Bone Health and Osteoporosis Management of the Patient With Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

The BALB/c.mdx62 mouse exhibits a dystrophic muscle pathology and is a model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a devastating monogenic skeletal muscle-wasting disorder. Although many pharmacological and genetic interventions have been reported in preclinical studies, few have progressed to clinical trials with meaningful benefit. Identifying therapeutic potential can be limited by availability of suitable preclinical mouse models. More rigorous testing across models with varied background strains and mutations can identify treatments for clinical success. Here, we report the generation of a DMD mouse model with a CRISPR-induced deletion within exon 62 of the dystrophin gene (Dmd) and the first generated in BALB/c mice. Analysis of mice at 3, 6 and 12 months of age confirmed loss of expression of the dystrophin protein isoform Dp427 and resultant dystrophic pathology in limb muscles and the diaphragm, with evidence of centrally nucleated fibers, increased inflammatory markers and fibrosis, progressive decline in muscle function, and compromised trabecular bone development. The BALB/c.mdx62 mouse is a novel model of DMD with associated variations in the immune response and muscle phenotype, compared with those of existing models. It represents an important addition to the preclinical model toolbox for developing therapeutic strategies.

Growth hormone and testosterone delay vertebral fractures in boys with muscular dystrophy on chronic glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoid use in Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy prolongs ambulation but cause significant skeletal toxicity. Our analysis has immediate clinical implications, suggesting that growth hormone and testosterone have a stronger effect prior to first and subsequent vertebral fracture, respectively, relative to bisphosphonates alone in children with dystrophinopathies on chronic glucocorticoids.

PURPOSE

Glucocorticoids prolong ambulation in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy; however, they have significant endocrine side effects. We assessed the impact of growth hormone (GH), testosterone, and/or zoledronic acid (ZA) on vertebral fracture (VF) incidence in patients with dystrophinopathies on chronic glucocorticoids.

METHODS

We conducted a longitudinal retrospective review of 27 males with muscular dystrophy. Accelerated failure time (AFT) models were used to estimate the relative time to VF while on GH, testosterone, and/or ZA compared to ZA alone. Results are reported as failure time ratio, where >1 indicates prolonged time versus <1 indicates shorter time to next VF.

RESULTS

The prevalence of growth impairment was 96% (52% utilized GH), pubertal delay was 86% (72% utilized testosterone), and low trauma fractures were 87% (72% utilized ZA). Multivariable analysis of the AFT models showed that participants on either GH or testosterone treatment relative to ZA alone experienced prolonged time to next VF (1.253, P<0.001), with GH being the significant contributor when analyzed independently from testosterone (1.229, P<0.001). Use of ZA with GH or testosterone relative to ZA alone resulted in prolonged time to next VF (1.171, P<0.001), with testosterone being a significant contributor (1.130, P=0.033).

CONCLUSION

GH and testosterone each decreased VF risk in patients independent of or in combination with ZA, respectively.

Risk Factors Associated with Incident Vertebral Fractures in Steroid-treated Males with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

PURPOSE

Prevention of fractures is an unmet need in glucocorticoid (GC)-treated Duchenne muscular dystrophy. This study explored factors associated with incident vertebral fractures (VFs) to inform future fracture prevention efforts.

METHODS

VFs were evaluated prospectively at study baseline and 12 months on lateral spine radiographs in participants aged 4 to 25 years with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Clinical factors were analyzed for their association with the change in Spinal Deformity Index (sum of the Genant-defined VF grades from T4 to L4) between baseline and 12 months.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight males were evaluated (mean ± SD age at baseline 11.0 ± 3.6 years; mean ± SD GC duration at baseline 4.1 ± 3.1 years; 74% ambulatory). Nine of 38 participants (24%) had 17 incident VFs, of which 3/17 VFs (18%) were moderate/severe. Participants with 12-month incident VF had lower mean ± SD baseline lumbar spine areal bone mineral density Z-scores (-2.9 ± 1.0 vs -1.9 ± 1.1; P = .049) and lower total body less head areal bone mineral density Z-scores (-3.1 ± 1.2 vs -1.6 ± 1.7; P = .036). Multivariable linear regression showed that at least 1 VF at baseline (P < .001), a higher number of antecedent non-VF (P < .001), and greater bone age delay at baseline (P = .027) were significant predictors of an increase in the Spinal Deformity Index from baseline to 12 months.

CONCLUSION

The observation that ≥ 1 prevalent VF and/or non-VF were the strongest predictors of incident VFs at 12 months supports the need for prevention of first fractures in this high-risk setting. Bone age delay, a marker of GC exposure, may assist in the prioritization of patients in efforts to prevent first fractures.

Management of neurological problems in children on home invasive mechanical ventilation

INTRODUCTION

Home invasive mechanical ventilation (HIMV) has become a crucial long-term respiratory support for children with neurological disorders, but requires advanced technological skills and 24-h care. The increasing global population of children on HIMV is attributed to advancements in intensive care and improved survival rates.

METHOD

The manuscript will review the most common neurological problems encountered in children on HIMV.

