ALDH2, ADH1B and alcohol expectancies: integrating genetic and learning perspectives

Exploring patterns of alcohol use and alcohol use disorder among Asian Americans with a finer lens

BACKGROUND

National survey data suggest Asian Americans (AA) are less likely to consume alcohol and develop AUD than Americans in other groups. However, it is common for AA to be born outside of the US and carry gene variants that alter alcohol metabolism, both of which can lead to lower levels of alcohol involvement. The current study examined differences in alcohol use and AUD between AA and other groups before and after controlling for birth location and gene variants.

DESIGN

Past year alcohol measures were examined from adults 18+ (N=22,848) in the 2012-2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III before and after controlling for birth location (inside or outside of the US) and gene variants (ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*2/ADH1B*3). Gender gaps in alcohol measures also were assessed.

RESULTS

Before adjustments, AA were less likely than White Americans to drink in the previous year (OR=0.50, 95% CI 0.41-0.62), binge (OR=0.68, 95% CI 0.52-0.88), engage in frequent heavy drinking (OR=0.55, 95% CI 0.42-0.73), and reach criteria for AUD (OR=0.71, 95% CI 0.53-0.94). After controlling for birth location and gene variants, AA remained less likely to drink in the past year (OR=0.54, 95% CI 0.41-0.70) but all other differences disappeared. Gender gaps were only observed for AA born outside of the US, highlighting the importance of experience rather than racial category per se.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that heterogeneity among AA leads to spurious generalizations regarding alcohol use and AUD and challenge the model minority myth.

Integrating Theory with Education about Genetic Risk for Alcohol Use Disorder: The Effects of a Brief Online Educational Tool on Elements of the Health Belief Model

Introduction

The utility of genetic risk information relies on the assumption that individuals will use the information to change behavior to reduce risk of developing health problems. Educational interventions designed to target elements of the Health Belief Model have shown to be effective in promoting behaviors for positive outcomes.

Methods

A randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted in 325 college students to assess whether a brief, online educational intervention altered elements of the Health Belief Model that are known to be associated with motivations and intentions to change behavior. The RCT included a control condition, an intervention condition that received information about alcohol use disorder (AUD), and an intervention condition that received information about polygenic risk scores and AUD. We used t tests and ANOVA methods to compare differences in beliefs related to the Health Belief Model across study conditions and demographic characteristics.

Results

Providing educational information did not impact worry about developing AUD, perceived susceptibility and severity of developing alcohol problems, or perceived benefits and barriers of risk-reducing actions. Individuals in the condition that received educational information about polygenic risk scores and AUD reported higher perceived chance of developing AUD than individuals in the control condition (adj. p < 0.01). Sex, race/ethnicity, family history, and drinking status were associated with several components of the Health Belief Model.

Conclusion

Findings from this study demonstrate the need to better design and refine the educational information intended to accompany the return of genetic feedback for AUD to better promote risk-reducing behaviors.

Association of ALDH2 Genotypes and Alcohol Intake with Dietary Patterns: The Bunkyo Health Study

Dietary habits are associated with various diseases and assessed by dietary patterns (DPs). Since the ALDH2 genotype is correlated with alcohol and several food preferences, this genotype is probably associated with DPs. In this cross-sectional study of 1612 elderly adults, we investigated the effects of the ALDH2 genotype on DPs and the mediating role of alcohol intake. We identified the ALDH2 genotype and conducted a dietary history survey, then used principal component analysis to determine DPs for each gender. We performed multiple regression analysis to determine the independent contribution of the ALDH2 genotype and alcohol intake to DP scores. We identified three DPs: the "Japanese side dish type" (DP1), the "Japanese dish with alcohol type" (DP2), and the "Western dish with alcohol type" (DP3). In men, the single nucleotide polymorphism ALDH2 rs671 was significantly associated with all DP scores. When alcohol intake was added as a covariate, ALDH2 rs671 was still significantly correlated with the DP2 score but not with the DP1 or DP3 score, and alcohol intake was significantly correlated with all DP scores. In women, ALDH2 rs671 was significantly associated with the DP2 and DP3 scores; however, after adding alcohol intake as a covariate, these associations disappeared, and alcohol intake significantly correlated with all DP scores. In conclusion, the ALDH2 genotype was associated with several DPs in elderly adults, but most associations were mediated by alcohol intake.

