Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children

Clinical Profile and Outcome of Pediatric Demyelinating Disorders in Calabar, Nigeria: A Case Series

BACKGROUND

Demyelinating disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) are rare disorders characterized by inflammation and the selective destruction of CNS myelin. The incidence of this disorder is increasing in developed countries. Nigerian studies on the pediatric population on the subject are very scarce.

AIMS

The aim of the study was to document the epidemiology, clinical profile, and impact of late presentation on the treatment outcome of demyelinating diseases of the CNS in pediatric patients.

METHODS

The retrospective review of patients aged 1-15 years admitted in a tertiary hospital from January 2018 to December 2022 with various symptoms suggestive of demyelinating CNS disorders. The diagnosis was clinically and radiologically confirmed. Information retrieved from the case notes included patients' demographics, clinical symptoms and signs, number of days with symptoms to presentation in the hospital, results of the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), treatment, and treatment outcomes. Data were entered in Excel sheet and results were presented in tables and percentages.

RESULTS

The incidence of demyelinating disorders over the period was 0.013% (10 out of 769 patients admitted over the period). Acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis (ADEM) was the most common disorder seen in the study population (60%, n = 6), followed by transverse myelitis and two (20%) had optic neuritis (ON). Most of the patients with ADEM were in the 1-5-year age group. The female-to-male ratio was 2.3:1. Paraplegia, visual impairment, and ataxia were the most common clinical presentations in the study population. One of the patients met the criteria for the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis during follow-up. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was identified as the cause of demyelination in one case. Most of the patients improved with steroids.

CONCLUSION

ADEM was the most common clinical phenotype seen in this study. Patients with ADEM and ON had a better prognosis than transverse myelitis. Late presentation was also identified as a poor prognostic factor. Follow-up of cases is very important to monitor disease progression to multiple sclerosis.

Detecting seasonal trends in optic neuritis within the Ottawa region

OBJECTIVE

In this study we aim to determine seasonal patterns underlying optic neuritis (ON) onset that may provide valuable epidemiologic information and help delineate causative or protective factors.

DESIGN

Single-centre retrospective chart review.

METHODS

A database search of centralized electronic health records was completed using diagnostic codes employed at the Ottawa Eye Institute for data collection. Charts were reviewed for documentation supporting a diagnosis of ON falling into the following categories: multiple sclerosis ON and clinically isolated syndrome ON, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein ON, neuromyelitis optica ON, and idiopathic ON. Date of onset, biological sex, and age were extracted from each chart. Data were analyzed for calculation of frequency by season and overall pooled seasonal trends of all cases of ON.

RESULTS

From the 218 included patients with ON, there was no statistically significant seasonal correlation. The overall trend of ON was lowest in winter and spring (22% and 23%, respectively) and highest in summer and fall (28% and 27% respective). Divided further, multiple sclerosis ON or clinically isolated syndrome ON rates (n = 144) were lowest in the spring (21%) and highest in fall (29%); myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein ON rates (n = 25) were lowest in winter (16%) and highest in summer and fall (both at 32%); neuromyelitis optica ON rates (n = 16) were lowest in fall (12.5%) and highest in winter and summer (both at 31.25%); and idiopathic ON rates (n = 33) were lowest in fall (18%) and highest in spring (33%).

CONCLUSIONS

The overall ON seasonal trend appears to have a predilection for the summer and fall months, which may be explained by warmer weather and viral infections as risk factors for multiple sclerosis relapse during those seasons.

Incidence of Pediatric Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic in South Korea

BACKGROUND

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system that is usually triggered by infections. We aimed to determine the temporal trends in the incidence of ADEM before and during the pandemic and their correlation with viral epidemiology.

METHODS

We conducted a nationwide, population-based, retrospective, ADEM cohort study by using the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service database. New-onset ADEM was defined as a patient (age <19 years) who was hospitalized with a diagnostic code of G04.0, G36.8, and G36.9 and a prescription of intravenous methylprednisolone. The National Infectious Disease Surveillance System was used to collect the nationwide viral epidemics.

RESULTS

A total of 185 new-onset pediatric ADEM cases were included. The mean patient age was 7.0 ± 4.9 years. The incidence of ADEM was 0.34 to 0.48 of 100,000 persons per year before the pandemic, which dropped to 0.22 of 100,000 persons per year during the first pandemic year. The risk of ADEM occurrence was approximately 1.74% higher during the prepandemic years compared with the first pandemic year (odds ratio = 1.017, P = 0.009). There was a weak positive correlation between acute respiratory viral infection and ADEM incidence (r = 0.28, P = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates how infection control during the early coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic influenced the incidence of ADEM. The low incidence of ADEM in the early COVID-19 pandemic may be related to the decline in acute respiratory viral infections, which are potential triggers of ADEM.

Clinical Presentation and Outcomes of Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in Adults Worldwide: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a rare demyelinating disorder that is often misdiagnosed. To improve early diagnosis, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical features, outcomes for ADEM in adults.

Methods

The PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases were searched for studies reporting the clinical features of adults with ADEM between January 1990 and May 2021. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used to pool data on clinical features and functional outcomes.

Results

Twelve studies examining 437 adults with ADEM met the inclusion criteria. Overall, the clinical features and diagnostic findings observed in more than two-thirds of the patients were white matter lesions [87.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI)=75-95.6], polyfocal onset (80.5%, 95% CI=50.5-98.9) and pyramidal signs (68.7%, 95% CI =40.0-91.9). The mortality rate was 7.8% (95% CI = 3.3–13.5), and the risk of residual deficits was 47.5% (95% CI = 31.8–63.4).