CONCLUSION

The manuscript emphasizes the multidisciplinary nature of managing these patients, involving pediatric pulmonologists, pediatric neurologists, pediatric intensivists, nurses, therapists, dietitians, psychologists, and caregivers. The manuscript outlines the challenges posed by neurological disorders, such as spinal muscular atrophy, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, and neurodegenerative disorders, which may result in respiratory muscle weakness and impaired ventilation. The importance of individualized assessments, appropriate ventilator mode and equipment selection, training of caregivers, airway clearance techniques, nutritional support, regular follow-up visits, psychological and educational support, and addressing specific neurological issues such as involuntary movement disorders, prolonged seizures, sleep disorders, pain, sialorrhea, and immobilization-related complications are discussed. The treatment options for these specific challenges are outlined. This review highlights the complex nature of managing children with neurological disorders on HIMV and the importance of a collaborative approach among healthcare professionals and caregivers to optimize care and improve the quality of life for these children.

Astaxanthin Ameliorates Worsened Muscle Dysfunction of MDX Mice Fed with a High-Fat Diet through Reducing Lipotoxicity and Regulating Gut Microbiota

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a severe X-linked inherited neuromuscular disease, has a high prevalence of obesity. Obesity exacerbates muscle damage and results in adverse clinical outcomes. Preventing obesity helps DMD patients delay disease progression and improve quality of life. Astaxanthin (AX) is a kind of carotenoid which has antioxidant and anti-adipogenesis effects. In this study, male C57BL/10ScSnDmdmdx/J mice were fed with a normal diet, a high-fat diet (HFD), and an HFD containing AX for 16 weeks, respectively. The results showed that AX significantly increased gastrocnemius fiber cross-section area and grip strength, improved treadmill endurance test and mitochondrial morphology, and reduced muscle triglyceride and malonaldehyde levels compared to the HFD. Lipidomic analysis revealed that AX decreased high levels of triglyceride, diglyceride, ceramides, and wax ester induced by HFD. Gut microbiota analysis indicated that AX supplementation failed to alleviate abnormal microbiota diversity, but increased the relative abundances of Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, Butyricicoccus, and Staphylococcus. In conclusion, AX was expected to alleviate disease progression associated with obesity in DMD patients by reducing lipotoxicity and increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria.

A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation for patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy

We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis on the effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation in maintaining or restoring vitamin D levels in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Due to a lack of randomised controlled trials, cross-sectional and retrospective and prospective cohort studies were taken as the best available evidence. Inclusion criteria included reporting mean serum vitamin D levels in a supplement-taking group. After screening 102 records; 13 were included in a narrative synthesis and eight of these in a meta-analysis. We show that current dosing regimens are preventing severe deficiency but are not effective at maintaining sufficient vitamin D levels within the Duchenne population. Despite high levels of daily vitamin D supplementation (>1000 International Units), at least 20 % of people with Duchenne remain vitamin D deficient. No significant association between dose and serum vitamin D levels was found (r2 = 0.3, p = 0.237). A meta-analysis of mean serum vitamin D levels across eight studies also revealed substantial variability in response to vitamin D supplementation and high heterogeneity (I2 = 99.59 %). These data could impact on an individual's risk and severity of osteoporosis and vertebral fractures.

Anti-RANKL Therapy Prevents Glucocorticoid-Induced Bone Loss and Promotes Muscle Function in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Bisphosphonates prevent bone loss in glucocorticoid (GC)-treated boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and are recommended as standard of care. Targeting receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) may have advantages in DMD by ameliorating dystrophic skeletal muscle function in addition to their bone anti-resorptive properties. However, the potential effects of anti-RANKL treatment upon discontinuation in GC-induced animal models of DMD are unknown and need further investigation prior to exploration in the clinical research setting. In the first study, the effects of anti-RANKL and deflazacort (DFZ) on dystrophic skeletal muscle function and bone microstructure were assessed in mdx mice treated with DFZ or anti-RANKL, or both for 8 weeks. Anti-RANKL and DFZ improved grip force performance of mdx mice but an additive effect was not noted. However, anti-RANKL but not DFZ improved ex vivo contractile properties of dystrophic muscles. This functional improvement was associated with a reduction in muscle damage and fibrosis, and inflammatory cell number. Anti-RANKL treatment, with or without DFZ, also improved trabecular bone structure of mdx mice. In a second study, intravenous zoledronate (Zol) administration (1 or 2 doses) following 2 months of discontinuation of anti-RANKL treatment was mostly required to record an improvement in bone microarchitecture and biomechanical properties in DFZ-treated mdx mice. In conclusion, the ability of anti-RANKL therapy to restore muscle function has profound implications for DMD patients as it offers the possibility of improving skeletal muscle function without the steroid-related skeletal side effects.

Vitamin D Deficiency in Chronic Childhood Disorders: Importance of Screening and Prevention

Vitamin D plays a vital role in regulating calcium and phosphate metabolism and maintaining bone health. A state of prolonged or profound vitamin D deficiency (VDD) can result in rickets in children and osteomalacia in children and adults. Recent studies have demonstrated the pleiotropic action of vitamin D and identified its effects on multiple biological processes in addition to bone health. VDD is more prevalent in chronic childhood conditions such as long-standing systemic illnesses affecting the renal, liver, gastrointestinal, skin, neurologic and musculoskeletal systems. VDD superimposed on the underlying disease process and treatments that can adversely affect bone turnover can all add to the disease burden in these groups of children. The current review outlines the causes and mechanisms underlying poor bone health in certain groups of children and young people with chronic diseases with an emphasis on the proactive screening and treatment of VDD.