Alcohol Consumption, Cardiovascular-Related Conditions, and ALDH2*2 Ethnic Group Prevalence in Asian Americans

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the relationships between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and related chronic conditions in Asian Americans and how such risk relationships vary among their subgroups. We examine these relationships in Asian Americans and their moderation by ethnic prevalence of a variant the aldehyde dehydrogenase gene: ALDH2*2.

METHODS

Multiple logistic regression modeling was performed using a nationally representative sample of Asian-American adults aged 30 to 70 (n = 1,720) from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) Waves 2 (2004 to 2005) and 3 (2012 to 2013). Outcomes considered were diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, CVD, any of the 3 conditions (i.e., diabetes, high cholesterol, and CVD) documented to have a J-shaped relationship with drinking (CVDRC3), and any of the CVD-related conditions (ANYCVD). Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health insurance coverage, and other lifestyle risk factors (smoking and obesity/overweight) were adjusted. Analyses were stratified by gender.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption level was positively associated only with hypertension in Asian males, with consuming 7 to 14 drinks per week associated with more than double the risk of lifetime abstinence. For females, alcohol consumption had a dose-response relationship with high cholesterol and CVDRC3. Membership in the higher ALDH2*2 ethnic group overall was associated with lower risk of CVD-related conditions. However, compared to abstainers in lower ALDH2*2 group, females in the higher ALDH2*2 group who consumed more than 7 drinks per week had a higher risk of diabetes, hypertension, CVDRC3, and ANYCVD.

CONCLUSIONS

Asian Americans may have increased risk of CVD-related conditions at relatively low alcohol consumption levels. Among Asian-American females, in particular, any amount of drinking may increase risk for high cholesterol or any of the CVD-related conditions previously documented to have a curvilinear relationship with drinking. These risks may be particularly elevated for those in ethnic groups with a high prevalence of ALDH2*2.

Aldehyde Dehydrogenases Genetic Polymorphism and Obesity: From Genomics to Behavior and Health

Obesity is multifactorial and complex. Remarkable progress has been made recently in search for polygenic obesity through genome-wide association study (GWAS), but biology of polygenic effects on obesity is largely poor. This review summarizes the available evidence and provides an overview of the links between ALDH2 variants and adiposity, which were firstly and mainly derived from studies of polygenic obesity and also indirectly investigated by using cell lines and mice. The genetic association studies have observed consistent associations of ALDH2 variants with obesity-related traits including BMI, waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and visceral fat accumulation. In consideration of ALDH2 variants with enzyme activity and alcohol consumption behavior in physiological mechanism studies, we proposed a model by which the physiological and behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption serve as an intermediary process between polymorphisms in ALDH2 and obesity.

ALDH2*2 and peer drinking in East Asian college students

BACKGROUND

The ALDH2*2 allele (A-allele) at rs671 is more commonly carried by Asians and is associated with alcohol-related flushing, a strong adverse reaction to alcohol that is protective against drinking. Social factors, such as having friends who binge drink, also contribute to drinking in Asian youth.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the interplay between ALDH2*2, peer drinking, and alcohol consumption in college students. We hypothesized that the relationship between ALDH2*2 and standard grams of ethanol per month would vary based on the level of peer drinking.

METHODS

Subjects (N = 318, 63.25% female) were East Asian college students in the United States who reported drinking alcohol. Data were from the freshman year of a university survey that included a saliva DNA sample. ALDH2*2 status was coded ALDH2*2(+) (A/G and A/A genotypes) and ALDH2*2(-) (G/G genotype). Peer drinking was students' perception of how many of their friends "got drunk".

RESULTS

Main effects of ALDH2*2(-) and having more friends who got drunk were associated with greater alcohol consumption. The ALDH2*2 × peer drunkenness interaction showed a stronger positive association with alcohol consumption for ALDH2*2(-) versus ALDH2*2(+) at increasing levels of peer drunkenness. Follow-up comparisons within each peer drunkenness level identified significantly higher alcohol consumption for ALDH2*2(-) compared to ALDH2*2(+) at the all friends got drunk level.

CONCLUSION

There was evidence of a stronger effect for ALDH2*2(-) compared to ALDH2*2(+) with greater alcohol use when students were more exposed to peer drinking. Findings contribute to a growing literature on the interrelationships between genetic influences and more permissive environments for alcohol consumption.