Conclusions

Adults with ADEM had worse outcomes than children. Clinicians should maintain high clinical suspicion for patients presenting with certain clinical features and diagnostic findings.

Weakness, Numbness and Urinary Incontinence in an 11-Year-Old Female

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) affects the central nervous system (CNS) via a rapid and auto-immune process. It has been associated to viral and bacterial infections, as well as after immunization. Since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic, reports of COVID 19 infection have been linked to ADEM. We present a case of an 11-year-old female with neurological symptoms during the acute phase of her COVID-19 illness, with MRI changes and positive Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG) antibodies, with clinical presentation consistent of ADEM.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in a 2-Year-Old Patient Following COVID-19

This report presents the case of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in a 2-year-old patient following a positive severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) test. She presented with ataxic gait, truncal ataxia, and reduced coordination following 10 days of intermittent fever and lethargy. She did not have any respiratory symptoms. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spine showed widespread T2 high signal within the gray and white matters and within the spinal cord. She was treated with intravenous methylprednisolone followed by tapering oral prednisolone; this led to resolution of her neurological symptoms. This case highlights that neurological complications can occur secondary to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis Following COVID-19: Systematic Review and Meta-synthesis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, a growing number of reports have described cases of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHLE) following infection with COVID-19. Given their relatively rare occurrence, the primary objective of this systematic review was to synthesize their clinical features, response to treatments, and clinical outcomes to better understand the nature of this neurologic consequence of COVID-19 infection.

METHODS

Patients with a history of COVID-19 infection were included if their reports provided adequate detail to confirm a diagnosis of ADEM or AHLE by virtue of clinical features, radiographic abnormalities, and histopathologic findings. Cases purported to be secondary to vaccination against COVID-19 or occurring in the context of a preexisting relapsing CNS demyelinating disease were excluded. Case reports and series were identified via PubMed on May 17, 2021, and 4 additional cases from the authors' hospital files supplemented the systematic review of the literature. Summary statistics were used to describe variables using a complete case analysis approach.

RESULTS

Forty-six patients (28 men, median age 49.5 years, 1/3 >50 years old) were analyzed, derived from 26 case reports or series originating from 8 countries alongside 4 patient cases from the authors' hospital files. COVID-19 infection was laboratory confirmed in 91% of cases, and infection severity necessitated intensive care in 67%. ADEM occurred in 31 cases, whereas AHLE occurred in 15, with a median presenting nadir modified Rankin Scale score of 5 (bedridden). Anti-MOG seropositivity was rare (1/15 patients tested). Noninflammatory CSF was present in 30%. Hemorrhage on brain MRI was identified in 42%. Seventy percent received immunomodulatory treatments, most commonly steroids, IV immunoglobulins, or plasmapheresis. The final mRS score was ≥4 in 64% of patients with adequate follow-up information, including 32% who died.

DISCUSSION

In contrast to ADEM cases from the prepandemic era, reported post-COVID-19 ADEM and AHLE cases were often advanced in age at onset, experienced severe antecedent infection, displayed an unusually high rate of hemorrhage on neuroimaging, and routinely had poor neurologic outcomes, including a high mortality rate. Findings are limited by nonstandardized reporting of cases, truncated follow-up information, and presumed publication bias.

Impact of COVID-19 public health measures on myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein IgG-associated disorders in children

BACKGROUND

Despite better characterization of the spectrum of MOG-IgG-associated disorders (MOGAD) in children, the role of infection in its pathophysiology remains unclear. The goal of this study was to evaluate if public health measures put in place to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in March 2020 in Ontario (Canada) have been associated with a change in the incidence of MOGAD and other neuroinflammatory disorders in children.

METHODOLOGY

We reviewed a single-centre cohort of children referred for a suspicion of neuroinflammatory disorder between January 2015 and March 2021. Age, date, sex, diagnosis, MOG-IgG antibodies status and detected pathogens at presentation were identified. Comparative statistical analysis was performed based on diagnosis between years and seasons using Pearson's Chi-squared test or Fisher's exact test for categorical variables and using ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis test for continuous variables, as appropriate. We compared the post-lockdown period (March 17th, 2020, to March 31st, 2021) to previous calendar years (2015 to 2019) alone and to previous calendar years and the pre-lockdown 2020 period (January 1st, 2020, to March 16th, 2020). A p-value of < 0.05 was considered significant. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons between the post-lockdown period and previous years were performed on significant results. A false discovery rate adjustment with an adjusted p-value (q-value) < 0.05 was computed. We hypothesized that the number of new MOGAD would be significantly lower in the post-lockdown period compared to previous years due to decreased regional pathogen transmission.

RESULTS

Among 491 referred cases, we identified 415 new cases of neuroinflammatory disorder between January 2015 and March 2021. The number of new neuroinflammatory disorder diagnoses did not change between years. We noted significantly fewer new MOGAD diagnoses in 2020 compared to previous years, with no MOGAD patients presenting in 2020 after the spring lockdown (q=0.0009). In addition, there were significantly fewer parainfectious neuroinflammatory cases (q=0.04) and pathogen detected (q=0.04) in the post-lockdown period. The number of new multiple sclerosis (MS) and aquaporin-4 neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (AQP4-NMOSD) cases remained stable despite the lockdown (q=0.185 and 0.693 respectively).

