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Self JL, Judd MC, Huang J, Fields PI, Griffin PM, Wong KK. Epidemiology of Salmonellosis Among Infants in the United States: 1968-2015. Pediatrics 2023:191251. [PMID: 37161700 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2021-056140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Describe characteristics of gastroenteritis, bacteremia, and meningitis caused by nontyphoidal Salmonella among US infants. METHODS We analyze national surveillance data during 1968-2015 and active, sentinel surveillance data during 1996-2015 for culture-confirmed Salmonella infections by syndrome, year, serotype, age, and race. RESULTS During 1968-2015, 190 627 culture-confirmed Salmonella infections among infants were reported, including 165 236 (86.7%) cases of gastroenteritis, 6767 (3.5%) bacteremia, 371 (0.2%) meningitis, and 18 253 (9.7%) with other or unknown specimen sources. Incidence increased during the late 1970s-1980s, declined during the 1990s-early 2000s, and has gradually increased since the mid-2000s. Infants' median age was 4 months for gastroenteritis and bacteremia and 2 months for meningitis. The most frequently reported serotypes were Typhimurium (35 468; 22%) for gastroenteritis and Heidelberg for bacteremia (1954; 29%) and meningitis (65; 18%). During 1996-2015 in sentinel site surveillance, median annual incidence of gastroenteritis was 120, bacteremia 6.2, and meningitis 0.25 per 100 000 infants. Boys had a higher incidence of each syndrome than girls in both surveillance systems, but most differences were not statistically significant. Overall, hospitalization and fatality rates were 26% and 0.1% for gastroenteritis, 70% and 1.6% for bacteremia, and 96% and 4% for meningitis. During 2004-2015, invasive salmonellosis incidence was higher for Black (incident rate ratio, 2.7; 95% confidence interval, 2.6-2.8) and Asian (incident rate ratio, 1.8; 95% confidence interval, 1.7-1.8) than white infants. CONCLUSIONS Salmonellosis causes substantial infant morbidity and mortality; serotype heidelberg caused the most invasive infections. Infants with meningitis were younger than those with bacteremia or gastroenteritis. Research into risk factors for infection and invasive illness could inform prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie L Self
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, CSELS, and
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Michael C Judd
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jennifer Huang
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Patricia I Fields
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Patricia M Griffin
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Karen K Wong
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, NCEZID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Abstract
Although researchers have described numerous risk factors for salmonellosis and for infection with specific common serotypes, the drivers of Salmonella serotype diversity among human populations remain poorly understood. In this retrospective observational study, we partition records of serotyped non-typhoidal Salmonella isolates from human clinical specimens reported to CDC national surveillance by demographic, geographic and seasonal characteristics and adapt sample-based rarefaction methods from the field of community ecology to study how Salmonella serotype diversity varied within and among these populations in the USA during 1996–2016. We observed substantially higher serotype richness in children <2 years old than in older children and adults and steadily increasing richness with age among older adults. Whereas seasonal and regional variation in serotype diversity was highest among infants and young children, variation by specimen source was highest in adults. Our findings suggest that the risk for infection from uncommon serotypes is associated with host and environmental factors, particularly among infants, young children and older adults. These populations may have a higher proportion of illness acquired through environmental transmission pathways than published source attribution models estimate.
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Schierstaedt J, Grosch R, Schikora A. Agricultural production systems can serve as reservoir for human pathogens. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2020; 366:5715908. [PMID: 31981360 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Food-borne diseases are a threat to human health and can cause severe economic losses. Nowadays, in a growing and increasingly interconnected world, food-borne diseases need to be dealt with in a global manner. In order to tackle this issue, it is essential to consider all possible entry routes of human pathogens into the production chain. Besides the post-harvest handling of the fresh produce itself, also the prevention of contamination in livestock and agricultural soils are of particular importance. While the monitoring of human pathogens and intervening measures are relatively easy to apply in livestock and post-harvest, the investigation of the prevention strategies in crop fields is a challenging task. Furthermore, crop fields are interconnected with livestock via fertilizers and feed; therefore, a poor hygiene management can cause cross-contamination. In this review, we highlight the possible contamination of crop plants by bacterial human pathogens via the rhizosphere, their interaction with the plant and possible intervention strategies. Furthermore, we discuss critical issues and questions that are still open.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Schierstaedt
- Plant-Microbe Systems, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, 14979 Großbeeren, Germany
| | - Rita Grosch
- Plant-Microbe Systems, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, 14979 Großbeeren, Germany
| | - Adam Schikora
- Institute for Epidemiology and Pathogen Diagnostics, Julius Kühn-Institut, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, 38104 Braunschweig, Germany
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Luvsansharav UO, Vieira A, Bennett S, Huang J, Healy JM, Hoekstra RM, Bruce BB, Cole D. Salmonella Serotypes: A Novel Measure of Association with Foodborne Transmission. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2019; 17:151-155. [PMID: 31566417 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2019.2641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) illnesses in the United States are thought to be foodborne. However, transmission routes likely vary among the different serotypes. We developed a relative ranking of NTS serotypes according to the strength of their association with foodborne transmission. We used Laboratory-based Enteric Disease Surveillance data to estimate the proportion of infections for each Salmonella serotype reported from 1998 to 2015 and Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System data to calculate the proportion of foodborne outbreak-associated Salmonella illnesses caused by each serotype. We calculated the ratios of these proportions to create a foodborne relatedness (FBR) measure for each serotype. Of the top 20 serotypes, Saintpaul (2.14), Heidelberg (1.61), and Berta (1.48) had the highest FBR measures; Mississippi (0.01), Bareilly (0.13), and Paratyphi B variant L(+) tartrate(+) (0.20) had the lowest. The FBRs for the three most prevalent serotypes were 1.22 for Enteritidis, 0.77 for Typhimurium, and 1.16 for Newport. This method provides a quantitative approach to estimating the relative differences in the likelihood that an illness caused by a particular serotype was transmitted by food, which may aid in tailoring strategies to prevent Salmonella illnesses and guide future research into serotype-specific source attribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulzii Orshikh Luvsansharav
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Epidemiology Workforce Branch, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.,Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Antonio Vieira
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sarah Bennett
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jennifer Huang
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jessica Meaghan Healy
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Robert Michael Hoekstra
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Beau Benjamin Bruce
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Dana Cole
- Enteric Diseases Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Maciorowski K, Jones F, Pillai S, Ricke S. Incidence, sources, and control of food-borne Salmonella spp. in poultry feeds. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2019. [DOI: 10.1079/wps200428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K.G. Maciorowski
- Poultry Science Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2472
| | - F.T. Jones
- Center of Excellence for Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - S.D. Pillai
- Poultry Science Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2472
| | - S.C. Ricke
- Poultry Science Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2472
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Abstract
F undamental to controlling infection transmission in the home is the need to recognise it as an environment where all human activities occur, including food hygiene, hand hygiene and hygiene related to care of vulnerable groups. In recent years the concept of a risk assessment/risk reduction approach to hygiene has successfully controlled microbial risks in food and other manufacturing environments. To deliver hygiene policy with real health benefits it is now accepted that a risk-based approach must also be developed for the home. The first step, hazard characterisation, involves identifying sites and surfaces where pathogens most frequently occur, and whether they are likely to be present in numbers that represent an infectious dose. A risk assessment is then made by considering this information together with an assessment of the probability of human exposure to the hazard. Risk reduction is achieved by application of a suitable hygiene procedure at the appropriate time.