Alcohol Consumption, Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2 Gene Polymorphisms, and Cardiovascular Health in Korea

Alcohol consumption is a serious health issue in Korea in terms of the amount consumed and the behavior related to its consumption. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is a key enzyme in alcohol metabolism that degrades acetaldehyde to nontoxic acetic acid. The enzyme is coded by the ALDH2 gene, which is commonly polymorphic in East Asian populations. A point mutation in the ALDH2 gene (the rs671 allele) yields an inactive form of ALDH2 that causes acetaldehyde accumulation in the body after alcohol consumption, thereby inhibiting normal alcohol metabolism. Individuals who are homozygous for polymorphism in ALDH2 tend to refrain from drinking alcohol, decreasing their chances of developing alcoholism and exposure to the associated risks. Mendelian randomization (MR) studies have demonstrated that alcohol consumption predicted by ALDH2 genotype is causally related to cardiovascular risks. Moreover, recent MR studies suggest that the ALDH2 variant has mechanistic effects on some disease outcomes or mortality through increased blood levels of acetaldehyde, showing differences therein between heterozygotes (ALDH2*2*2) and homozygotes (ALDH2*1*2) in those who consume alcohol. Accordingly, consideration of ALDH2 genotype in alcohol prevention programs is warranted. In conclusion, strategies that incorporate genetic information and provide an evidential basis from which to help people make informed decisions on alcohol consumption are urgently required.

Racial and ethnic differences in associations between psychological distress and the presence of binge drinking: Results from the California health interview survey

INTRODUCTION

Racial and ethnic minorities often suffer from poorer health than Whites given their exposure to more stressors and fewer resources that buffer the effects of stress. Given that alcohol is often consumed to alleviate the negative moods, the present study hypothesized that psychological distress may impact the involvement in binge drinking differently across racial and ethnic groups.

METHODS

We used data from the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) from 2007 to 2012. The sample consisted of 130,556 adults including African Americans (N=6541), Asians (N=13,508), Latinos (N=18,128), and Whites (N=92,379). Binary logistic regression analysis was used with consideration for complex survey design.

RESULTS

The results indicated that psychological distress was significantly associated with binge drinking across all racial and ethnic groups. However, this association differed by race and ethnicity adjusting for age, gender, marital status, education, poverty, and employment status. The results revealed that psychological distress had the largest effect on binge drinking for Asian Americans, particularly Filipinos and South Asians, compared to Whites.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the importance of examining racial and ethnic differences in the impacts of psychological distress on alcohol consumption. Future research is needed to better understand the potential factors that mediate the effects of psychological distress on binge drinking specific to each racial and ethnic group in order to develop culturally sensitive interventions and hence decrease the alcohol-related racial health disparities.

The FKBP5 Gene Affects Alcohol Drinking in Knockout Mice and Is Implicated in Alcohol Drinking in Humans

FKBP5 encodes FK506-binding protein 5, a glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-binding protein implicated in various psychiatric disorders and alcohol withdrawal severity. The purpose of this study is to characterize alcohol preference and related phenotypes in Fkbp5 knockout (KO) mice and to examine the role of FKBP5 in human alcohol consumption. The following experiments were performed to characterize Fkpb5 KO mice. (1) Fkbp5 KO and wild-type (WT) EtOH consumption was tested using a two-bottle choice paradigm; (2) The EtOH elimination rate was measured after intraperitoneal (IP) injection of 2.0 g/kg EtOH; (3) Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) was measured after 3 h limited access of alcohol; (4) Brain region expression of Fkbp5 was identified using LacZ staining; (5) Baseline corticosterone (CORT) was assessed. Additionally, two SNPs, rs1360780 (C/T) and rs3800373 (T/G), were selected to study the association of FKBP5 with alcohol consumption in humans. Participants were college students (n = 1162) from 21–26 years of age with Chinese, Korean or Caucasian ethnicity. The results, compared to WT mice, for KO mice exhibited an increase in alcohol consumption that was not due to differences in taste sensitivity or alcohol metabolism. Higher BAC was found in KO mice after 3 h of EtOH access. Fkbp5 was highly expressed in brain regions involved in the regulation of the stress response, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, dorsal raphe and locus coeruleus. Both genotypes exhibited similar basal levels of plasma corticosterone (CORT). Finally, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in FKBP5 were found to be associated with alcohol drinking in humans. These results suggest that the association between FKBP5 and alcohol consumption is conserved in both mice and humans.