INTERPRETATION

Enhanced population-based infection control strategies may have a role in modulating the incidence of MOGAD and parainfectious neuroinflammatory disorders, but not MS or AQP4-NMOSD.

Tumefactive demyelination: updated perspectives on diagnosis and management

INTRODUCTION

Tumefactive demyelination (TD) can be a challenging scenario for clinicians due to difficulties distinguishing it from other conditions, such as neoplasm or infection; or with managing the consequences of acute lesions, and then deciding upon the most appropriate longer term treatment strategy.

AREAS COVERED

The authors review the literature regarding TD covering its clinic-radiological features, association with multiple sclerosis (MS), and its differential diagnosis with other neuroinflammatory and non-inflammatory mimicking disorders with an emphasis on atypical forms of demyelination including acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), MOG antibody-associated demyelination (MOGAD) and neuromyelitis spectrum disorders (NMOSD). We also review the latest in the acute and long-term treatment of TD.

EXPERT OPINION

It is important that the underlying cause of TD be determined whenever possible to guide the management approach which differs between different demyelinating and other inflammatory conditions. Improved neuroimaging and advances in serum and CSF biomarkers should one day allow early and accurate diagnosis of TD leading to better outcomes for patients.

Post-COVID-19 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in a 17-Month-Old

Neurologic manifestations of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in pediatric patients have been reported in the acute and postinfectious stages of coronavirus disease 2019. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) typically presents in children after a viral illness at a mean age of 3 to 7 years. A total of 60% to 90% of literature-reported pediatric patients with ADEM have minimal to no neurologic deficits at long-term follow-up. We present a 17-month-old developmentally typical girl with parental complaints of irritability, upper extremity weakness, and gait disturbance. She presented to the hospital afebrile and irritable with right-sided nasolabial fold flattening, neck stiffness, left upper extremity rigidity, right upper extremity paresis, bilateral lower extremity hyperreflexia, and truncal ataxia. During her hospital course, she became somnolent with autonomic instability and was transferred to intensive care. Contrasted brain MRI revealed diffuse patchy T2 hyperintensities without contrast enhancement. Nasopharyngeal SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction and serum antibody testing results were positive. Cerebral spinal fluid analysis was unremarkable. Respiratory viral panel and autoimmune encephalitis and demyelinating disorders panel results were negative. She was started on high-dose methylprednisolone and intravenous immunoglobulin, with improvement in mental status, focal deficits, and ambulation. After hospital discharge, she received inpatient rehabilitation for 2 weeks and at 2 month follow-up had a full neurologic recovery. We report the youngest case of postinfectious ADEM due to SARS-CoV-2 in a toddler. Early recognition of autoimmune and inflammatory complications of SARS-CoV-2 is vital for early aggressive immunomodulatory treatment and, consequently, improved morbidity in these patients.

Epidemiology of Demyelinating Diseases in Korean Pediatric Patients

The epidemiology of demyelinating diseases in the Korean pediatric population has not been reported to date. This study aimed to identify the epidemiology of demyelinating diseases in Korean children by using big data. The subjects were children (0-17 years old) diagnosed with acute-disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiple sclerosis, neuromyelitis optica, and Guillain-Barré syndrome enrolled in the Korean Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service (HIRA) from January 2010 to December 2017.Of 1722 enrolled children, 553 (32.1%) had acute-disseminated encephalomyelitis, 170 (9.9%) had multiple sclerosis, 68 (3.9%) had neuromyelitis optica, and 931 (54.1%) had Guillain-Barré syndrome. The male-female ratios were 1.47:1 in acute-disseminated encephalomyelitis, 1.43:1 in Guillain-Barré syndrome, 1:1.66 in multiple sclerosis, and 1:1.62 in neuromyelitis optica. Demyelinating diseases were most prevalent in summer. The prevalence differed by region, with 545 (31.6%) in Seoul and 298 (17.3%) in Gyeonggi. This study is the first to identify the incidence of demyelinating diseases in South Korea.

Management of pediatric post-infectious neurological syndromes

BACKGROUND

Post-Infectious Neurological Syndromes (PINS) are heterogeneous neurological disorders with post or para-infectious onset. PINS diagnosis is complex, mainly related to the absence of any recognized guidelines and a univocal definition.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To elaborate a diagnostic guide for PINS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analysed patients younger than 14 years old admitted to Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital in Rome for PINS from December 2005 to March 2018. Scientific literature using PubMed as research platform was analysed: the key words "Post-Infectious Neurological Syndromes" were used.

RESULTS

A polysymptomatic presentation occurred in a percentage of 88% of the children. Motor signs and visual disturbances the most observed symptoms/signs were the most detached, followed by fever, speech disturbances, sleepiness, headache and bradipsychism. Blood investigations are compatible with inflammation, as a prodromal illnesses was documented in most cases. Normal cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) characteristics has been found in the majority of the study population. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was positive for demyelinating lesions. Antibiotics, acyclovir and steroids have been given as treatment.

DISCUSSION

We suggest diagnostic criteria for diagnosis of PINS, considering the following parameters: neurological symptoms, timing of disease onset, blood and CSF laboratory tests, MRI imaging.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose criteria to guide clinician to diagnose PINS as definitive, probable or possible. Further studies are required to validate diagnostic criteria.