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Affiliation(s)
- SF Bloomfield
- International Hygiene Research and Liaison Manager, Unilever Research, Port Sunlight and Division of Life Sciences, Kings College London
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7
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Individual and household-level risk factors for sporadic salmonellosis in children. J Infect 2016; 72:36-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2015.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Williams S, Patel M, Markey P, Muller R, Benedict S, Ross I, Heuzenroeder M, Davos D, Cameron S, Krause V. Salmonella in the tropical household environment--Everyday, everywhere. J Infect 2015; 71:642-8. [PMID: 26416474 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the prevalence of Salmonella in the environment of case and control houses, and compare serovars isolated from cases and their houses. METHODS From 2005 to 2008, we tested samples from houses of 0-4 year old cases and community controls in Darwin and Palmerston for Salmonella. Case isolates were compared with environmental isolates. S. Ball and S. Urbana isolates were compared using Multiple Amplification of Phage Locus Typing (MAPLT) and Multiple-Locus Variable number of tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA). RESULTS Salmonella were found in 47/65 (72%) case houses and 18/29 (62%) control houses; these proportions were not significantly different. In 21/47 (45%) houses, case and environmental isolates (from animal faeces, soil and vacuums) were indistinguishable. Multiple serovars were isolated from 20 (31%) case and 6 (21%) control houses. All but one environmental isolate are known human pathogens in the Northern Territory (NT). Each of the four pairs of S. Ball and S. Urbana were indistinguishable. CONCLUSIONS Animal faeces were the most likely source of salmonellosis in cases. The similar prevalence of house isolates suggests that Salmonella is ubiquitous in this environment. The distinction of S. Ball and S. Urbana subtypes enabled linkage of human illness to environmental exposure. Environmental contamination with Salmonella is an important source of sporadic infection in children in the tropics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shellee Williams
- Centre for Disease Control (CDC), Northern Territory Department of Health and Community Services (NTDHCS), Darwin, Northern Territory (NT), Australia; National Centre for Epidemiology and Public Health (NCEPH), Australian National University (ANU), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (ACT), Australia.
| | - Mahomed Patel
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Public Health (NCEPH), Australian National University (ANU), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (ACT), Australia.
| | - Peter Markey
- Centre for Disease Control (CDC), Northern Territory Department of Health and Community Services (NTDHCS), Darwin, Northern Territory (NT), Australia.
| | - Rosanne Muller
- Centre for Disease Control (CDC), Northern Territory Department of Health and Community Services (NTDHCS), Darwin, Northern Territory (NT), Australia.
| | - Suresh Benedict
- Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, NT Department of Resources (DoR), Darwin, NT, Australia.
| | - Ian Ross
- Public Health Unit, Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, SA Pathology, Adelaide, South Australia (SA), Australia.
| | - Michael Heuzenroeder
- Public Health Unit, Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, SA Pathology, Adelaide, South Australia (SA), Australia.
| | - Dianne Davos
- Public Health Unit, Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, SA Pathology, Adelaide, South Australia (SA), Australia.
| | - Scott Cameron
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Public Health (NCEPH), Australian National University (ANU), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (ACT), Australia.
| | - Vicki Krause
- Centre for Disease Control (CDC), Northern Territory Department of Health and Community Services (NTDHCS), Darwin, Northern Territory (NT), Australia.
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Risk factors associated with sporadic salmonellosis in children: a case-control study in Lower Saxony, Germany, 2008–2011. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 143:687-94. [DOI: 10.1017/s095026881400140x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYWe conducted a case-control study based on 884 laboratory-confirmed sporadicSalmonellacases reported to the German infectious disease notification system. For controls, we recruited 510 rotavirus cases via the same system. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed separately for children aged 0–3 years and 4–14 years. In both age groups, the highest odds ratios (OR) were found for raw ground pork consumption [0–3 years: OR 8·6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2·4–30·8; 4–14 years: OR 4·5, 95% CI 1·1–19]. Further risk factors were exposure to animals (OR 1·6, 95% CI 1·1–2·1), consumption of poultry (OR 1·5, 95% CI 1·1–2·1), food items containing eggs (OR 1·5, 95% CI 1·1–2) and black pepper (OR 1·7, 95% CI 1·1–3·5) in children aged 0–3 years, and consumption of uncooked pork sausage (OR 3·6, 95% CI 1·4–9·3) in children aged 4–14 years. This study highlights the significance of raw pork products (‘Mett’ in German) as risk factors for sporadic salmonellosis in children in Germany.
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Bartholomew ML, Heffernan RT, Wright JG, Klos RF, Monson T, Khan S, Trees E, Sabol A, Willems RA, Flynn R, Deasy MP, Jones B, Davis JP. Multistate outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype enteritidis infection associated with pet guinea pigs. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014; 14:414-21. [PMID: 24866204 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella causes about one million illnesses annually in the United States. Although most infections result from foodborne exposures, animal contact is an important mode of transmission. We investigated a case of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis (SE) sternal osteomyelitis in a previously healthy child who cared for two recently deceased guinea pigs (GPs). A case was defined as SE pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) XbaI pattern JEGX01.0021, BlnI pattern JEGA26.0002 (outbreak strain) infection occurring during 2010 in a patient who reported GP exposure. To locate outbreak strain isolates, PulseNet and the US Department of Agriculture National Veterinary Service Laboratories (NVSL) databases were queried. Outbreak strain isolates underwent multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). Traceback and environmental investigations were conducted at homes, stores, and breeder or broker facilities. We detected 10 cases among residents of eight states and four NVSL GP outbreak strain isolates. One patient was hospitalized; none died. The median patient age was 9.5 (range, 1-61) years. Among 10 patients, two purchased GPs at independent stores, and three purchased GPs at different national retail chain (chain A) store locations; three were chain A employees and two reported GP exposures of unknown characterization. MLVA revealed four related patterns. Tracebacks identified four distributors and 92 sources supplying GPs to chain A, including one breeder potentially supplying GPs to all case-associated chain A stores. All environmental samples were Salmonella culture-negative. A definitive SE-contaminated environmental source was not identified. Because GPs can harbor Salmonella, consumers and pet industry personnel should be educated regarding risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Bartholomew
- 1 Epidemic Intelligence Service; Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office; Office of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Laboratory Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta, Georgia
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Scott E. Community-based infections and the potential role of common touch surfaces as vectors for the transmission of infectious agents in home and community settings. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:1087-92. [PMID: 23973421 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2013.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Revised: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Community-based pathogens that can survive on common touch surfaces include those that can cause gastrointestinal, respiratory, and skin infections. Our hands play an obvious role in the transmission of many of these pathogens, but common touch surfaces are also part of the transmission equation. Traditionally, common touch surfaces have not been the main focus of cleaning and sanitation in household and community settings. Infectious disease continues to be of concern globally due in part to emergence of new pathogens, antibiotic-resistant organisms, and a growing immunocompromised community. As a result, it is important to prevent and minimize the infection risk in homes and in the community. Understanding the role of common touch surfaces should inform surface hygiene practices and these surfaces should be the subject of future intervention studies.
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Epidemiological features and risk factors of Salmonella gastroenteritis in children resident in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Epidemiol Infect 2012; 141:1604-13. [PMID: 23010148 PMCID: PMC3733064 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268812002014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal Salmonella are an important but poorly characterized cause of paediatric diarrhoea in developing countries. We conducted a hospital-based case-control study in children aged <5 years in Ho Chi Minh City to define the epidemiology and examine risk factors associated with Salmonella diarrhoeal infections. From 1419 diarrhoea cases and 571 controls enrolled between 2009 and 2010, 77 (5·4%) diarrhoea cases were stool culture-positive for non-typhoidal Salmonella. Salmonella patients were more likely to be younger than controls (median age 10 and 12 months, respectively) [odds ratio (OR) 0·97; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0·94–0·99], to report a recent diarrhoeal contact (8·1% cases, 1·8% controls; OR 5·98, 95% CI 1·8–20·4) and to live in a household with >2 children (cases 20·8%, controls 10·2%; OR 2·32, 95% CI 1·2–4·7). Our findings indicate that Salmonella are an important cause of paediatric gastroenteritis in this setting and we suggest that transmission may occur through direct human contact in the home.