The Importance of Implementing a Transition Strategy for Patients with Muscular Dystrophy: From Child to Adult-Insights from a Tertiary Centre for Rare Neurological Diseases

Progress in the field of muscular dystrophy (MD) using a multidisciplinary approach based on international standards of care has led to a significant increase in the life expectancy of patients. The challenge of transitioning from pediatric to adult healthcare has been acknowledged for over a decade, yet it continues to be a last-minute concern. Currently, there is no established consensus on how to evaluate the effectiveness of the transition process. Our study aimed to identify how well patients are prepared for the transition and to determine their needs. We conducted a descriptive, cross-sectional study on 15 patients aged 14 to 21 years. The patients completed a sociodemographic and a Transition Readiness Assessment Questionnaire (TRAQ). We also analyzed the comorbidities of these patients. Our study revealed that only 46.7% of the patients had engaged in a conversation with a medical professional, namely, a child neurologist, about transitioning. A total of 60% of the participants expressed having confidence in their self-care ability. However, the median TRAQ score of 3.6 shows that these patients overestimate themselves. We emphasize the necessity for a slow, personalized transition led by a multidisciplinary team to ensure the continuity of state-of-the-art care from pediatric to adult healthcare services and the achievement of the highest possible quality of life for these patients.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Current treatment and emerging exon skipping and gene therapy approach

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked recessive neuromuscular disorder that causes debilitating muscle weakness and atrophy due to a loss of the dystrophin protein. Patients with DMD are commonly diagnosed at about 3-5 years of age and progressively decline until complications of the disease often result in death at about 20 years of age. While there is no current cure for DMD, several treatment options focus on improving the quality of life and slowing progression of symptoms associated with the disease. The current treatment for DMD is glucocorticoids and physical therapy. Respiratory therapy, cardiac management, bone health maintenance, orthopedic interventions, and dietary considerations are also utilized in managing DMD patients. Emerging therapeutic approaches include gene transfer therapy, using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, and exon skipping agents. Both approaches have been shown to be relatively safe, with few significant side effects. Even though exon skipping agents produce a smaller dystrophin protein, they effectively preserve a significant portion of its function. Exon skipping agents have clinical advantages over traditional therapies, such as corticosteroids, because they slow the progression of DMD in addition to relieving symptoms. This review discusses the pathogenesis of DMD and explores the current treatment options as well as new and emerging therapies.

Bone Quality in Patients with a Congenital Myopathy: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Congenital myopathies are rare neuromuscular disorders presenting with a wide spectrum of clinical features, including long bone fractures (LBFs) that negatively influence functional prognosis, quality of life and survival. Systematic research on bone quality in these patients is lacking.

OBJECTIVE

This scoping review aims to summarize all evidence on bone quality and to deduce recommendations for bone quality management in congenital myopathies.

METHODS

Five electronic databases (Pubmed, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, CINAHL) were searched. All studies on bone quality in congenital myopathies were included. Decreased bone quality was defined as low bone mineral density and/or (fragility) LBFs. Study selection and data extraction were performed by three independent reviewers.

RESULTS

We included 244 single cases (mean: 4.1±7.6 years; median: 0 years) diagnosed with a congenital myopathy from 35 articles. Bone quality was decreased in 93 patients (37%) (mean: 2.6±6.8 years; median: 0 years). Low bone mineral density was reported in 11 patients (4.5%) (mean: 10.9±9.7; median: 11 years). Congenital LBFs were reported in 64 patients (26%). (Fragility) LBFs later at life were described in 24 patients (9.8%) (mean: 14.9±11.0; median: 14 years). Four cases (1.6%) were reported to receive vitamin D and/or calcium supplementation or diphosphonate administration.

CONCLUSION

LBFs are thus frequently reported in congenital myopathies. We therefore recommend optimal bone quality management through bone mineral density assessment, vitamin D and calcium suppletion, and referral to internal medicine or pediatrics for consideration of additional therapies in order to prevent complications of low bone mineral density.

Update of the Brazilian consensus recommendations on Duchenne muscular dystrophy

In the last few decades, there have been considerable improvements in the diagnosis and care of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the most common childhood muscular dystrophy. International guidelines have been published and recently reviewed. A group of Brazilian experts has developed a standard of care based on a literature review with evidence-based graded recommendations in a two-part publication. Implementing best practice management has helped change the natural history of this chronic progressive disorder, in which the life expectancy for children of the male sex in the past used to be very limited. Since the previous publication, diagnosis, steroid treatment, rehabilitation, and systemic care have gained more significant insights with new original work in certain fields. Furthermore, the development of new drugs is ongoing, and some interventions have been approved for use in certain countries. Therefore, we have identified the need to review the previous care recommendations for Brazilian patients with DMD. Our objective was to create an evidence-based document that is an update on our previous consensus on those topics.