Fulminant Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis: A Remarkable Outcome with Cyclophosphamide

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system which occurs predominantly in the pediatric population. Acute treatment is high-dose intravenous glucocorticoids. Alternative treatment is usually intravenous immune globulin and/or plasma exchange. Fulminant ADEM is rare in children. Only a few cases of cyclophosphamide use in refractory ADEM have been reported. Here, we report a case of a 12-year-old girl with fulminant ADEM who was comatose and improved dramatically after cyclophosphamide administration. Cyclophosphamide treatment should be considered as a therapy in children with fulminant ADEM nonresponsive to standard therapies.

Seasonal distribution of attacks in aquaporin-4 antibody disease and myelin-oligodendrocyte antibody disease

BACKGROUND

Seasonal variation in incidence and exacerbations has been reported for neuroinflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). It is unknown whether seasonality also influences aquaporin-4 antibody (AQP4-Ab) disease and myelin-oligodendrocyte antibody (MOG-Ab) disease.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the seasonal distribution of attacks in AQP4-Ab disease and MOG-Ab disease.

METHODS

Observational study using data prospectively recorded from three cohorts in the United Kingdom.

RESULTS

There was no clear seasonal variation in AQP4-Ab or MOG-Ab attacks for either the onset attack nor subsequent relapses. In both groups, the proportion of attacks manifesting with each of the main phenotypes (optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, ADEM/ADEM-like) appeared stable across the year. This study is the first to examine seasonal distribution of MOG-Ab attacks and the largest in AQP4-Ab disease so far.

CONCLUSION

Lack of seasonal distribution in AQP4-Ab and MOG-Ab disease may argue against environment factors playing a role in the aetiopathogenesis of these conditions.

An interesting case of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis following E. coli infection

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a rare inflammatory demyelinating disease of central nervous system (CNS), characterized by multifocal white matter involvement with neurological deficits and accompanied by encephalopathy. ADEM is thought to be caused by autoimmune etiology. CNS autoantigens are produced by molecular mimicry triggered by an environmental stimulus, mostly infection (viral/bacterial) or post vaccination, in genetically susceptible individuals. ADEM is sometimes referred to as post/para-infectious or post-immunization ADEM. ADEM is characterized by multifocal neurological signs and occasionally it rapidly progresses to coma. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used to confirm the diagnosis. The treatment is based on intravenous high-dose methylprednisolone, which usually leads to a rapid improvement. Recently, the use of intravenous immunoglobulins and plasma exchange (PLEX) has also been suggested. We report a case of a 6-year-old girl who was admitted for urinary tract infection but developed neurological complications which was treated successfully.

Temporal Trends of Pediatric Hospitalizations with Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in the United States: An Analysis from 2006 to 2014 using National Inpatient Sample

OBJECTIVE

To determine the temporal trends in the epidemiology of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and hospitalization outcomes in the US from 2006 through 2014.

STUDY DESIGN

Pediatric (≤18 years of age) hospitalizations with ADEM discharge diagnosis were identified from the National (Nationwide) Inpatient Sample (NIS) for years 2006 through 2014. Trends in the incidence of ADEM with respect to age, sex, race, and region were examined. Outcomes of ADEM in terms of mortality, length of stay (LOS), cost of hospitalization, and seasonal variation were analyzed. NIS includes sampling weight. These weights were used to generate national estimates. P value  of < .05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Overall incidence of ADEM associated pediatric hospitalizations from 2006 through 2014 was 0.5 per 100 000 population. Between 2006 through 2008 and 2012 through 2014, the incidence of ADEM increased from 0.4 to 0.6 per 100 000 (P-trend <.001). Black and Hispanic children had a significantly increased incidence of ADEM during the study period (0.2-0.5 per 100 000 population). There was no sex preponderance and 67% of ADEM hospitalizations were in patients <9 years old. From 2006 through 2008 to 2012 through 2014 (1.1%-1.5%; P-trend 0.07) and median LOS (4.8-5.5 days; P_trend = .3) remained stable. However, median inflation adjusted cost increased from $11 594 in 2006 through 2008 to $16 193 in 2012 through 2014 (P_trend = .002).

CONCLUSION

In this large nationwide cohort of ADEM hospitalizations, the incidence of ADEM increased during the study period. Mortality and LOS have remained stable over time, but inflation adjusted cost of hospitalizations increased.

SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF ACUTE DISSEMINATED ENCEPHALOMYELITIS (ADEM) BY PROMPT USAGE OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS - CASE REPORT AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that usually affects children and young adults. It most commonly has a monophasic course, although relapses are reported. Clinical presentation of the disease includes encephalopathy and multifocal neurological deficits. There are no established reliable criteria for diagnosis of ADEM and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish it from first attack of multiple sclerosis, especially in adults. The diagnosis of ADEM is based on clinical, radiological and laboratory findings. In the treatment of ADEM, high doses of corticosteroids, plasmapheresis and immunoglobulins are used. We report a case of a young adult female patient with ADEM who fully recovered after prompt administration of high dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins.

Increased Intracranial Pressure in Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the intracranial pressure in pediatric acute disseminated encephalomyelitis using spinal tap opening pressure on lumbar puncture, which is routinely performed as part of suspected acute disseminated encephalomyelitis workup. Compared to other cerebrospinal fluid parameters such as cell count, protein concentration, and presence of oligoclonal bands, cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure is infrequently recorded.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of demographic, clinical, and laboratory data of children diagnosed with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis admitted to a tertiary referral hospital between 2005 and 2016.