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Huang IF, Kao CH, Lee WY, Chang MF, Chen YS, Wu KS, Hu HH, Hsieh KS, Chiou CC. Clinical manifestations of nontyphoid salmonellosis in children younger than 2 years old--experiences of a tertiary hospital in southern Taiwan. Pediatr Neonatol 2012; 53:193-8. [PMID: 22770109 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedneo.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2011] [Revised: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few published studies have explored the clinical manifestations of nontyphoid salmonellosis in children <2 years of age. The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical manifestations, microbiological features, complications, fecal excretion time, and responses to treatment in children <2 years of age with nontyphoid salmonellosis. METHODS Between January 2005 and December 2009, pediatric patients who were admitted to Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital with positive cultures for nontyphoid Salmonella were enrolled. The following data were recorded: demographic, clinical, and microbiological features, underlying diseases, treatment regimen, complications, responses to treatment, and fecal excretion time. The clinical manifestations were compared between patients <2 years of age and patients >2 years of age. RESULTS Of a total 279 enrolled patients, 179 were >2 years of age. Compared with the patients who were ≥2 years of age, patients <2 years of age demonstrated a significantly higher incidence of bloody stool, mixed infection, extraintestinal infection, longer course of antibiotics, longer course of diarrhea after admission, and more days spent in the hospital. The rates of insusceptibility of nontyphoid Salmonella to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, ceftriaxone, and ciprofloxacin in patients <2 years of age were 37.87%, 29.09%, 23.73%, 3.26%, and 2.25%, respectively. Younger patients were generally more susceptible to antibiotics than patients ≥2 years of age, although this result was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION The clinical manifestations of nontyphoid salmonellosis are more severe in younger children <2 years of age than older children. Local susceptibility patterns could serve as a guide for the prescription of antibiotics by clinicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Fei Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Taiwan
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15
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Epidemiology, disease spectrum and economic burden of non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in Taiwan, 2006-2008. Epidemiol Infect 2012; 140:2256-63. [PMID: 22309742 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268812000088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand the seasonal, geographical and clinical characteristics of Taiwanese patients hospitalized for non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infections and their economic burden. Hospital data obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance (NHI) database between 2006 and 2008 were analysed. Infants had the highest annual incidence of 525 cases/100 000 person-years. Elderly patients aged >70 years had the highest in-hospital mortality rate (2·6%). Most (82·6%) gastroenteritis occurred in children aged <10 years. Septicaemia, pneumonia, arthritis and osteomyelitis occurred mainly in patients aged >50 years. A median medical cost for NTS-associated hospitalizations was higher for patients with septicaemia than for those with gastroenteritis. Seasonal variation of NTS-associated hospitalizations was correlated with temperature in different areas of Taiwan. In summary, infants had a high incidence of NTS-associated hospitalizations. However, the elderly had a higher in-hospital mortality rate and more invasive NTS infections than children.
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Abstract
Over the past decade there has been a growing recognition of the involvement of the home in several public health and hygiene issues. Perhaps the best understood of these issues is the role of the home in the transmission and acquisition of foodborne disease. The incidence of foodborne disease is increasing globally. Although foodborne disease data collection systems often miss the mass of home-based outbreaks of sporadic infection, it is now accepted that many cases of foodborne illness occur as a result of improper food handling and preparation by consumers in their own kitchens. Some of the most compelling evidence has come from the international data on Salmonella species and Campylobacter species infections.By its very nature, the home is a multifunctional setting and this directly impacts upon the need for better food safety in the home. In particular, the growing population of elderly and other immnocompromised individuals living at home who are likely to be more vulnerable to the impact of foodborne disease is an important aspect to consider. In addition, some developed nations are currently undergoing a dramatic shift in healthcare delivery, resulting in millions of patients nursed at home. Other aspects of the home that are unique in terms of food safety are the use of the home as a daycare centre for preschool age children, the presence of domestic animals in the home and the use of the domestic kitchen for small-scale commercial catering operations. At the global level, domestic food safety issues for the 21st century include the continued globalization of the food supply, the impact of international travel and tourism, and the impact of foodborne disease on developing nations.A number of countries have launched national campaigns to reduce the burden of foodborne disease, including alerting consumers to the need to practice food safety at home. Home hygiene practice and consumer hygiene products are being refined and targeted to areas of risk, including preventing the onward transmission of foodborne illness via the inanimate environment. It has been said that food safety in the home is the last line of defense against foodborne disease, and it is likely that this will remain true for the global population in the foreseeable future.
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Lowther SA, Medus C, Scheftel J, Leano F, Jawahir S, Smith K. Foodborne outbreak of Salmonella subspecies IV infections associated with contamination from bearded dragons. Zoonoses Public Health 2011; 58:560-6. [PMID: 21824356 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2011.01403.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Approximately 1.4 million Salmonella infections and 400 deaths occur annually in the United States. Approximately 6% of human Salmonella cases are thought to be associated with reptiles; Salmonella enterica subspecies IV is primarily reptile-associated. During 1-4 December, 2009, three isolates of Salmonella IV 6,7:z4,z24:- with indistinguishable pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns were identified through Minnesota Department of Health laboratory-based surveillance. None of the three patients associated with the isolates reported reptile contact; however, all had attended the same potluck dinner. Dinner attendees were asked questions regarding illness history, foods they prepared for and consumed at the event, and pet ownership. Cases were defined as illness in a person who had eaten potluck food and subsequently experienced fever and diarrhoea (three or more loose stools in 24 h) or laboratory-confirmed infection with Salmonella IV matching the outbreak PFGE subtype. Nineteen days after the event, environmental samples were collected from a food preparer's house where two pet bearded dragons were kept. Sixty-six of 73 potluck food consumers were interviewed; 19 cases were identified; 18 persons reported illness but did not meet the case definition. Median incubation period was 19 h (range: 3-26 h). Median duration of illness was 5 days (range: 1-11 days). Consumption of gravy, prepared by the bearded dragons' asymptomatic owner, was associated with illness (16/32 exposed versus 1/12 unexposed; risk ratio: 6.0; exact P = 0.02). Salmonella Labadi was recovered from 10 samples, including from one bearded dragon, the bathroom door knob and sink drain, and the kitchen sink drain. The outbreak PFGE subtype of Salmonella subspecies IV was isolated from vacuum-cleaner bag contents. This foodborne outbreak probably resulted from environmental contamination from bearded dragons. Reptiles pose a community threat when food for public consumption is prepared in households with reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Lowther
- Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, MN, USA.