Genetic and Environmental Predictors of Alcohol Use in Asian American Young Adults

OBJECTIVE

Among Asian American young adults, variations in alcohol-metabolizing genes (i.e., aldehyde dehydrogenase [ALDH2] and alcohol dehydrogenase [ADH1B]) are protective, whereas Korean ethnicity, family history of alcohol problems (FH), and acculturation represent risk factors for alcohol misuse. This study aims to integrate these genetic and environmental factors in a sample of Asian Americans expressing a wide range of alcohol use behaviors and problems.

METHOD

Participants were 97 Asian American young adults (42% female) recruited as heavy and light drinkers (n = 49 and 48, respectively). Participants completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, Timeline Followback, Vancouver Acculturation Index, and Family Tree Questionnaire. All participants provided buccal cell samples for DNA analysis.

RESULTS

Family history-positive (FH+) subjects reported greater alcohol use than family history-negative (FH-) subjects. A FH × ALDH2 interaction was observed such that FH- subjects demonstrated no ALDH2 effect, yet in FH+ subjects, the ALDH2*2 genotype was associated with increased alcohol use. A significant main effect of acculturation was also moderated by FH such that the positive association between acculturation and alcohol use was greater among FH+ subjects and, in particular, among FH+ men.

CONCLUSIONS

Although preliminary, these results suggest that the potential protective effects conferred by ALDH2 and ADH1B are moderated by FH, such that a positive FH appeared to abolish the protective effect of these genes. Further, acculturation was associated with greater alcohol use in FH+ subjects only. If replicated in larger samples, these data suggest that alcohol-metabolism genes may not be protective in the context of high environmental risk.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Symptoms Predict Alcohol Expectancy Development

OBJECTIVE

Positive alcohol expectancies and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are independent risk factors for adolescent alcohol problems and substance use disorders. However, the association of early ADHD diagnostic status, as well as its separate dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity, with alcohol expectancies is essentially unknown.

METHOD

At baseline (i.e., Wave 1), parents of 139 6-to 9-year-old children (71% male) with (N = 77; 55%) and without (N = 62; 45%) ADHD completed structured diagnostic interviews of child psychopathology. Approximately two years later (i.e., Wave 2), children completed a Memory Model-Based Expectancy Questionnaire (MMBEQ) to ascertain their positive and negative expectancies regarding alcohol use. All children were alcohol naïve at both baseline and follow-up assessments.

RESULTS

Controlling for age, sex, IQ, as well as the number of Wave 1 oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, the number of baseline hyperactivity symptoms prospectively predicted more positive arousing (i.e., MMBEQ "wild and crazy" subscale) alcohol expectancies at Wave 2. No predictive association was observed for the number of Wave 1 inattention symptoms and alcohol expectancies.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood hyperactivity prospectively and positively predicted expectancies regarding the arousing properties of alcohol, independent of inattention and ODD/CD symptoms, as well as other key covariates. Even in the absence of explicit alcohol engagement, youths with elevated hyperactivity may benefit from targeted intervention given its association with more positive arousing alcohol expectancies.

Biology, Genetics, and Environment: Underlying Factors Influencing Alcohol Metabolism

Gene variants encoding several of the alcohol-metabolizing enzymes, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), are among the largest genetic associations with risk for alcohol dependence. Certain genetic variants (i.e., alleles)--particularly the ADH1B*2, ADH1B*3, ADH1C*1, and ALDH2*2 alleles--have been associated with lower rates of alcohol dependence. These alleles may lead to an accumulation of acetaldehyde during alcohol metabolism, which can result in heightened subjective and objective effects. The prevalence of these alleles differs among ethnic groups; ADH1B*2 is found frequently in northeast Asians and occasionally Caucasians, ADH1B*3 is found predominantly in people of African ancestry, ADH1C*1 varies substantially across populations, and ALDH2*2 is found almost exclusively in northeast Asians. Differences in the prevalence of these alleles may account at least in part for ethnic differences in alcohol consumption and alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, these alleles do not act in isolation to influence the risk of AUD. For example, the gene effects of ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*2 seem to interact. Moreover, other factors have been found to influence the extent to which these alleles affect a person's alcohol involvement, including developmental stage, individual characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, antisocial behavior, and behavioral undercontrol), and environmental factors (e.g., culture, religion, family environment, and childhood adversity).