RESULTS

Of the 36 children diagnosed with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, 24 had the cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure documented in their records. The mean cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure was 27.6±12.6 cmH₂O, range 9-55 cmH₂O (95% confidence interval 21.9-33.6). Cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure in the acute disseminated encephalomyelitis group was statistically significantly higher ( P = .0013, 95% confidence interval 4.2-15.0) than the accepted upper limit in this age group (18 cmH₂O). In 10 of 24 patients (42%), the opening pressure was above 28 cmH₂O.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased opening pressure was the most frequent cerebrospinal fluid abnormal finding in our cohort, which suggests a potential role of increased intracranial pressure in the acute disseminated encephalomyelitis pathophysiological disease mechanism. In certain cases, the opening pressure value could have monitoring and therapeutic implications, and therefore its measurement is highlighted by this study.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in an Incarcerated Adolescent Presents as Acute Psychosis: Case Report and Literature Review

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to describe a case of an incarcerated adolescent with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) presenting as acute psychosis.

METHODS

This was a retrospective case report followed with chart and literature review.

MAIN FINDINGS

An adolescent with ADEM presented with drastic behavior and personality changes that led to her incarceration for serious charges. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis leads to neuropsychiatric effects and can be seen with magnetic resonance imaging as a large mass effect that may result in a poor prognosis. This adolescent made a full recovery from her left facial droop, slurred speech, and left-sided hemiplegia, and her personality changes were reverted.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis can present as acute psychosis; therefore, clinical suspicion is important when treating patients who have a history of past infectious brain diseases, especially encephalitis. Given the rapid onset of disease, physicians must be knowledgeable of the diagnosis and treatment of ADEM and be vigilant in finding organic causes of acute psychosis.

Delayed appearance of transient hyperintensity foci on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

PURPOSE

To evaluate the frequency, characteristics, and clinical significance of transient hyperintensity foci on T1-weighted images (T1WI) in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients diagnosed with ADEM underwent MR studies at the time of disease onset and every 3 months or more often thereafter. The frequency and appearance timing of abnormal signals including T1WI and their morphological characteristics were evaluated. Relations between patient symptoms and abnormal signals on MRI were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Five ADEM patients were included in this study. Linear (n = 2) or nodular (n = 1) T1-hyperintensity foci appeared in 3 patients (60%, 3/5). Locations of T1-hyperintensity foci were both cortical/subcortical region and basal ganglia (n = 1), subcortical region alone (n = 1), and internal capsule (n = 1). Those T1-hyperintensity foci were located within the T2-weighted image (T2WI) and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) hyperintensity foci on initial MRI. Some T1-hyperintensity foci also showed hyperintensity on diffusion-weighted image (DWI) and contrast enhancement. T1-hyperintensity appeared at 14-43 days (median, 28 days), and disappeared in 2 patients at 91 days and 627 days after disease onset. There were no neurological sequelae remained in any patients.

CONCLUSION

T1-hyperintensity foci is not a rare finding (60%) and it can be observed after improvement in symptoms in ADEM.

Imaging of Childhood Inflammatory Brain Diseases

Brain has been considered as an immune-privileged site for centuries owing to the presence of blood-brain barrier, absent lymphatic drainage, and antigen-presenting cells. However, the present prevailing concept is of immune surveillance where brain is continuously surveyed by immune cells. However, the presence of immune cells in central nervous system (CNS) brings the risk of inflammation and autoimmunity involving both T and B cell mediated pathways. These mechanisms form the underlying pathology in a wide spectrum of pediatric CNS diseases manifesting as acquired neurological deficits. Overlapping, heterogenous, and ambiguous clinical features often delays the diagnosis. Although not always pathognomonic, magnetic resonance imaging can be an important biomarker leading to early diagnosis, prognostication, and systematic follow-up pf these diseases. This review describes the spectrum of different pediatric inflammatory disorders and their pertinent imaging features illustrated with clinical examples.

Factors Related to Long Term Motor, Behavioral, and Scholastic Outcome in Children with Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis

OBJECTIVE

We studied the long-term outcome of Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study among children diagnosed with ADEM (fulfilling IPMSSG criteria). Major outcome variables were motor deficit, scholastic underperformance, and behavioral abnormality.

RESULTS

The inclusion criteria were fulfilled by 102 children. Three died in hospital. The follow-up ranged from one to 10 years (median 4 years). Motor deficit was seen in 17(17.2%), attention deficit in 25 (25.3%), behavioral abnormality in 13(13.1%), persistent seizures in seven (7%) invididuals and poor learning skills in 22 (22.2%). Recurrence of demyelination occurred in seven (7.1%). Two individuals had a recurrent demyelinating disorder (a chronic relapsing demyelinating disorder) that could not be classified as multiple sclerosis (MS), two had ADEM with sequential optic neuritis and three had multiphasic ADEM. At follow-up, the mean (SD) modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score was 0.556 (1.36) and Expanded Disability Status Scale score was 1.71(2.22). On multivariate analysis, the mRS score at discharge (p<0.01) and thalamic lesions on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (p<0.01) were associated with motor sequelae; poor learning skills with ADEM with concomitant polyneuropathy (p<0.02); and behavioral abnormality with tumefactive demyelination (p<0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Children who had ADEM may have motor or cognitive sequelae, seizures or recurrent demyelinating events on follow-up. We identified a few risk factors for these sequelae. Factors that affected outcome on discharge from hospital did not affect chances of having long-term sequelae. On follow-up, none of the children fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for MS, suggesting that the chance of conversion of ADEM to MS is less likely.