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Steneroden KK, Hill AE, Salman MD. Environmental Sampling for Salmonella spp. in Colorado Animal Shelters. Zoonoses Public Health 2010; 58:407-15. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2010.01380.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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The epidemiology of extraintestinal non-typhoid Salmonella in Israel: the effects of patients’ age and sex. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 29:1103-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-010-0968-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Khan MI, Ochiai RL, Von Seidlein L, Dong B, Bhattacharya SK, Agtini MD, Bhutta ZA, Do GC, Ali M, Kim DR, Favorov M, Clemens JD. Non-typhoidal Salmonella rates in febrile children at sites in five Asian countries. Trop Med Int Health 2010; 15:960-3. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Distribution, diversity, and seasonality of waterborne salmonellae in a rural watershed. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:1248-55. [PMID: 19124594 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01648-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella outbreaks from contaminated water and nonanimal foods (e.g., produce) are increasingly reported. To address the environment as a potential source of pathogenic Salmonella, we investigated levels of salmonellae and the geographic and temporal variation of Salmonella serotypes from surface waters in a region of Georgia (United States) with a history of high salmonellosis case rates. Monthly water samples were collected from six stations in the Little River (Upper Suwannee Basin) for 12 months (April 2005 to April 2006). Salmonellae were enumerated using a three-step most-probable-number (MPN) assay. Salmonellae were detected in 57 of the 72 water samples collected (79.2%). Monthly Salmonella densities ranged from an MPN of 2.5 liter(-1) in April 2005 to 36.3 liter(-1) in August 2005; concentrations were significantly higher in the summer months compared to other seasons (P<0.05). Concentrations were not significantly different between stations. Levels of salmonellae were correlated with average daily watershed rainfall for the 1 and 2 days preceding each sample collection (r=0.77 and 0.68, respectively; P<0.005). Additionally, water temperature was also positively associated with total Salmonella levels (r=0.44; P<0.05). In total, 13 S. enterica serotypes were identified among 197 Salmonella isolates. Eighty (40.6%) were identified as S. enterica subsp. arizonae. Muenchen and Rubislaw were the most frequently identified serotypes of the remaining 117 isolates (28 and 26 isolates, respectively). Serotype diversity peaked in the summer, with 9 serotypes observed in August compared to only one serotype (S. enterica subsp. arizonae) observed in April (2005 and 2006) (P<0.05). Furthermore, all samples collected in August (6/6) contained multiple serotypes (two to five per sample). The results of this study suggest that Salmonella abundance and diversity in the environment vary temporally and are strongly influenced by seasonal precipitation and water temperature.
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Lefebvre SL, Reid-Smith R, Boerlin P, Weese JS. Evaluation of the risks of shedding Salmonellae and other potential pathogens by therapy dogs fed raw diets in Ontario and Alberta. Zoonoses Public Health 2008; 55:470-80. [PMID: 18811908 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01145.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Dogs that participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), often called 'therapy dogs', commonly interact with humans whose immune systems are not functioning optimally. The advisability of feeding raw meat (including poultry) to these animals remains a highly contentious issue, in spite of increasing evidence that raw meat is frequently contaminated with Salmonella. We set out to determine if consuming raw meat influences the risk of therapy dogs shedding Salmonella and other pathogens. Two hundred healthy therapy dogs from Ontario and Alberta were enrolled. Between May 2005 and November 2006, fecal specimens were collected from each dog every 2 months for 1 year, along with a log of places visited, antimicrobial use within the home, dog health status and diet. Specimens were cultured for Salmonella, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), extended-spectrum cephalosporinase (ESC) Escherichia coli and Clostridium difficile. Forty (20%) of the dogs were reported to have been fed raw meat at some point during the year. The incidence rate of Salmonella shedding in the raw meat-fed dogs was 0.61 cases/dog-year, compared with 0.08 cases/dog-year in dogs that were not fed raw meat (P<0.001). Controlling for therapy dog group, the repeated measures, and pig ear consumption and diarrhoea in the 2 months prior to specimen submission, dogs that consumed raw meat were significantly more likely to test positive for Salmonella at least once during the year than dogs that did not eat raw meat [odds ratio (OR) 22.7; 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.1-58.8; P<0.001]. Specific Salmonella serovars were more common among dogs that consumed raw meat versus those that did not include S. Typhimurium, S. Heidelberg and S. Kentucky. Raw meat consumption was also significantly associated with shedding ESC E. coli (OR 17.2; 95% CI 9.4-32.3). No associations between C. difficile, MRSA or VRE and consumption of raw meat were detected. We recommend that dogs fed raw meat should be excluded from AAI programmes, particularly when the programmes involve interaction with humans at high risk of infection or adverse sequelae attributable to infection. Furthermore, although AAI dogs may not be representative of the general population of dogs, we also recommend that feeding of raw meat to dogs is to be avoided in homes where immunocompromised people live.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Lefebvre
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Arshad MM, Wilkins MJ, Downes FP, Rahbar MH, Erskine RJ, Boulton ML, Younus M, Saeed AM. Epidemiologic attributes of invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in Michigan, 1995–2001. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 12:176-82. [PMID: 17889584 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2007.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine: (1) the incidence of invasive salmonellosis, (2) the distribution of specific Salmonella serotypes associated with invasive disease, and (3) the role of demographic characteristics in invasive salmonellosis in Michigan. DESIGN We conducted a cross-sectional study using laboratory-confirmed cases of salmonellosis reported to the Michigan Department of Community Health between 1995 and 2001. METHODS Average annual incidences (AAIs) for invasive salmonellosis were computed, and Poisson regression analysis was used to model the association between demographic attributes and invasive salmonellosis. RESULTS Of 6797 cases of salmonellosis, 347 (5.1%) were characterized as invasive having an AAI of 0.5/100000. A covariate-adjusted Poisson model showed children aged <1 year to be at higher risk for invasive salmonellosis compared to adults aged 40-49 years (rate ratio (RR) 8.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.69-14.17). No significant differences were found between males and females (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.83-1.26), African-Americans and Caucasians (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.64-1.42), and urban and rural residents (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.76-1.26). Among the most common serotypes associated with invasive salmonellosis (Heidelberg, Typhimurium, and Enteritidis), Salmonella serotype Heidelberg had the highest blood invasiveness ratio (15.79/100). CONCLUSIONS Children aged <1 year, especially of minority groups, are at higher risk for invasive Salmonella infections. Invasive salmonellosis may be included in the differential diagnosis of acute bacterial infections in young children with positive stool cultures for Salmonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mokhtar Arshad
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Abdullah
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wright State University School of Medicine, Dayton, OH 45429, USA
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Jones TF, Ingram LA, Fullerton KE, Marcus R, Anderson BJ, McCarthy PV, Vugia D, Shiferaw B, Haubert N, Wedel S, Angulo FJ. A case-control study of the epidemiology of sporadic Salmonella infection in infants. Pediatrics 2006; 118:2380-7. [PMID: 17142522 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-1218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Rates of Salmonella infection are highest in infants, but little is known about potential sources of infection in this high-risk population. We performed a case-control study to identify dietary and environmental risk factors for sporadic salmonellosis among infants. PATIENTS AND METHODS In 2002-2004, the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network conducted a population-based, case-control study of sporadic salmonellosis among infants <1 year of age in 8 states. Cases were identified via active laboratory-based surveillance. Healthy controls were frequency matched by age and identified through birth registries or published birth announcements. We assessed diet and environmental exposures in the 5 days before illness onset or interview. Data were analyzed by using logistic regression adjusting for age. RESULTS The study enrolled 442 subjects and 928 controls. Compared with healthy controls, infants with Salmonella infection were less likely to have been breastfed and more likely to have had exposure to reptiles, to have ridden in a shopping cart next to meat or poultry, or to have consumed concentrated liquid infant formula during the 5-day exposure period. Travel outside the United States was associated with illness in infants 3 to 6 and >6 months of age. Attending day care with a child with diarrhea was associated with salmonellosis in infants >6 months of age. CONCLUSIONS We identified a number of modifiable protective and risk factors for salmonellosis in infants. Attention should be directed at developing effective preventive measures for this high-risk population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy F Jones
- Communicable and Environmental Disease Services, Tennessee Department of Health, 4th Floor, Cordell Hull Building, 425 5th Ave N, Nashville, TN 37247, USA.