Risk factors associated with prevalent vertebral fractures in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) have a high fracture burden due to progressive myopathy and steroid-induced osteoporosis. This study in males with DMD showed that markers of systemic glucocorticoid exposure including shorter stature, greater bone age delay, and lower lumbar spine bone mineral density were associated with spine fragility.

INTRODUCTION

Fragility  fractures are frequent in DMD. The purpose of this study was to identify clinical factors associated with prevalent vertebral fractures (VF) in boys, teens/young adults with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD).

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study of males aged 4-25 years with DMD. VF were evaluated using the modified Genant semi-quantitative method on T4-L4 lateral spine radiographs. Areal bone mineral density (aBMD) was measured at the lumbar spine (LS) and used to estimate volumetric BMD (vBMD). Clinical factors were analyzed for their association with the Spinal Deformity Index (SDI, the sum of the Genant grades).

RESULTS

Sixty participants were enrolled (mean age 11.5 years, range 5.4-19.5). Nineteen participants (32%) had a total of 67 VF; 23/67 VF (34%) were moderate or severe. Participants with VF were shorter (mean height Z-score ± standard deviation: - 3.1 ± 1.4 vs. - 1.8 ± 1.4, p = 0.001), had longer glucocorticoid exposure (mean duration 6.0 ± 3.3 vs. 3.9 ± 3.3 years, p = 0.027), greater bone age (BA) delay (mean BA to chronological age difference - 3.2 ± 3.4 vs. - 1.3 ± 1.2 years, p = 0.035), and lower LSaBMD Z-scores (mean - 3.0 ± 1.0 vs. - 2.2 ± 1.2, p = 0.023). There was no difference in LSvBMD Z-scores. Multivariable Poisson regression showed that every 0.1 mg/kg/day increment in average glucocorticoid daily dose was associated with a 1.4-fold SDI increase (95% confidence interval: 1.1-1.7, p = 0.013). Greater BA delay (p < 0.001), higher weight Z-score (p = 0.004), decreased height Z-score (p = 0.025), and lower LSvBMD Z-score (p = 0.025) were also associated with SDI increase.

CONCLUSION

Readily measurable clinical variables were associated with prevalent VF in males with glucocorticoid-treated DMD. These variables may be useful to identify candidates for primary osteoporosis prevention after glucocorticoid initiation.

Uncommon fracture in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A case report

Proximal humerus fractures in pediatric patients are uncommon. This is a case report of a 17-year-old patient with Duchenne muscular dystrophy who sustained an occult proximal humerus fracture. The patient was on chronic steroids and had a history of vertebral and long bone fractures. He was using a wheeled mobility device on public transportation at the time of injury. He had a negative radiograph, but an MRI revealed a right proximal humerus fracture. He had decreased mobilization in the affected extremity, which limited activities of daily living including driving his power wheelchair. After six weeks of conservative management, he returned to his baseline level of activity. It is important to recognize that chronic steroid use adversely affects bone health, and fractures may be missed on initial imaging. To ensure adequate safety, providers, patients, and their families should be educated on the Americans with Disabilities Act guidelines for using wheeled mobility devices on public transportation.

Friedreich ataxia: clinical features and new developments

Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA), a neurodegenerative disease characterized by ataxia and other neurological features, affects 1 in 50,000-100,000 individuals in the USA. However, FRDA also includes cardiac, orthopedic and endocrine dysfunction, giving rise to many secondary disease characteristics. The multifaceted approach for clinical care has necessitated the development of disease-specific clinical care guidelines. New developments in FRDA include the advancement of clinical drug trials targeting the NRF2 pathway and frataxin restoration. Additionally, a novel understanding of gene silencing in FRDA, reflecting a variegated silencing pattern, will have applications to current and future therapeutic interventions. Finally, new perspectives on the neuroanatomy of FRDA and its developmental features will refine the time course and anatomical targeting of novel approaches.

Reduced bone mineral density in adolescents with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) and scoliosis

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a progressive disease usually associated with loss of ambulation and progressive scoliosis. Immobilisation and glucocorticoid treatment are predisposing factors for reduced bone mineral density (BMD). Analysis of quantitative computed tomography revealed low BMD in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae in comparison to age- and sex-matched healthy controls.

INTRODUCTION

Evaluation of vertebral bone mineral density (BMD) in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) adolescents with untreated advanced scoliosis and comparison with the BMD values of healthy age-matched controls, based on quantitative computer tomography.

METHODS

Thirty-seven DMD adolescents (age 15.6 ± 2.5 years) with spinal deformity were evaluated clinically and radiologically prior to definite spinal fusion and compared to 31 male and age-matched healthy individuals (age 15.7 ± 2.3 years). Data related to previous medical treatment, physiotherapy and ambulatory status was also analysed. Scoliotic curves were measured on plain sitting radiographs of the spine. The BMD Z-scores of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae were calculated with QCTpro® (Mindways Software Inc., USA), based on data sets of preoperative, phantom pre-calibrated spinal computed tomography scans.