Optic neuritis in paediatric patients: Experience over 27 years and a management protocol

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

In this article, we present our experience on optic neuritis (ON) and provide a diagnostic/therapeutic protocol, intended to rule out other aetiologies (particularly infection), and a fact sheet for parents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted a descriptive, retrospective study of patients with ON over a 27-year period (1990-2017). A review of the available scientific evidence was performed in order to draft the protocol and fact sheet.

RESULTS

Our neuropaediatrics department has assessed 20,744 patients in the last 27 years, of whom 14 were diagnosed with ON: 8 had isolated ON, 1 had multiple sclerosis (MS), 1 had clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), 3 had acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and 1 had isolated ON and a history of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis one year previously. Patients' age range was 4-13 years; 50% were boys. Eight patients were aged over 10: 7 had isolated ON and 1 had MS. Nine patients had bilateral ON, and 3 had retrobulbar ON. MRI results were normal in 7 patients and showed involvement of the optic nerve only in 2 patients and optic nerve involvement + central nervous system demyelination in 5. Thirteen patients received corticosteroids. One patient had been vaccinated against meningococcus-C the previous month. Progression was favourable, except in the patient with MS. A management protocol and fact sheet are provided.

CONCLUSIONS

ON usually has a favourable clinical course. In children aged older than 10 years with risk factors for MS or optic neuromyelitis (hyperintensity on brain MRI, oligoclonal bands, anti-NMO antibody positivity, ON recurrence), the initiation of immunomodulatory treatment should be agreed with the neurology department. The protocol is useful for diagnostic decision-making, follow-up, and treatment of this rare disease with potentially major repercussions. The use of protocols and fact sheets is important.

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a call to the clinicians for keeping this rare condition on clinical radar

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis is a rare disease of central nervous system, which can present with a variety of clinical manifestations. That is why first attack of ADEM, in particular remains a diagnostic puzzle. Early anticipation and diagnosis is important for better outcomes. We present a case of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis which initially had atypical clinical features with cough, expectoration, fever and later manifested strange neurological features, diagnosed to be a case of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis based on radio-imaging.

Encephalitis in US Children

Encephalitis is an uncommon but severe disease characterized by neurologic dysfunction with central nervous system inflammation. Children with encephalitis should receive supportive care and empiric therapies for common and treatable causes while prioritizing diagnostic evaluation for common, treatable, and high-risk conditions. Even with an extensive diagnostic workup, an infectious cause is identified in less than half of cases, suggesting a role for postinfectious or noninfectious processes.

Hyper Acute Demyelinating Encephalomyelitis of Childhood: A Rare Entity

A young child with catastrophic neurological illness diagnosed as a rare variant of acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis (ADEM). She succumbed to her illness despite of aggressive and appropriate management. Malignant demyelinating encephalomyelitis should be considered in children who are refractory to the treatment of ADEM.

An update on multiple sclerosis in children: diagnosis, therapies, and prospects for the future

INTRODUCTION

Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, is increasingly being recognized in children and adolescents. Pediatric MS follows a relapsing-remitting course at onset, with a risk for early cognitive impairment. Areas covered: In this review, we discuss the clinical features of acute demyelinating syndromes in children and risk factors that increase the likelihood of a diagnosis of MS. We also address the application of diagnostic criteria for MS in children, immunological features, therapeutic options and psychosocial considerations for children and adolescents with MS. Expert commentary: Collaborative multicenter clinical trials and research efforts are key to the advancement in understanding the pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies for multiple sclerosis across the lifespan.

An Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis-Like Illness in the Elderly: Neuroimaging and Neuropathology Findings

INTRODUCTION

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a rare demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that classically occurs in children and adolescents. It characteristically presents with acute inflammation, resulting in demyelination, often following an infectious disease. ADEM has been described in adult patients, but the incidence in the adult and especially elderly population is low.

CASES

We describe five older adults (age 57 to 85) who presented with acute neurological symptoms. Three patients presented with an infectious illness preceding the event, 4 patients were encephalopathic, and oligoclonal bands (OCBs) were negative in all tested cases. The clinical scenario and imaging studies suggested alternative diagnoses, such as metastasis, primary CNS tumor, or stroke. Two patients had contrast enhancing lesions, two other patients had lesions with restricted diffusion on diffusion-weighted imaging. Neuropathologic diagnostic from biopsy or autopsy was eventually conclusive, showing perivascular zones of myelin loss with relative axonal sparing in all five cases.

CONCLUSION

Each of these patients was found to have pathological findings of acute demyelination on tissue diagnosis, suggesting ADEM or ADEM-like disease. The initial presentation and imaging was pointing toward other diagnoses. Broad differential diagnosis is important, especially for older patients, and pathological proof might be warranted for a conclusive diagnosis.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Central Nervous System Infections in the Emergency Department

Central nervous system (CNS) infections, including meningitis, encephalitis, and brain abscess, are rare but time-sensitive emergency department (ED) diagnoses. Patients with CNS infection can present to the ED with nonspecific signs and symptoms, including headache, fever, altered mental status, and behavioral changes. Neuroimaging and CSF fluid analysis can appear benign early in the course of disease. Delaying therapy negatively impacts outcomes, particularly with bacterial meningitis and herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Therefore, diagnosis of CNS infection requires vigilance and a high index of suspicion based on the history and physical examination, which must be confirmed with appropriate imaging and laboratory evaluation.