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Adaska JM, Silva AJ, Berge ACB, Sischo WM. Genetic and phenotypic variability among Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium isolates from California dairy cattle and humans. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72:6632-7. [PMID: 17021214 PMCID: PMC1610315 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01038-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fifty-six human and 24 adult dairy cattle isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from a single county in California were compared using ribotyping, insertion sequence typing (IS200), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, plasmid typing, phage typing, and antimicrobial resistance testing. The majority of the isolates fell into one of two groups which were phage types DT104 and DT193. Combining the information from all typing methods, a total of 45 different "clusters" were defined, with 35 of those including only a single isolate. The library of isolates had a high degree of variability, but antibiotic resistance and plasmid typing each defined single clusters in which human or bovine isolates predominated (chi2, P < 0.05).
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Adaska
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, Tulare Branch, 18830 Road 112, Tulare, CA 93274, USA.
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Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006; 27:1107-19. [PMID: 17006819 DOI: 10.1086/507964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2003] [Accepted: 06/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens represents an increasing threat in healthcare facilities. Concern has been expressed that the use of surface disinfectants and antiseptics may select for antibiotic-resistant pathogens. OBJECTIVE To review the scientific literature on whether there is a link between use of germicides (ie, disinfectants and antiseptics) and bacterial resistance to antibiotics. In addition, we will review whether antibiotic-resistant bacteria exhibit altered susceptibility to germicides that are recommended for use as disinfectants or antiseptics. DESIGN A review of the appropriate scientific literature. RESULTS In the laboratory, it has been possible to develop bacterial mutants with reduced susceptibility to disinfectants and antiseptics that also demonstrate decreased susceptibility to antibiotics. However, the antibiotic resistance described was not clinically relevant because the test organism was rarely a human pathogen, the altered level of antimicrobial susceptibility was within achievable serum levels for the antibiotic, or the antibiotic tested was not clinically used to treat the study pathogen. Similarly, wild-type strains with reduced susceptibility to disinfectants (principally, quaternary ammonium compounds) and antiseptics (principally, triclosan) have been reported. However, because the concentration of disinfectants used in the healthcare setting greatly exceeds the concentration required to kill strains with reduced susceptibility to disinfectants, the clinical relevance of these observations is questionable. CONCLUSION To date, there is no evidence that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. Disinfectants and antiseptics should be used when there are scientific studies demonstrating benefit or when there is a strong theoretical rationale for using germicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Weber
- Division of Infectious Disease, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, hapel Hill, NC 27599-7030, USA
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Younus M, Wilkins MJ, Arshad MM, Rahbar MH, Saeed AM. Demographic Risk Factors and Incidence of Salmonella Enteritidis Infection in Michigan. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2006; 3:266-73. [PMID: 16972775 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2006.3.266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella Enteritidis is a major cause of foodborne disease worldwide. In the United States, this serotype has been associated with significant morbidity and mortality accounting for about 17% of all human Salmonella infections. Data on risk factors associated with serotype-specific Salmonella infections have not been reported in Michigan before. We carried out this study using surveillance data to identify high-risk groups and regions for S. Enteritidis infection in Michigan. Results of this study may be used to develop better control and prevention measures against this common foodborne pathogen. We analyzed data on Salmonella infections collected by the Michigan Department of Community Health's surveillance system (1995-2001). We computed age, gender, and place of residence-specific incidences of S. Enteritidis infection in Michigan using population-based denominators. We used Poisson regression analysis to study the associations between S. Enteritidis infection and certain predictor demographic variables, while controlling for confounders and covariates. We found an overall 1.87/100,000 average annual S. Enteritidis incidence with 1.91/100,000 in females and 1.81/100,000 in males. A higher incidence of S. Enteritidis infection was associated with Michigan children<5 years old when compared with average national estimates (p<0.01). The final adjusted Poisson model revealed that children<1 year of age [RR: 9.75, CI: 7.99-11.90] and children 1-4 years of age [RR: 3.37, CI: 2.83-4.02] are at higher risk for S. Enteritidis infection compared to adults aged 15-39 years. No significant differences in incidence of S. Enteritidis infections were found between urban and rural dwellers or between genders (p>0.05). The incidence rate of S. Enteritidis infection in the Michigan pediatric population (<5 years) was found to be significantly higher than average national estimates, meriting immediate public health attention. Risk factors for S. Enteritidis infection in Michigan children should be identified in order to devise effective control and prevention measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Younus
- Department of Epidemiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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Schotte U, Borchers D, Wulff C, Geue L. Salmonella Montevideo outbreak in military kennel dogs caused by contaminated commercial feed, which was only recognized through monitoring. Vet Microbiol 2006; 119:316-23. [PMID: 16979851 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2006] [Revised: 08/05/2006] [Accepted: 08/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A large outbreak of canine salmonellosis in military watch dogs due to Salmonella Montevideo and/or Salmonella Give was only recognized through a monitoring program, implemented by the military forces. In 51 out of 80 exposed dogs (63.8%) from four kennels Salmonella was isolated from fecal samples. The prevalence per sampling day ranged from 5.6 to 77.8%. Clinical disease with mild diarrhea but without fever appeared only in nine dogs (11.3% of study population, 16.9% of cases) from one kennel (***P < 0.001). Risk analysis identified "dog food A" (odds ratio 3.33 [1.12 < OR < 10.06] *P < 0.05) and "dog food C" (odds ratio 3.40 [1.07 < OR < 11.22] *P < 0.05), two commercial dehydrated dog feeds, as suspected infectious sources. Feeding "dog food C" alone or together with "dog food A" was significantly associated with clinical disease (***P < 0.001). S. Montevideo and S. Give with similar plasmid profiles and PFGE-restriction patterns were isolated from the suspected dog feeds and fecal samples. This outbreak demonstrates not only that Salmonella infections in dogs occur without clinical symptoms but also that large outbreaks occur after feeding dehydrated dog feeds. Especially in households with known risk group patients this finding demonstrates a particular risk for their owners, as they often live in close contact with their animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Schotte
- Zentrales Institut des Sanitätsdienstes der Bundeswehr Kiel, Laborabteilung II, Veterinärmedizin, Kopperpahler Allee 120, 24119 Kronshagen, Germany.
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Doorduyn Y, Van Den Brandhof WE, Van Duynhoven YTHP, Wannet WJB, Van Pelt W. Risk factors for Salmonella Enteritidis and Typhimurium (DT104 and non-DT104) infections in The Netherlands: predominant roles for raw eggs in Enteritidis and sandboxes in Typhimurium infections. Epidemiol Infect 2006; 134:617-26. [PMID: 16638166 PMCID: PMC2870426 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268805005406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1996 Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 salmonellosis has increased in The Netherlands. This prompted a case-control study of risk factors for salmonellosis to inform transmission routes for this phage type. Cases were laboratory-confirmed patients with a Salmonella infection and controls were selected from population registries by frequency matching for age, sex, degree of urbanization and season. Cases and controls received a questionnaire on risk factors. Of the 1171 cases, 573 (49%) responded: 245 S. Enteritidis and 232 S. Typhimurium cases (both DT104 and non-DT104), of which 58 were DT104. Of the 10250 controls, 3409 (33%) responded. Use of H2 antagonists [odds ratio (OR) 4.4, 95% CI 1.6-12.2] and proton pump inhibitors (OR 4.2, 95% CI 2.2-7.9), consumption of raw eggs (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.3-7.4) and products containing raw eggs (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1-3.0) were associated with endemic S. Enteritidis infection. Risk factors for endemic S. Typhimurium infection were use of proton pump inhibitors (OR 8.3, 95% CI 4.3-15.9), occupational exposure to raw meat (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.1-7.9), playing in a sandbox (for children aged 4-12 years) (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.7), consumption of undercooked meat (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.1-4.1) and use of antibiotics (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.0-3.4). Use of proton pump inhibitors (OR 11.2, 95% CI 3.9-31.9) and playing in a sandbox (OR 4.4, 95% CI 1.8-10.7) were the only risk factors for S. Typhimurium DT104 salmonellosis. This study confirms known risk factors for salmonellosis. However, playing in a sandbox was a predominant new risk factor for S. Typhimurium salmonellosis in children [population attributable risk (PAR) 14%], and especially for S. Typhimurium DT104 (PAR 32%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Doorduyn
- Centre for Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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Baker MG, Thornley CN, Lopez LD, Garrett NK, Nicol CM. A recurring salmonellosis epidemic in New Zealand linked to contact with sheep. Epidemiol Infect 2006; 135:76-83. [PMID: 16740191 PMCID: PMC2870545 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268806006534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
One strain of Salmonella Brandenburg began causing large numbers of human infections in New Zealand in 1998. We investigated the emergence of this strain using combined notification and laboratory data on human and animal disease and a case-control study. S. Brandenburg infection in humans was characterized by spring peaks and high rates in the southern half of the South Island. This epidemic pattern followed very closely that seen in sheep. The case-control study found that infection was significantly associated with occupational contact with sheep and having a household member who had occupational contact with sheep, during the 3 days prior to illness or interview. We conclude that S. Brandenburg has become established as a zoonotic disease in New Zealand. Preventing infection requires control of the epidemic in sheep through vaccination, changes in farm management practices, and promotion of hand washing and other precautions to protect farmers and their families.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Baker
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR), Porirua, New Zealand.