Under-Researched Demographics: Heavy Episodic Drinking and Alcohol-Related Problems Among Asian Americans

Asian Americans represent the fastest- growing population in the United States (Le 2010). At the same time, there is evidence that problematic drinking rates are increasing among young-adult Asian Americans (Grant et al. 2004). Accordingly, it is essential to understand the etiological determinants and mechanisms of risk that may help explain this growth in problematic alcohol use among this group. The high prevalence of the ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*2 alleles in a large percentage of Asian subgroups has been studied as a potential protective factors against alcohol abuse, yet some individuals who possess these genes still engage in problematic alcohol use (Wall et al. 2001). Other social and psychological factors may account for this discrepancy. Thus, some factors, such as negative physiological alcohol expectancies, are protective against alcohol abuse in this population (Hendershot et al. 2009). Sociocultural factors such as acculturation and nativity also may help explain drinking patterns among this group. The literature suggests that vast and significant within-group differences exist among Asian Americans, such that individuals who were born in the United States and/or are more acculturated are at elevated risk for alcohol abuse and related problems (Hahm et al. 2003). Differences also have been observed among Asian-American ethnic subgroups, with some groups (e.g., Japanese, Korean, and multi-Asian Americans) reporting higher rates of drinking compared with others (e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese Americans) (Iwamoto et al. 2012). Furthermore, Asian Americans who report higher levels of depressive symptoms, psychological distress, and perceived discrimination seem to be at a heightened risk for abusing alcohol (Iwamoto et al. 2011a; Nishimura et al. 2005; Yoo et al. 2010). Finally, an emerging body of research examining gender-relevant factors, including feminine and masculine norms, may help explain within-group differences among Asian-American women and men. Thus, traditional norms that may directly pertain to hyperfemininzed Asian-American women, including modesty and sexual fidelity, may protect against heavy episodic drinking (Young et al. 2005). Conversely, the risk for heavy episodic drinking may be enhanced in men who strive to demonstrate traditional notions of masculinity through risk-taking and endorsement of playboy norms (Iwamoto et al. 2010). Although this review has illustrated the contemporary state of research on alcohol use among Asian Americans, it also highlights the significant limitations in this literature. Many of the studies reviewed here have used cross-sectional data, which do not allow researchers to infer causality between the various sociocultural factors and problematic alcohol use. One way of addressing this gap in the existing literature may be to implement longitudinal designs to further understand how the temporal relationship between sociocultural factors, including acculturation and gender norms, may impact alcohol use and alcohol-related problem trajectories. There also is a pressing need to develop greater understanding of within-group differences among U.S.-born and foreign-born Asian Americans as well as among as specific ethnic groups. To date, epidemiological research has largely neglected to examine these significant discrepancies. Given the growing prevalence of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among Asian-American women (Grant et al. 2004; Iwamoto et al. 2010), studies also should focus on this group and explore how the intersection of gender and culture may influence alcohol use. Finally, the majority of research on this population has been conducted in college samples; therefore, it is important to also examine community samples, including U.S.-born young adults who are not attending college and older adult Asian-American populations.

Are Dimensions of Parenting Differentially Linked to Substance Use Across Caucasian and Asian American College Students?

BACKGROUND

Parental warmth and autonomy granting are commonly thought of as protective factors against substance use among Caucasians. However, limited research has examined whether associations between parenting dimensions and substance use outcomes are the same or different among Asian Americans.

METHOD

A final analytic sample of 839 college students was used to test whether race (Caucasian vs. Asian American) moderated the relations between parenting dimensions and substance use outcomes across Caucasians and Asian Americans. We utilized the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker, Tupling, & Brown, 1979) to measure maternal and paternal warmth, encouragement of behavioral freedom, and denial of psychological autonomy.