RESULTS

A statistically significant lower BMD could be found in DMD adolescents, when compared to healthy controls, showing an average value for the lumbar spine of 80.5 ± 30.5 mg/cm³. Z-scores deteriorated from the upper thoracic towards the lower lumbar vertebrae. All but the uppermost thoracic vertebrae had reduced BMD values, with the thoracolumbar and lumbar region demonstrating the lowest BMD. No significant correlation was observed between BMD and the severity of the scoliotic curve, previous glucocorticoid treatment, cardiovascular impairment, vitamin D supplementation, non-invasive ventilation or physiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

DMD adolescents with scoliosis have strongly reduced BMD Z-scores, especially in the lumbar spine in comparison to healthy controls. These findings support the implementation of a standardised screening and treatment protocol. Level of evidence/clinical relevance: therapeutic level III.

Bone Mineral Density and Current Bone Health Screening Practices in Friedreich's Ataxia

Introduction

Friedreich's Ataxia (FRDA) is a progressive neurological disorder caused by mutations in both alleles of the frataxin (FXN) gene. Impaired bone health is a complication of other disorders affecting mobility, but there is little information regarding bone health in FRDA.

Methods

Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan-based assessments of areal bone mineral density (aBMD) in individuals with FRDA were abstracted from four studies at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP). Disease outcomes, including the modified FRDA Rating Scale (mFARS), were abstracted from the FRDA Clinical Outcomes Measures Study (FACOMS), a longitudinal natural history study. A survey regarding bone health and fractures was sent to individuals in FACOMS-CHOP.

Results

Adults with FRDA (n = 24) have lower mean whole body (WB) (-0.45 vs. 0.33, p = 0.008) and femoral neck (FN) (-0.71 vs. 0.004, p = 0.02) aBMD Z-scores than healthy controls (n = 24). Children with FRDA (n = 10) have a lower WB-less-head (-2.2 vs. 0.19, p < 0.0001) and FN (-1.1 vs. 0.04, p = 0.01) aBMD than a reference population (n = 30). In adults, lower FN aBMD correlated with functional disease severity, as reflected by mFARS (R = -0.56, p = 0.04). Of 137 survey respondents (median age 27 y, 50% female), 70 (51%) reported using wheelchairs as their primary ambulatory device: of these, 20 (29%) reported a history of potentially pathologic fracture and 11 (16%) had undergone DXA scans.

Conclusions

Low aBMD is prevalent in FRDA, but few of even the highest risk individuals are undergoing screening. Our findings highlight potential missed opportunities for the screening and treatment of low aBMD in FRDA.

miR-378 affects metabolic disturbances in the mdx model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Although Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) primarily affects muscle tissues, the alterations to systemic metabolism manifested in DMD patients contribute to the severe phenotype of this fatal disorder. We propose that microRNA-378a (miR-378) alters carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in dystrophic mdx mice. In our study, we utilized double knockout animals which lacked both dystrophin and miR-378 (mdx/miR-378^-/-). RNA sequencing of the liver identified 561 and 194 differentially expressed genes that distinguished mdx versus wild-type (WT) and mdx/miR-378^-/- versus mdx counterparts, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis predicted, among others, carbohydrate metabolism disorder in dystrophic mice, as functionally proven by impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. The lack of miR-378 in mdx animals mitigated those effects with a faster glucose clearance in a glucose tolerance test (GTT) and normalization of liver glycogen levels. The absence of miR-378 also restored the expression of genes regulating lipid homeostasis, such as Acly, Fasn, Gpam, Pnpla3, and Scd1. In conclusion, we report for the first time that miR-378 loss results in increased systemic metabolism of mdx mice. Together with our previous finding, demonstrating alleviation of the muscle-related symptoms of DMD, we propose that the inhibition of miR-378 may represent a new strategy to attenuate the multifaceted symptoms of DMD.

Drug Treatment of Low Bone Mass and Other Bone Conditions in Pediatric Patients

Osteoporosis may affect young individuals, albeit infrequently. In childhood, bone mass increases, reaching its peak between the second and third decades; then, after a period of stability, it gradually declines. Several conditions, including genetic disorders, chronic diseases, and some medications, can have an impact on bone homeostasis. Diagnosis in young patients is based on the criteria defined by the International Society for Clinical Densitometry (ISCD), published in 2013. High risk factors should be identified and monitored. Often simple interventions aimed to eliminate the underlying cause, to minimize the negative bone effects linked to drugs, or to increase calcium and vitamin D intake can protect bone mass. However, in selected cases, pharmacological treatment should be considered. Bisphosphonates remain the main therapeutic agent for children with significant skeletal fragility and are also useful in a large number of other bone conditions. Denosumab, an anti-RANKL antibody, could become a potential alternative treatment. Clinical trials to evaluate the long-term effects and safety of denosumab in children are ongoing.