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Schutze GE, Flick EL, Stefanova R, Spencer HJ, Lensing SY, Berry DA, Cave MD. Molecular epidemiologic surveillance of salmonellosis in Arkansas. South Med J 2004; 97:583-7. [PMID: 15255426 DOI: 10.1097/00007611-200406000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Salmonella serotype Newport and Salmonella serotype Typhimurium are the most commonly identified serotypes of Salmonella causing human disease in the state of Arkansas. The purpose of our study was to compare the results of standard and molecular epidemiologic methods of investigating human salmonellosis cases due to Salmonella serotype Newport and Salmonella serotype Typhimurium. METHODS All isolates of Salmonella serotype Newport and Salmonella serotype Typhimurium collected and submitted to the Arkansas Department of Health between July 1, 1997 and June 30, 1998 were gathered and underwent pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Patients from whom the isolates were collected were contacted and completed a questionnaire. RESULTS There were 84 patients from whom Salmonella serotype Newport was isolated and 83 from whom Salmonella serotype Typhimurium was isolated during the study period. In the 124 patients (74%) who completed the questionnaire, Salmonella serotype Newport was more likely to be the infecting agent in younger, white, and pet-owning patients (P < 0.05). The use of PFGE confirmed that approximately 20% of the organisms had genetic fingerprint patterns identical to those of at least one other individual in the state. One third of the patients from whom these isolates were obtained were linked by standard epidemiologic methods. CONCLUSIONS The use of PFGE on our state's most common isolates provides additional confirmation that despite being linked by time of onset and location of residence, the majority of the human salmonellosis cases in our region are still sporadic. Low-level, intermittent transmission of these organisms through environmental contamination and contact with asymptomatically infected individuals would be likely vehicles of transmission in our state. Molecular techniques are important in surveillance systems that investigate human salmonellosis. Eighty-one percent of the Salmonella serotype Newport and 92% of the Salmonella serotype Typhimurium cases that appeared to be outbreak-related based upon time of onset and location were actually found not to be outbreak-related by PFGE. Using techniques such as PFGE will allow for more focused evaluations of potential outbreaks and will save the already limited financial and human resources that would otherwise be spent on investigations that are not warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon E Schutze
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA.
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LeJeune JT, Davis MA. Outbreaks of zoonotic enteric disease associated with animal exhibits. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004; 224:1440-5. [PMID: 15124883 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2004.224.1440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey T LeJeune
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
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Larson EL, Lin SX, Gomez-Pichardo C, Della-Latta P. Effect of antibacterial home cleaning and handwashing products on infectious disease symptoms: a randomized, double-blind trial. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140:321-9. [PMID: 14996673 PMCID: PMC2082058 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-140-5-200403020-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the widespread household use of cleaning and personal hygiene products containing antibacterial ingredients, their effects on the incidence of infectious disease symptoms have not been studied. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of antibacterial cleaning and handwashing products for consumers on the occurrence of infectious disease symptoms in households. DESIGN Randomized, double-blind clinical trial. SETTING Northern Manhattan inner-city neighborhood, New York. PARTICIPANTS 238 primarily Hispanic households (1178 persons) that included at least one preschool-age child. INTERVENTIONS Households were randomly assigned to use either antibacterial or nonantibacterial products for general cleaning, laundry, and handwashing. All products were commercially available, but the packaging was blinded and the products were provided free to participants. MEASUREMENTS Hygiene practices and infectious disease symptoms were monitored by weekly telephone calls, monthly home visits, and quarterly interviews for 48 weeks. RESULTS Symptoms were primarily respiratory: During 26.2% (717 of 2736) of household-months, 23.3% (640 of 2737) of household-months, and 10.2% (278 of 2737) of household-months, one or more members of the household had a runny nose, cough, or sore throat, respectively. Fever was present during 11% (301 of 2737) of household-months, vomiting was present in 2.2% (61 of 2737), diarrhea was present in 2.5% (69 of 2737), and boils or conjunctivitis were present in 0.77% (21 of 2737). Differences between intervention and control groups were not significant for any symptoms (all unadjusted and adjusted relative risks included 1.0) or for numbers of symptoms (overall incidence density ratio, 0.96 [95% CI, 0.82 to 1.12]). CONCLUSIONS The tested antibacterial products did not reduce the risk for symptoms of viral infectious diseases in households that included essentially healthy persons. This does not preclude the potential contribution of these products to reducing symptoms of bacterial diseases in the home.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine L Larson
- Columbia University and Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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Barker J, Naeeni M, Bloomfield SF. The effects of cleaning and disinfection in reducing Salmonella contamination in a laboratory model kitchen. J Appl Microbiol 2003; 95:1351-60. [PMID: 14633010 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.02127.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To establish a laboratory model to compare the effectiveness of detergent-based disinfection procedures for reducing cross-contamination risks during handling of contaminated chicken. METHODS AND RESULTS During handling of chickens, artificially contaminated with Salmonella enteritidis PT4, the organism was widely spread to hands, cloths, and hand- and food-contact surfaces. Hygiene procedures were assessed on the basis of their ability to reduce the number of recoverable salmonellas to <1 CFU. Although detergent-based cleaning using a typical bowl-wash routine without rinsing produced some risk reduction (from 100 to 61.4% of contaminated surfaces), it was insufficient to consistently restore surfaces to a hygienic state. By combining detergent-based cleaning with a rinsing step or with hypochlorite at 500 ppm (of available chlorine) some further reduction in microbial risk was achieved, but was not considered satisfactory for food hygiene purposes. By contrast the risk reduction produced by hypochlorite at 5000 ppm was highly significant and was sufficient to reduce the number of contaminated surfaces to 2.9%. CONCLUSIONS A key step in achieving a hygienic state through detergent-based cleaning is rinsing but even this will not produce a 'hygienic' result for difficult surfaces such as the chopping board or the dishcloth. Disinfectant compounds should be considered in order to reduce the potential for foodborne cross infection within the home environment. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Although tests are available to determine the performance of disinfectants, there are no quantitative procedures available to compare the risk reduction achieved by disinfection with that produced by detergent-based procedures. This study describes a reproducible laboratory method which can be used to differentiate the effectiveness of different hygiene procedures for reducing cross-contamination risks during food handling.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Barker
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, UK.
