sociability, (3) Persistence/Achievement, and (4) Constraint. There was partial support for the hypotheses. Impulsivity was negatively correlated with age of onset and positively correlated with substance-related problems and a family history of substance abuse. Subjects with a history of depression scored significantly lower on the Positive Affectivity/Sociability factor than those who had not experienced a significant depression. Individuals who used alone scored lower on this factor than those who used in social contexts. The temperament factors of Persistence/Achievement and Constraint were, for the most part, unrelated to substance abuse.

Reasons for drinking versus outcome expectancies in the prediction of college student drinking

This study developed a Reasons for Drinking Scale (RFD) with three factorially derived subscales, Social Camaraderie, Mood Enhancement, and Tension Reduction, among a university student sample. These scales were then compared to a measure of alcohol expectancies, the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ), as predictors of several measures of alcohol use. The RFD accounted for more of the variance on all alcohol measures than the AEQ. Results are discussed in terms of reasons for drinking as a more direct assessment of cognitive motivations for drinking than outcome expectancies.

The utility of novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and expectancy in the prediction of drinking

To test the hypothesis that two temperament scales (Novelty Seeking and Harm Avoidance) are differentially related to alcohol expectancies and drinking patterns, 140 adolescents from an inpatient psychiatric facility completed several self-report questionnaires measuring temperament, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol consumption. Moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that Novelty Seeking was significantly related to frequency of drinking and problem drinking, but that Harm Avoidance was not related to these variables. Results of the MANOVA indicated that high novelty seeking and low harm avoidant (Type 2) individuals had a significantly higher frequency of drinking than did individuals who were high on Harm Avoidance and low on Novelty Seeking (Type 1). Results also showed that expectancy and Novelty Seeking contributed significant independent and overlapping variance in the prediction of amount of drinking. Although Novelty Seeking was related to expectations of social functioning, other hypothesized relationships between temperament and expectancy were not supported.

Alcohol expectancies among adolescents with conduct disorder: prediction and mediation of drinking

Among adolescents with conduct disorder, alcohol expectancies were examined for both predictive utility and mediation of other predictors of alcohol use (i.e., delinquency, family history, demographic and psychopathology variables). Data were collected from 260 adolescents with conduct disorder 11-18 years of age, who had been in either mental health residential facilities or community-based special education programs for adolescents with serious emotional disturbances. Zero-order correlations and structural path models assessed relationships between expectancies, alcohol use, and other predictors of alcohol use. Results indicated: (a) expectancies of enhanced social and cognitive behavior were significant (p < .05) univariate predictors of drinking, (b) among all of the selected predictors, expectancies of enhanced social behavior (i.e., Subscale 2 of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire--Adolescent Form; AEQ-A) had the strongest association with alcohol use (r = .54) and mediated between 31% to 44% of the drinking variance associated with other significant predictors (p < .01). Results were discussed as supporting similar expectancy-drinking relationships among CD and nonclinical youth.