RESULTS

Multivariate regression models controlling for covariates including age, gender, and paternal education indicated four significant parenting by race interactions on alcohol problems and/or marijuana use. Specifically, maternal warmth was inversely associated with both alcohol problems and marijuana use among Caucasians but not among Asian Americans. Both maternal and paternal denial of psychological autonomy were positively associated with alcohol problems among Caucasians but not among Asian Americans.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with emerging cross-cultural research, the associations between parenting dimensions and substance use behaviors observed in Caucasian populations may not be readily generalized to Asian Americans. These findings highlight the importance of considering different parenting dimensions in understanding substance use etiology among Asian Americans. Future research should use longitudinal data to replicate these findings across development and seek to identify other parenting dimensions that may be more relevant for Asian American youth.

Asian American problem drinking trajectories during the transition to adulthood: ethnic drinking cultures and neighborhood contexts

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to identify problem drinking trajectories and their predictors among Asian Americans transitioning from adolescence to adulthood. We considered cultural and socioeconomic contextual factors, specifically ethnic drinking cultures, neighborhood socioeconomic status, and neighborhood coethnic density, to identify subgroups at high risk for developing problematic drinking trajectories.

METHODS

We used a sample of 1333 Asian Americans from 4 waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1994-2008) in growth mixture models to identify trajectory classes of frequent heavy episodic drinking and drunkenness. We fitted multinomial logistic regression models to identify predictors of trajectory class membership.

RESULTS

Two dimensions of ethnic drinking culture-drinking prevalence and detrimental drinking pattern in the country of origin-were predictive of problematic heavy episodic drinking and drunkenness trajectories. Higher neighborhood socioeconomic status in adolescence was predictive of the trajectory class indicating increasing frequency of drunkenness. Neighborhood coethnic density was not predictive of trajectory class membership.

CONCLUSIONS

Drinking cultures in the country of origin may have enduring effects on drinking among Asian Americans. Further research on ethnic drinking cultures in the United States is warranted for prevention and intervention.

Drinking experience uncovers genetic influences on alcohol expectancies across adolescence

AIMS

To test whether drinking onset moderates genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in the etiology of alcohol expectancies across adolescence.

DESIGN

Longitudinal twin design.

SETTING

Community sample from Los Angeles, CA, USA.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1292 male and female twins, aged 11–18years, were assessed at 1 (n = 440), 2 (n = 587) or 3 (n = 265) occasions as part of the risk factors for the Antisocial Behavior Twin Study.

MEASUREMENTS

Social behavioral (SB) alcohol expectancies were measured using an abbreviated version of the Social Behavioral subscale from the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire for adolescents (AEQ-A). Drinking onset was defined as >1 full drink of alcohol.

FINDINGS

Alcohol expectancies increased over age and the increase became more rapid following onset of drinking. The importance of genetic and environmental influences on SB scores varied with age and drinking status, such that variation prior to drinking onset was attributed solely to environmental influences, whereas all post-onset variation was attributed to genetic influences. Results did not differ significantly by sex.

CONCLUSION

Only environmental factors explain beliefs about the social and behavioral consequences of alcohol use prior to drinking onset,whereas genetic factors explain an increasing proportion of the variance in these beliefs after drinking onset.

Dopamine receptor (D4) polymorphism is related to comorbidity between marijuana abuse and depression

The rates of marijuana abuse are steadily increasing in the U.S. Data suggest that comorbid marijuana abuse and depression is associated with worse outcomes than either diagnosis. Genetic studies independently link the DRD4 gene polymorphism to substance use and to internalizing disorders, but no study has examined whether the DRD4 polymorphism is linked to comorbid marijuana use and depression in a population sample. This study examined associations between the DRD4 gene 48bp VNTR polymorphism and comorbidity between marijuana use frequency and depression in a diverse, non-clinical adolescent sample (n=1882; ages 14 to 18) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Multinomial regression analyses indicated that the odds of being comorbid for depressive symptoms and marijuana use are approximately 2.5≥ with the ≥7R/≥7R genotype than youths who carry the <7R/<7R genotype, controlling for the effects of ethnicity, gender, age, violent victimization, and alcohol related problems. Findings provide genetic clues for psychopathology characterized by prominent externalizing and internalizing features.