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37
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Stiver SL, Frazier KS, Mauel MJ, Styer EL. Septicemic Salmonellosis in Two Cats Fed a Raw-Meat Diet. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2003; 39:538-42. [PMID: 14736718 DOI: 10.5326/0390538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella gastroenteritis and septicemia were diagnosed in two cats presented for necropsy. Both cats resided in the same household and were fed a home-prepared, raw meat-based diet. Salmonella was isolated from multiple organs in both cats and from samples of raw beef incorporated into the diet fed to one of the cats. Subtyping of the bacterial isolates yielded Salmonella newport from one cat and from the diet it had been fed. This report provides evidence that the practice of feeding raw meat-based diets to domestic cats may result in clinical salmonellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane L Stiver
- Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Tifton, Georgia 31794, USA
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38
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Barber DA, Miller GY, McNamara PE. Models of antimicrobial resistance and foodborne illness: examining assumptions and practical applications. J Food Prot 2003; 66:700-9. [PMID: 12696700 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-66.4.700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is an issue of increasing global concern. Several investigators have suggested that antibiotic use in food-producing animals is a major contributor to the increasing incidence of antimicrobial-resistant organisms causing illness in humans (F. J. Angulo, K. R. Johnson, R. V. Tauxe, and M. L. Cohen, Microb. Drug Res. 6:77-83, 2000; P. D. Fey, T. J. Safranek, M. E. Rupp, E. F. Dunne, R. Efrain, P. C. Iwen, P. A. Bradford, F. J. Angulo, and S. H. Hinrichs, N. Engl. J. Med. 342:1242-1249, 2000; S. A. McEwen and P. J. Fedorka-Cray, Commun. Infect. Dis. 34(Suppl. 3):S93-S106, 2002; D. L. Smith, A. D. Harris, J. A. Johnson, E. K. Silbergeld, and J. G. Morris, Jr., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:6434-6439, 2002; D. G. White, S. Zhao, R. Sudler, S. Ayers, S. Friedman, S. Chen, P. F. McDermott, D. D. Wagner, and J. Meng, N. Engl. J. Med. 345:1147-1154, 2001; W. Witte, Science 279:996, 1998). In this paper, we discuss this and other assumptions relevant to a quantitative risk assessment model for salmonellosis in humans. We also discuss other important aspects of modeling food safety and food-associated antimicrobial resistance risk to humans. We suggest that the role of food-producing animals in the origin and transmission of antimicrobial resistance and "foodborne" pathogens has been overestimated and overemphasized in the scientific literature; consequently, nonfoodborne transmission, including pet-associated human cases, has been underemphasized. Much evidence exists for the potential contribution to infectious disease that may be of human or pet origin (that may contact humans through food but not be of a food origin). Risk analyses that do not acknowledge the potential for these sources of cross-contamination will understate the contribution that origin has in the realm of foodborne and food-associated diseases (e.g., Salmonella) and the resulting uncertainty levels in the food system, thus leading to biased inferences. We emphasize the importance of evaluating both the foodborne and nonfoodborne transmission risk for salmonellosis and outline the basics of an analytical modeling approach in food safety with examples to illustrate strengths and limitations in the modeling. Examples illustrate, on a simplistic level, how varying assumptions and other inputs can influence the output of food-associated quantitative risk models.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Barber
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
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Haysom IW, Sharp K. The survival and recovery of bacteria in vacuum cleaner dust. THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF HEALTH 2003; 123:39-45. [PMID: 12722582 DOI: 10.1177/146642400312300114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The possibility exists that environmental dust could be a source of gastro-intestinal infection in the domestic environment and that the causative microbes are collected during vacuum cleaning. This study examines the survival of total bacterial populations, Enterobacteriaceae and salmonella species in vacuum cleaner dust in vitro and in use. Total counts remain constant at around 10(6)-10(8) colony forming units (cfu) g-1 for at least 60 days. Enterobacteriaceae showed only a slight decline over the same period. Recovery of salmonellae artificially inoculated into vacuum dust was dose and time dependent: even relatively small inocula (< 100 cfu g-1) were recoverable more than one month after inoculation. Questionnaires and vacuum cleaner dust samples were received from 76 households. A significant association was found between total bacterial counts and whether the household was in a rural or urban situation and the number of people in the household. No association was found between total bacterial counts and the number of children in the household, the presence of pets, wearing shoes indoors, the makes, model and age of the vacuum cleaner, the type of dust collector or dust bag, how often the vacuum cleaner was used and the length of time between sample collection and microbiological testing. Salmonella species were isolated from vacuum cleaner dust from three of the 76 households although no factors could be identified linking the homes. This study shows that vacuum cleaners are effective collectors and reservoirs of microbial contamination and that these contaminants are able to survive for up to two months. Vacuum cleaner dust could thus be a useful indicator of environmental contamination in the home.
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Affiliation(s)
- I W Haysom
- School of Science and the Environment, Bath Spa University College, Newton Park, Newton St Loe, Bath BA2 9BN, England
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Abstract
The need to place "prevention through hygiene" at the core of strategies for infection prevention has been emphasised by recent events. Indications are that re-evaluation of current practice and the promotion of improved hygiene in the domestic setting could have a significant impact in reducing infectious disease. If the public are to play a part however they must be properly informed. Encouraging the concept of the home as a setting in which the whole range of activities occur, including food hygiene, personal hygiene and hygiene related to medical care, provides the opportunity for a rational approach to home hygiene based on risk assessment. In the home surfaces (including hand surfaces) and other sites play an important part in the transmission of infection, especially food-borne infections. From an assessment of the frequency of occurrence of pathogens and potential pathogens at reservoirs, disseminators and hand and food contact sites together with the potential for transfer within the home, the risks of exposure can be assessed. This can be used to develop a rational approach in which effective hygiene procedures involving cleaning and disinfection as appropriate are targeted at these sites to reduce risks of cross contamination. This approach is consistent with the view that good home hygiene is not about "getting rid of household germs" but about targeting hygiene measures appropriately to reduce exposure to germs and thereby prevent cross infection. In motivating change, education programmes must take account of concerns related to antimicrobial resistance, the environment and the "health" of the immune system.
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Rice DH, Hancock DD, Roozen PM, Szymanski MH, Scheenstra BC, Cady KM, Besser TE, Chudek PA. Household contamination with Salmonella enterica. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9:120-2. [PMID: 12533294 PMCID: PMC2873743 DOI: 10.3201/eid0901.020214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Household contamination with Salmonella enterica increases when occupational exposure exists (cattle farms with known salmonellosis in cattle, a salmonella research laboratory, or a veterinary clinic experiencing an outbreak of salmonellosis). Fifteen of 55 (27.2%) vacuum cleaner bags from households with occupational exposure to S. enterica were positive versus 1 of 24 (4.2%) without known exposure. Use of a carpet cleaner and several cleaners/disinfectants reduced, but failed to eliminate, S. enterica from artificially contaminated carpet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel H Rice
- Field Disease Investigation Unit, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7060, USA.