Osteoporosis in children and adolescents: when to suspect and how to diagnose it

Early recognition of osteoporosis in children and adolescents is important in order to establish an appropriate diagnosis of the underlying condition and to initiate treatment if necessary. In this review, we present the diagnostic work-up, and its pitfalls, of pediatric patients suspected of osteoporosis including a careful collection of the medical and personal history, a complete physical examination, biochemical data, molecular genetics, and imaging techniques. The most recent and relevant literature has been reviewed to offer a broad overview on the topic. Genetic and acquired pediatric bone disorders are relatively common and cause substantial morbidity. In recent years, there has been significant progress in the understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanistic basis of bone fragility and in the identification of acquired causes of osteoporosis in children. Specifically, drugs that can negatively impact bone health (e.g. steroids) and immobilization related to acute and chronic diseases (e.g. Duchenne muscular dystrophy) represent major risk factors for the development of secondary osteoporosis and therefore an indication to screen for bone mineral density and vertebral fractures. Long-term studies in children chronically treated with steroids have resulted in the development of systematic approaches to diagnose and manage pediatric osteoporosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Osteoporosis in children requires consultation with and/or referral to a pediatric bone specialist. This is particularly relevant since children possess the unique ability for spontaneous and medication-assisted recovery, including reshaping of vertebral fractures. As such, pediatricians have an opportunity to improve bone mass accrual and musculoskeletal health in osteoporotic children.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Both genetic and acquired pediatric disorders can compromise bone health and predispose to fractures early in life. • The identification of children at risk of osteoporosis is essential to make a timely diagnosis and start the treatment, if necessary.

WHAT IS NEW

• Pediatricians have an opportunity to improve bone mass accrual and musculoskeletal health in osteoporotic children and children at risk of osteoporosis. • We offer an extensive but concise overview about the risk factors for osteoporosis and the diagnostic work-up (and its pitfalls) of pediatric patients suspected of osteoporosis.

Effectiveness of Neridronate in the Management of Bone Loss in Patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Results from a Pilot Study

INTRODUCTION

Bone loss is a major issue in patients affected by Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a rare musculoskeletal disorder, particularly in those treated with glucocorticoids (GCs). We aimed to assess the effectiveness of neridronate in terms of bone mineral density (BMD) changes in this population.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of patients affected by DMD receiving GCs referred to our outpatient from 2015 to 2020. All patients were treated with an intramuscular (IM) injection of neridronate (25 mg every month). Bone density was measured at the lumbar spine (LS; L1-L4 tract) using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (GE Lunar), no more than 4 weeks before (T0) and after 1 year from neridronate treatment (T1).

RESULTS

Eight boys with DMD were included with a mean age at diagnosis of 4.75 ± 2.81 years. Six of them were non-ambulant and two of them had previous low-trauma fractures (a distal femur fracture and a vertebral compression fracture, respectively). All patients were receiving deflazacort [median duration of therapy 11.5 years (interquartile range 2-25)]. At the DXA evaluation (T0), the mean L1-L4 BMD value was 0.716 ± 0.164 g/cm². Six patients (75%) showed an L1-L4 Z-score height-adjusted of less than - 2. The mean age of neridronate initiation was 18.87 ± 6.81 years. All patients were supplemented with calcium carbonate and vitamin D at baseline. After 12 months of treatment (T1), the mean L1-L4 BMD value was 0.685 ± 0.190 g/cm². Seven patients (87.5%) showed an L1-L4 Z-score of less than - 2. Changes in LS BMD and Z-score were not significant between T0 and T1 in our cohort (p = 0.674 and p = 0.208, respectively) as well as among non-ambulant patients with DMD without previous fragility fractures.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we reported for the first time that neridronate may slow bone loss in GC-treated patients with DMD at 1-year follow-up.

Complexity of skeletal muscle degeneration: multi-systems pathophysiology and organ crosstalk in dystrophinopathy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a highly progressive muscle wasting disorder due to primary abnormalities in one of the largest genes in the human genome, the DMD gene, which encodes various tissue-specific isoforms of the protein dystrophin. Although dystrophinopathies are classified as primary neuromuscular disorders, the body-wide abnormalities that are associated with this disorder and the occurrence of organ crosstalk suggest that a multi-systems pathophysiological view should be taken for a better overall understanding of the complex aetiology of X-linked muscular dystrophy. This article reviews the molecular and cellular effects of deficiency in dystrophin isoforms in relation to voluntary striated muscles, the cardio-respiratory system, the kidney, the liver, the gastrointestinal tract, the nervous system and the immune system. Based on the establishment of comprehensive biomarker signatures of X-linked muscular dystrophy using large-scale screening of both patient specimens and genetic animal models, this article also discusses the potential usefulness of novel disease markers for more inclusive approaches to differential diagnosis, prognosis and therapy monitoring that also take into account multi-systems aspects of dystrophinopathy. Current therapeutic approaches to combat muscular dystrophy are summarised.

The effect of oral bisphosphonate therapy on vertebral morphometry and fractures in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis

INTRODUCTION/AIMS

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis with vertebral fractures is frequent in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). In this study, we evaluated the effects of oral bisphosphonate (BP) therapy on the prevalence and severity of vertebral fractures by vertebral morphometry assessment.

METHODS

We reviewed the records and radiographs of patients with DMD who had been treated with oral BP (weekly alendronate) and had undergone routine spine radiographic monitoring for glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center between 2010 and 2017. Study outcomes were thoracic and lumbar vertebral fracture prevalence and severity, assessed by Genant semiquantitative grading of vertebral morphometry, for up to 5 years of treatment.