Long-term poor rapport, lack of spontaneity and passive social withdrawal related to acute post-infectious encephalitis: a case report

INTRODUCTION

Post-infectious encephalitis/encephalopathy is a neurological syndrome that sometimes develops following common viral or bacterial infections. The most common form is acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). ADEM is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that typically presents as a monophasic disorder associated with multifocal neurologic symptoms and encephalitis. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis is another type of severe autoimmune disorder, characterized by seizures, movement disorders and psychiatric symptoms. In general, the prognosis and long-term outcomes of both ADEM and anti-NMDAR encephalitis are favorable. Most patients show complete, albeit slow recovery over a period of one to 2 years. There are few reports of patients with these disorders showing long-term residual psychiatric symptoms.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report the case of a 16-year-old Japanese male who suffered from acute post-infectious encephalitis. The patient followed an atypical recovery course, in that he showed poor rapport, lack of spontaneity and passive social withdrawal for more than 2 years after the initial symptoms. While treatment with small doses of antipsychotic drugs at the hospital had no effect on the symptoms, the patient recovered gradually over a prolonged period of five or so years.

CONCLUSIONS

This case report suggests that a type of acute post-infectious encephalitis with demyelinating features, possibly ADEM or anti-NMDAR encephalitis, or an overlap between the two, can cause a prodrome of behavioral changes and long-term residual psychiatric symptoms for many months, although it is eventually associated with a good prognosis.

Imaging in Pediatric Demyelinating and Inflammatory Diseases of the Brain- Part 1

Imaging plays an important role in the diagnosis, management, prognostication and follow up of pediatric demyelinating and inflammatory diseases of the brain and forms an integral part of the diagnostic criteria. Conventional and advanced MR imaging is the first and only reliable imaging modality. This article reviews the typical and atypical imaging features of common and some uncommon demyelinating and inflammatory diseases with emphasis on the criteria for categorization. Imaging protocols and the role of advanced imaging techniques are also covered appropriately.

Clinical Profiles and Short-Term Outcomes of Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in Adult Chinese Patients

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an inflammatory demyelinating disorder that predominantly affects children. Previous studies have mostly involved children in Western developed countries.

METHODS

This study retrospectively reviewed the clinical profiles of ADEM in adult Chinese patients.

RESULTS

ADEM occurred during summer and autumn in about two-thirds of the 42 included patients. Prior infection was found in five patients and no preimmunization was recorded. The most frequent clinical presentations were alterations in consciousness (79%) and behavior changes (69%), followed by motor deficits (64%) and fever (50%). About one-quarter (26%) of the patients showed positive results for oligoclonal bands, and about half of them exhibited increases in the IgG index and 24-hour IgG synthesis rate. Magnetic resonance imaging showed white- and gray-matter lesions in 83% and 23% of the patients, respectively. Steroids were the main treatment, and full recovery occurred in 62% of the patients, with residual focal neurological deficits recorded in a few patients. After a mean follow-up period of 3.4 years, two patients exhibited recurrence and one patient exhibited a multiphasic course. One patient was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS).

CONCLUSIONS

With the exception of the seasonal distribution pattern and prior vaccine rate, the clinical profiles of ADEM in adult Chinese patients are similar to those in pediatric populations. No specific markers are available for distinguishing ADEM from MS at the initial presentation. Careful clinical evaluations, cerebrospinal fluid measurements, and neuroradiological examinations with long-term follow-up will aid the correct diagnosis of ADEM.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis is a primarily pediatric, immune-mediated disease characterized by demyelination and polyfocal neurologic symptoms that typically occur after a preceding viral infection or recent immunization. This article presents the pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria, and magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. We also present evaluation and management strategies.

Long-term motor, cognitive and behavioral outcome of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the long-term motor and neurocognitive outcome of children with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and to identify prognostic risk factors.

METHODS

The study included 43 children who were hospitalized due to acute disseminated encephalomyelitis during the years 2002-2012. The children underwent full neurological examinations, along with comprehensive neurocognitive and behavioral assessments.

RESULTS

Twenty-six (61%) children had different degrees of neurological sequelae after a mean follow-up of 5.5 ± 3.5 years. The most common residual impairment included attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (44%), behavioral problems (32%), and learning disabilities (21%). Five (12%) children had a full-scale IQ of 70 or less, compared to 2.2% in the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Neurocognitive sequelae were found even in children who were considered as fully recovered at the time of discharge. Risk factors for severe neurological sequelae were older age at diagnosis and male gender. We suggest neuropsychological testing and long-term follow-up for all children with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, even in the absence of neurological deficits at discharge.

Long-Term Neurocognitive, Psychosocial, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Outcomes in Pediatric-Onset Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis

BACKGROUND

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a demyelinating disorder that is usually self-limited. Recent studies have suggested ongoing neurological deficits and neurocognitive impairment in these patients. Little information on the correlation of clinical and neuroimaging markers in ADEM is available. We examined potential clinical factors (e.g., age of onset, acute symptom duration, magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] lesions) and their relation to neurocognitive and psychosocial outcomes.

METHODS

This is a retrospective chart review of consecutive pediatric patients diagnosed with ADEM between 2006 and 2012. Patients were evaluated with standard neurological assessment, MRI of the brain, and neuropsychological evaluation.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients with ADEM with average age at neuropsychological assessment of 10.1 years (±3.50) were included. Five (22.7%) patients were impaired on three or more neurocognitive measures. Psychosocial problems were reported in 20%-40% of patients. Earlier age of onset was correlated with poorer sustained attention and psychosocial problems, whereas acute symptom duration and Expanded Disability Status Scale were not. MRI outcomes were correlated with psychosocial outcomes but not neuropsychological findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest lingering cognitive and psychosocial deficits in children with a history of ADEM. Clinical features and MRI findings correlated more strongly with psychosocial outcomes than cognitive functioning. Further studies are needed to confirm relationships and other possible contributing factors to lingering deficits.