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Sanchez S, Hofacre CL, Lee MD, Maurer JJ, Doyle MP. Animal sources of salmonellosis in humans. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002; 221:492-7. [PMID: 12184697 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2002.221.492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Sanchez
- Athens Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia 30602, USA
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43
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Cogan TA, Slader J, Bloomfield SF, Humphrey TJ. Achieving hygiene in the domestic kitchen: the effectiveness of commonly used cleaning procedures. J Appl Microbiol 2002; 92:885-92. [PMID: 11972693 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01598.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To quantify the transmission of Salmonella and Campylobacter to hands, cloths, and hand- and food-contact surfaces during the preparation of raw poultry in domestic kitchens, and to examine the impact on numbers of these bacteria of detergent-based cleaning alone, or in conjunction with thorough rising. METHODS AND RESULTS Groups of volunteers prepared chickens for cooking. Surfaces were sampled either before cleaning or after cleaning using water and detergent with or without thorough rinsing. Although cleaning followed by rinsing consistently achieved decontamination of surfaces contaminated with Campylobacter, significant numbers of surfaces were still contaminated with low numbers of Salmonella. Where cloths contaminated with Salmonella were stored overnight, a reduction in the efficacy of detergent-based cleaning regimes was observed. CONCLUSIONS Rinsing is the critical step in ensuring that bacteria are removed from surfaces during cleaning, but this may still leave residual contamination. Growth of Salmonella occurs in some contaminated cloths during overnight storage; Salmonella on cloths stored overnight are also more difficult to remove by washing. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Rinsing, as part of the cleaning process, is a critical step in achieving hygiene in the kitchen. However, to achieve completely hygienic surfaces, the use of an antimicrobial agent may be necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Cogan
- PHLS Food Microbiology Collaborating Laboratory, Exeter, UK.
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Kagan LJ, Aiello AE, Larson E. The role of the home environment in the transmission of infectious diseases. J Community Health 2002; 27:247-67. [PMID: 12190054 PMCID: PMC7087835 DOI: 10.1023/a:1016378226861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to examine current health care literature (1980-2000) regarding the microbiology of the home environment, to summarize evidence of transmission within the home, and to assess effectiveness of cleaning practices and products. The home environment, particularly the kitchen and bathroom, serves as a reservoir of large numbers of microorganisms, particularly Enterobacteriacae, and infectious disease transmission has been demonstrated to occur in 6-60% of households in which one member is ill. Current food preparation and cleaning practices provide multiple opportunities for intra-household member spread. Routine cleaning is often sufficient, but in cases of household infection, may not adequately reduce environmental contamination. The effectiveness of disinfectants varies considerably and depends on how they are used as well as their intrinsic efficacy. The behavioral aspects of infection prevention in the home (e.g., foodhandling and cleaning practices) warrant increased public attention and education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori J. Kagan
- Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Allison E. Aiello
- Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Elaine Larson
- Department of Epidemiology, Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University School of Nursing, 630 W. 168th St., New York, NY 10032
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45
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46
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Sockett PN, Rodgers FG. Enteric and foodborne disease in children: A review of the influence of food- and environment-related risk factors. Paediatr Child Health 2001; 6:203-9. [PMID: 20084237 PMCID: PMC2804543 DOI: 10.1093/pch/6.4.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Canadian statistics show that children from birth to four years of age are more likely to be reported with an infection from Campylobacter, Giardia, Salmonella and Shigella species, and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli than any other age group. A review of the Canadian and international literature, and an analysis of case and outbreak data suggest that the risk factors for infection in young children (ages birth to four years) are different from the risk factors for older children and adults. In children from birth to four years of age, infant formula, fast foods, snacks and candies have caused major outbreaks of enteric and foodborne diseases; however, the contamination of a child's environment or the presence of ill individuals in a household may be highly significant to disease expression. Contact with animals (including family pets) and contaminated surfaces, together with experimental touching and testing behaviours, are important routes of infection for infants and preschool children. Risk factors for enteric infections in children appear to be related, occasionally, to specific foods that are particularly attractive to all children (all age groups from infants up to and including elementary school-aged childen), to an infected person or pet in the same household, or to the contamination of a child's environment. Nonfood-related risk factors may be of particular significance in infection in infants and very young children. Contact with animals, particularly exotic pets and farm animals, or their environments should be considered to be a potential source of infection in children in situations in which there is an absence of other risk factors. The evidence presented in the current paper emphasizes the importance of personal and home hygiene practices in limiting children's exposure to enteric pathogens. Strict hand washing practices and restrictions on touching birds, reptiles and other animals at petting zoos or in nursery and primary school facilities are recommended to avoid widespread infection. Public health authorities should consider the development of guidelines on the provision of hand washing facilities and instruction notices in settings where the public may come into contact with farm or other animals in jurisdictions where such guidelines do not already exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul N Sockett
- Division of Enteric, Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases, Bureau of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
| | - Frank G Rodgers
- National Laboratory for Enteric Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Health Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba
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47
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Larson E, Gomez Duarte C. Home hygiene practices and infectious disease symptoms among household members. Public Health Nurs 2001; 18:116-27. [PMID: 11285106 DOI: 10.1046/j.1525-1446.2001.00116.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Public health programs are generally targeted to communitywide, population-based prevention strategies, with little attention focused on the home environment as one potential source of transmission of infectious diseases. The purpose of this correlational prevalence survey was to describe the relationship between home hygiene practices and prevalence of infectious disease symptoms among household members. Three hundred and ninety-eight households with 1,662 members in an inner-city population (96.4% Hispanic) were surveyed to examine hygiene practices and determine the presence of transmission of infection, defined as the presence of the same symptom(s) in two or more household members for which at least one individual sought medical attention and received treatment. At least one individual in 78.6% of households reported symptoms of infection in the previous 30 days, and 37.9% of households met the definition of disease transmission. In univariate analyses, five factors were significantly associated with risk of household transmission, but in the logistic regression model, only use of communal laundry (p = 0.009) and lack of bleach use (p = 0.04) were significantly predictive of increased risk of transmission. This is the first comprehensive survey of home hygiene practices and the first study to identify a potential link between laundry and risk of disease transmission in homes. This potential link warrants further study in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Larson
- Columbia University School of Nursing, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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48
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Abstract
Environmental microbiologists have accumulated a substantial amount of information about the relationship between cross-contamination and the transmission of foodborne pathogens in the home. This information can be translated into guidelines for safe, effective hygienic practices in the home. Such guidelines cannot be mandated but should be strongly promoted via health and hygiene agencies to the general public. Establishing consensus-based, effective hygiene guidelines will benefit the community by reducing the risk of home-based infections such as foodborne disease and by lowering the associated healthcare costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Scott
- Food and Environmental Hygiene, Newton, MA, USA.
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49
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Barker J, Bloomfield SF. Survival of Salmonella in bathrooms and toilets in domestic homes following salmonellosis. J Appl Microbiol 2000; 89:137-44. [PMID: 10945790 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.01091.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The survival and environmental spread of Salmonella bacteria from domestic toilets was examined in homes, where a family member had recently suffered an attack of salmonellosis. In four out of six households tested, Salmonella bacteria persisted in the biofilm material found under the recess of the toilet bowl rim which was difficult to remove with household toilet cleaners. In two homes Salmonella bacteria became incorporated into the scaly biofilm adhering to the toilet bowl surface below the water line. Salmonella enteritidis persisted in one toilet for 4 weeks after the diarrhoea had stopped, despite the use of cleaning fluids. Salmonellas were not isolated from normally dry areas such as, the toilet seat, the flush handle and door handle. Toilet seeding experiments were set up with Salmonella enteritidis PT4 to mimic environmental conditions associated with acute diarrhoea. Flushing the toilet resulted in contamination of the toilet seat and the toilet seat lid. In one out of three seedings, Salmonella bacteria were also isolated from an air sample taken immediately after flushing, indicating that airborne spread of the organism could contaminate surfaces in the bathroom. In the seeded toilet Salmonella bacteria were isolated from the biofilm in the toilet bowl below the waterline for up to 50 d after seeding, and also on one occasion from the bowl water. The results suggest that during diarrhoeal illness, there is considerable risk of spread of Salmonella infection to other family members via the environment, including contaminated hands and surfaces in the toilet area.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Barker
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Institute, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK.
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50
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gendrel
- Hôpital Saint-Vincent-de-Paul, Paris, France
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