Religiosity and substance use among Asian American college students: moderated effects of race and acculturation

BACKGROUND

Religiosity is a well-established protective factor against substance use among Caucasians, but limited research has examined its role among Asian Americans. The purposes of this study were (1) to examine whether the associations between religiosity and substance use outcomes differed across Caucasians and Asian Americans, and (2) to test whether acculturation moderated the associations between religiosity and substance use outcomes among Asian Americans.

METHOD

We utilized a large and diverse cross-sectional sample of 839 college students to test whether race moderated the associations between religiosity and substance use outcomes (Study 1). We then replicated and extended our findings in a separate college sample of 340 Asian Americans, and examined the moderating role of acculturation on the associations between religiosity and substance use outcomes (Study 2).

RESULTS

Controlling for age, gender, and paternal education, religiosity was protective against alcohol use, alcohol problems, and marijuana use among Caucasians but was unrelated to these outcomes among Asian Americans in Study 1. In Study 2, religiosity was protective against alcohol problems only at high levels of acculturation. Moreover, religiosity was protective against marijuana use at both high and mean levels of acculturation, but not at low levels of acculturation.

CONCLUSIONS

The protective effects of religiosity on alcohol use and problems varied across Caucasian and Asian American college students, and religiosity protected against alcohol problems and marijuana use only among more acculturated Asian Americans. These findings underscore the need to examine culturally-specific correlates of substance use outcomes among Asian Americans.

Self-determination, perceived approval, and drinking: differences between Asian Americans and Whites

The present research assessed racial differences in the associations among controlled orientation, injunctive norms, and increased drinking by White and Asian American college students. Previous research has noted racial differences in drinking, but reasons have not been considered in the context of individual differences in self-determination or responses to social influences. The authors evaluated perceived parental and peer injunctive norms as mediators of the relationship between controlled orientation and number of drinks consumed per week. The association between controlled orientation and drinking was further expected to be moderated by race. This study consisted of 534 White and 198 Asian American participants who had at least one heavy drinking episode in the month prior to assessment. Participants completed self-report measures assessing self-determination, perceived parental/peer injunctive norms, and drinking. Results indicated that peer injunctive norms served as a mediator between controlled orientation and greater number of drinks consumed per week for Whites only. Although Asian Americans were significantly higher in controlled orientation than Whites, they drank less and perceived their peers to be less approving of drinking. In contrast, Whites who were high in controlled orientation viewed their friends as being significantly more approving of alcohol and consumed significantly more drinks per week. Results provide unique considerations for understanding cultural differences in drinking among White and Asian American young adults.

Nur-related receptor 1 gene polymorphisms and alcohol dependence in Mexican Americans

AIM: To investigate the association of polymorphisms of nur-related receptor 1 (Nurr1) and development of alcohol dependence in Mexican Americans.

METHODS: Peripheral blood samples were collected from 374 alcoholic and 346 nonalcoholic Mexican Americans; these two groups were sex- and age-matched. Sample DNA was extracted and genomic DNA was amplified by polymerase chain reaction. The -2922(C) 2-3 polymerase chain reaction products were digested with Sau96I, alleles of 1345(G/C), and -1198(C/G) in the regulatory region as well as Ex+132 (G/T/A/C) and Ex+715(T/-) in exon 3 were studied by sequencing.

RESULTS: The C2/C2, C2/C3, C3/C3 genotype distribution of -2922(C) 2-3 was 34.4%, 38.2% and 27.5% in the nonalcoholic group compared to 23.3%, 51.2% and 25.4% in the alcoholic group (P = 0.001). The C/C, C/G, G/G genotype distribution of -1198(C/G) was 23.5%, 46.1% and 30.3% in the nonalcoholic group compared to 13.9%, 50.9% and 35.3% in the alcoholic group (P = 0.007). However, the -1345 (G/C), Ex3+132(G/T/A/C) and Ex3+715(T/-) alleles were not polymorphic in Mexican Americans, and all those studied had G/G, G/G and T/T genotype for these three alleles, respectively. The -2922(C) 2-3 did not show allele level difference between alcoholic and nonalcoholic individuals, but -1198 (C/G) showed a significant allele frequency difference between alcoholic (39.3%) and nonalcoholic (46.6%) populations (P = 0.005). Excluding obese individuals, significant differences were found at both genotypic and allelic levels for the -2922(C) 2-3 polymorphism (P = 0.000 and P = 0.049) and the -1198 (C/G) polymorphism (P = 0.008 and P = 0.032) between nonobese alcoholics and nonobese controls. Excluding smokers, a significant difference was found only at the genotypic level for the -2922(C) 2-3 polymorphism (P = 0.037) between nonsmoking alcoholics and nonsmoking controls, but only at the allelic level for the -1198(C/G) polymorphism (P = 0.034).