RESULTS

Fifty-two patients (median age, 11.8 years; 88% prepubertal; 31% nonambulatory) had been treated with long-term glucocorticoids (median duration, 4.7 years at BP start). Most patients (75%) had mild vertebral height loss or fractures (Genant grade = 0 or 1) at baseline. The prevalence of vertebral fractures at each year of treatment was not statistically different from that at baseline (P = .08-1.00). Serial radiographs showed no longitudinal change in severity by Genant grade in most vertebrae (64%-80%). Improvement in vertebral fracture grade was observed in some patients.

DISCUSSION

We observed stable prevalence of vertebral fractures and no change in severity by Genant grade in most vertebrae for up to 5 years of treatment. Oral BP may mitigate development or progression of vertebral fractures and be beneficial for secondary prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in this population.

What Is New in Pediatric Bone Health

BACKGROUND

This review paper aims to report on the last 5 years of relevant research on pediatric bone health in regard to nutrition and obesity, ethnic disparities, common orthopaedic conditions, trauma, spine, and sports medicine.

METHODS

A search of the PubMed database was completed using the following terms: bone health, Vitamin D, pediatric, adolescent, sports medicine, fractures, spine, scoliosis, race, ethnicity, obesity, Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy, neuromuscular, and cancer. Resultant papers were reviewed by study authors and determined to be of quality and relevance for description in this review. Papers from January 1, 2015 to August 31, 2020 were included.

RESULTS

A total of 85 papers were selected for review. General results include 7 key findings. (1) Obesity inhibits pediatric bone health with leptin playing a major role in the process. (2) Socioeconomic and demographic disparities have shown to have a direct influence on bone health. (3) Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to an increased fracture risk and severity in children. (4) Formal vitamin D monitoring can aid with patient compliance with treatment. (5) Patients with chronic medical conditions are impacted by low vitamin D and need ongoing monitoring of their bone health to decrease their fracture risk. (6) Vitamin D deficiency in pediatrics has been correlated to low back pain, spondylolysis, and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Osteopenic patients with AIS have an increased risk of curve progression requiring surgery. Before spine fusion, preoperative screening for vitamin D deficiency may reduce complications of fractures, insufficient tissue repair, loosening hardware, and postoperative back pain. (7) Increasing youth sports participation has resulted in increased bone health related injuries. However, improved understanding of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport effects on bone health has recently occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing awareness of bone health issues in children will improve their recognition and treatment. Further research is needed on diagnosis, treatment, outcomes, and most importantly prevention of pediatric bone health diseases.

Effect of Testosterone Treatment for Delayed Puberty in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of pubertal induction with testosterone on bone health, body composition, and motor function in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) receiving long-term glucocorticoid.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective, observational, pre-post study investigating the impact of testosterone therapy on bone mass accrual, vertebral fracture incidence, body composition, motor function, and quality of life in boys with DMD. All those boys aged ≥14 years, on chronic steroid therapy, who had delayed puberty, and were receiving oral testosterone or oral and then transitioned to intramuscular testosterone, to complete virilization, were included. Prior/concomitant zoledronic acid use was included. The primary outcome was lumbar spine areal bone mineral density (BMD LS).

RESULTS

Puberty was induced, using oral testosterone undecanoate in 16 individuals, 10 of whom had transited to intramuscular testosterone at time of assessment. Median age at testosterone onset was 14.5 years (range 14-17.7). Median duration of testosterone therapy was 2.5 years (range 1.0-4.5). There was statistically significant increase in median BMD LS (0.523-0.700, p < 0.001) and median annualized percentage change of BMD LS (-1.34 to +10.08%, p < 0.001), with median Tanner stage 4 at evaluation (range 2-4). Ten of 14 assessed had no progression in vertebral fractures. Fat mass index (FMI) standard deviation score (SDS), lean body mass index (LBMI) SDS, and percentage change of FMI and LBMI were statistically unchanged. Cardiac function remained stable. Motor function in non-ambulatory individuals with Egen Klassifikation scores improved in 7 of 8.

CONCLUSION

Testosterone for delayed puberty acted as an adjunct to bisphosphonates to increase bone density and stabilize vertebral fracture in most boys with DMD.

Effects of Bisphosphonate Therapy on Bone Mineral Density in Boys with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

The objective of this study was to estimate the comparative effectiveness of bisphosphonate therapy on bone mineral density (BMD) in patients with corticosteroid-treated Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). A retrospective, comparative effectiveness study evaluating changes in BMD and fragility fractures in patients with DMD presenting to British Columbia Children's Hospital from 1989 to 2017 was conducted. Marginal structural generalized estimating equation models weighted by stabilized inverse-probability of treatment weights were used to estimate the comparative effectiveness of therapy on BMD. Of those treated with bisphosphonates (N = 38), 7 (18.4%), 17 (44.7%), and 14 (36.8%) cases were treated with pamidronate, zoledronic acid, or a combination of both, respectively, while 36 cases of DMD were untreated. Mean age of bisphosphonate initiation was 9.2 (SD 2.7) years. Mean fragility fractures declined from 3.5 to 1.0 following bisphosphonate therapy. Compared to the treated group, the untreated group had an additional 0.63-SD decrease (95% confidence interval [CI]: -1.18, -0.08, P = .026) in total BMD and an additional 1.04-SD decrease (95% CI: -1.74, -0.34; P = .004) in the left hip BMD, but the change in lumbar spine BMD (0.15, 95% CI: -0.36, 0.66; P = .57) was not significant. Bisphosphonate therapy may slow the decline in BMD in boys with corticosteroid-treated DMD compared to untreated counterparts. Total number of fragility fractures decreased following bisphosphonate therapy.