The Production Processes and Biological Effects of Intravenous Immunoglobulin

Immunoglobulin is a highly diverse autologous molecule able to influence immunity in different physiological and diseased situations. Its effect may be visible both in terms of development and function of B and T lymphocytes. Polyclonal immunoglobulin may be used as therapy in many diseases in different circumstances such as primary and secondary hypogammaglobulinemia, recurrent infections, polyneuropathies, cancer, after allogeneic transplantation in the presence of infections and/or GVHD. However, recent studies have broadened the possible uses of polyclonal immunoglobulin showing that it can stimulate certain sub-populations of T cells with effects on T cell proliferation, survival and function in situations of lymphopenia. These results present a novel and considerable impact of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment in situations of severe lymphopenia, a situation that can occur in cancer patients after chemo and radiotherapy treatments. In this review paper the established and experimental role of polyclonal immunoglobulin will be presented and discussed as well as the manufacturing processes involved in their production.

Nationwide Incidence of Acquired Central Nervous System Demyelination in Icelandic Children

INTRODUCTION

Recognizing acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis is important to commence early treatment. The objective of this study was to describe the incidence of acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis among the entire Icelandic pediatric population according to recently promoted criteria.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study included all children in Iceland (<18 years) with acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis from 1990 to 2009 with a minimum of 5-year follow-up. Clinical data were gathered and radiological images reviewed. The cohort included all patients with acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis in the Icelandic pediatric population.

RESULTS

Eighteen patients with acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis were included, the total annual incidence being 1.15/100,000 (acquired demyelinating syndromes 1.02 and multiple sclerosis 0.45/100,000). The median age at diagnosis was 14.25 years (range 1.25-17.5 years). Thirteen patients were initially diagnosed with clinically isolated syndrome, two had acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, two had multiple sclerosis, and one had neuromyelitis optica. Seven children were diagnosed with multiple sclerosis; three patients with clinically isolated syndrome developed multiple sclerosis after the age of 18 and were not included in the multiple sclerosis group. The gender ratio was equal. Of the nine girls, seven were diagnosed with clinically isolated syndrome. Most patients (11 of 18) were diagnosed during the period January through March. Oligoclonal bands in cerebrospinal fluid were exclusively found in patients with multiple sclerosis and clinically isolated syndrome and 13 of 14 available magnetic resonance images revealed clear abnormalities.

CONCLUSION

The annual incidence of acquired demyelinating syndromes and multiple sclerosis in Iceland was 1.15/100,000 children. The risk of progression from clinically isolated syndrome to multiple sclerosis was high. There was no female preponderance.

[Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children]

L'encéphalomyélite aiguë disséminée (ADEM) est une maladie inflammatoire, démyélinisante, multifocale intéressant principalement la substance blanche du système nerveux central. Elle est rare mais non exceptionnelle chez l'enfant. Les auteurs rapportent une étude colligeant 9 cas d'ADEM pris en charge au service de Pédiatrie du CHU Hassan II à Fès, sur une période de 4 ans. Il s'agit de cinq garçons et quatre filles; âgés entre 2 ans et 13 ans. Les antécédents (ATCD) d'infection virale sont notés chez quatre patients. La fièvre est constante. Les convulsions sont présentes dans cinq cas et les troubles de conscience dans cinq cas. L'examen neurologique était anormal. L’étude de liquide céphalo-rachidien a révélé une réaction méningée. On ne notait pas de syndrome inflammatoire biologique. L'imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) cérébrale a objectivé des lésions en hyper-signal en T2 et T2 FLAIR chez tous les patients. Pour le traitement, des bolus de corticoïdes intraveineux ont été administrés, relayés par une corticothérapie orale et associés à une kinésithérapie motrice et un traitement antiépileptique pour certains patients. L’évolution de nos malades était favorable globalement et on a déploré le décès d'une patiente. L'ADEM est une affection rare du système nerveux central. Les critères diagnostiques sont fondés sur des éléments cliniques et des données d'imagerie. La prise en charge doit être précoce et multidisciplinaire.

Pediatric Urinary Retention in the Emergency Department: A Concerning Symptom with Etiology Outside the Bladder

BACKGROUND

Urinary retention in an otherwise healthy adolescent is a concerning symptom, in which etiology can range from an extracystic mass to central nervous system involvement (CNS). One possibility is acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), a rare inflammatory autoimmune disease that affects the CNS via demyelination. The disease usually is preceded by an acute viral infection, and commonly presents with multifocal neurological deficits. The diagnosis for ADEM is made based on clinical presentation, correlating with findings characterized on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the CNS.

CASE REPORT

Our case involves a 16-year-old boy who presented to the Emergency Department (ED) with urinary retention. The patient was an otherwise healthy adolescent who was experiencing intermittent fevers for 1 week, and was found to be monospot positive when seen by his pediatrician. When presenting to the ED, the patient's primary complaint was urinary retention, which he experienced acutely in the middle of the night. Due to the suspicious nature of the patient's symptoms and history of present illness, the patient received a thorough workup including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the patient's brain and spinal cord, which demonstrated findings consistent with ADEM. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: There is very little literature describing a case of ADEM in the ED where the primary manifesting symptom was urinary retention. In addition, it is important that clinicians address acute urinary retention in an otherwise healthy adolescent as a red flag, with the need to rule out concerning etiology.