CONCLUSION: Polymorphisms in the regulatory region of Nurr1 are implicated in pathogenesis of alcohol dependence and the Nurr1/dopamine signaling pathway might be important for this dependence development in Mexican Americans.

Health Risk Behavior and Sexual Assault Among Ethnically Diverse Women

Sexual assault is associated with a number of health risk behaviors in women. It has been hypothesized that these risk behaviors, such as hazardous drinking, may represent women's attempts to cope with psychological distress, such as symptoms of depression and anxiety. However, extant research has failed to evaluate these relationships among ethnic minority samples or identify the mechanisms responsible for this association. The current study examined sexual assault history and two health risk behaviors (hazardous drinking and engaging in sexual behavior to regulate negative affect) in a diverse sample of 1,620 college women. Depression and anxiety were examined as mediators of the relationship between sexual assault and health risk behaviors. There was evidence of moderated mediation, such that for European American women, but not for ethnic minority women, both forms of psychological distress were significant mediators of the sexual assault/hazardous drinking relationship. In contrast, among all ethnic groups, the relationship between sexual assault and both forms of psychological distress was mediated by the use of sexual behavior as an affect regulation strategy. Results support a need to evaluate the assault experiences of ethnically diverse women, as well as the impact of the assault on their postassault experiences including health risk behaviors and psychological adjustment. Additionally, results suggest that practitioners should carefully assess health risk behaviors among victims of sexual assault and be aware that there may be differences in the risk factors and motives for these behaviors among women of various ethnic backgrounds.

Relapse prevention for addictive behaviors

The Relapse Prevention (RP) model has been a mainstay of addictions theory and treatment since its introduction three decades ago. This paper provides an overview and update of RP for addictive behaviors with a focus on developments over the last decade (2000-2010). Major treatment outcome studies and meta-analyses are summarized, as are selected empirical findings relevant to the tenets of the RP model. Notable advances in RP in the last decade include the introduction of a reformulated cognitive-behavioral model of relapse, the application of advanced statistical methods to model relapse in large randomized trials, and the development of mindfulness-based relapse prevention. We also review the emergent literature on genetic correlates of relapse following pharmacological and behavioral treatments. The continued influence of RP is evidenced by its integration in most cognitive-behavioral substance use interventions. However, the tendency to subsume RP within other treatment modalities has posed a barrier to systematic evaluation of the RP model. Overall, RP remains an influential cognitive-behavioral framework that can inform both theoretical and clinical approaches to understanding and facilitating behavior change.

Evaluating a cognitive model of ALDH2 and drinking behavior

BACKGROUND

Despite evidence for genetic influences on alcohol use and alcohol-related cognitions, genetic factors and endophenotypes are rarely incorporated in cognitive models of drinking behavior. This study evaluated a model of ALDH2 and drinking behavior stipulating cognitive factors and alcohol sensitivity as accounting for genetic influences on drinking outcomes.

METHODS

Participants were Asian-American young adults (n = 171) who completed measures of alcohol cognitions (drinking motives, drinking refusal self-efficacy, and alcohol expectancies), alcohol sensitivity, drinking behavior, and alcohol-related problems as part of a prospective study. Structural equation modeling (SEM) evaluated a model of drinking behavior that stipulated indirect effects of ALDH2 on drinking outcomes through cognitive variables and alcohol sensitivity.

RESULTS

The full model provided an adequate fit to the observed data, with the measurement model explaining 63% of the variance in baseline heavy drinking and 50% of the variance in alcohol-related problems at follow-up. Associations of ALDH2 with cognitive factors and alcohol sensitivity were significant, whereas the association of ALDH2 with drinking was not significant with these factors included in the model. Mediation tests indicated significant indirect effects of ALDH2 through drinking motives, drinking refusal self-efficacy, and alcohol sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Results are consistent with the perspective that genetic influences on drinking behavior can be partly explained by learning mechanisms and implicate cognitive factors as important for characterizing associations of ALDH2 with drinking.