Bone Health in Childhood Chronic Disease

Many children with chronic disease are now surviving into adulthood. As a result, there is a growing interest in optimizing bone health early in the disease course with the dual goals of improving quality of life during childhood and reducing life-long fracture risk. Risk factors for impaired bone health in these children include immobility, nutritional deficiency, exposure to bone toxic therapies, hormonal deficiencies affecting growth and pubertal development, and chronic inflammation. This review focuses on the chronic diseases of childhood most commonly associated with impaired bone health. Recent research findings and clinical practice recommendations, when available, for specific disorders are summarized.

Safety and efficacy of teriparatide treatment for severe osteoporosis in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Osteoporosis is a major concern in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. In this novel study of teriparatide treatment in 6 patients with severe osteoporosis, bone health (fractures, vertebral morphometry, and DXA) remained stable, with no adverse events. These findings will help inform future osteoporosis research in this challenging population.

INTRODUCTION

Despite standard therapy with vitamin D and bisphosphonates (BP), many patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) continue to sustain fragility fractures due to long-term glucocorticoid treatment and limited mobility. We aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of teriparatide for the treatment of severe osteoporosis in adolescent and young adult patients with DMD.

METHODS

We prospectively treated 6 patients with DMD who had severe osteoporosis with teriparatide 20 mcg subcutaneously daily for 1-2 years. Inclusion criteria were long-term glucocorticoid therapy, and severe osteoporosis despite treatment with BP, or intolerance to BP. We examined long bone and vertebral fracture outcomes, including vertebral morphometry measures, bone mineral density and content, bone formation markers, safety indices, and adverse events.

RESULTS

The mean age at teriparatide start was 17.9 years (range 13.9-22.1 years). All 6 patients were on daily glucocorticoids (mean ± SD; duration 10.9 ± 2.5 years) and 5 were non-ambulatory. Five patients had been treated with BP for 7.9 ± 4.2 years. All had vertebral and a history of long bone fragility fractures at baseline. Vertebral heights and Genant fracture grading remained stable. Long bone fracture rate appeared to decrease (from 0.84/year to 0.09/year); one patient sustained a long bone fracture at 6 months of treatment. Trajectories for change in bone mineral density and content were not different post- vs. pre-teriparatide. Procollagen type 1 amino-terminal propeptide (P1NP) increased, while laboratory safety indices remained stable and non-concerning. No adverse events were observed.

CONCLUSION

In six patients with DMD treated with teriparatide for severe osteoporosis, we observed stable bone health and modest increases in P1NP, without safety concerns. Further studies are needed to better understand teriparatide efficacy for treatment of osteoporosis in patients with DMD.

Correlation of Bone Mineral Density with Pulmonary Function in Advanced Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

BACKGROUND

A relationship between bone mineral density (BMD) and physical function has been revealed in the general population and various diseases. However, there is a lack of research investigating the correlation between BMD and respiratory function, one of few measurable physical parameters in patients with advanced Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD).

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether pulmonary function parameters, including respiratory muscle strength, are related to BMD.

DESIGN

Retrospective observational study.

SETTING

A tertiary university hospital.

PATIENTS

DMD patients who were over 20 years of age, nonambulatory, and supported by mechanical ventilators.

METHODS

The patients' age, weight, and pulmonary function as well as the BMD of the first and the fourth lumbar vertebra were assessed. Pulmonary function includes forced vital capacity (FVC), unassisted and assisted peak cough flow (UPCF and APCF), maximal expiratory pressure (MEP), and maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

A bivariate correlation for BMD and other pulmonary parameters was calculated, and hierarchical regression analysis was used to determine predictors of spine Z-score.

RESULTS

It was observed that the decrease in the spine BMD was not significantly correlated with age. However, the body mass index (BMI) and all parameters of pulmonary function were correlated with BMD. Partial correlation analysis adjusted by BMI showed that UPCF and APCF were powerful predictors of spine BMD.

CONCLUSIONS

The BMD of the lumbar spine correlated with BMI and PCF in patients with DMD at an advanced stage.

Clinical and genomic characteristics of LAMA2 related congenital muscular dystrophy in a patients' cohort from Qatar. A population specific founder variant

Congenital LAMA2 related muscular dystrophy (LAMA2-RD), the most commonly recognized type of congenital muscular dystrophies, has been described in patients' cohorts from Europe and the UK but not from Middle-Eastern. This study aimed to reveal the prevalence, clinical and genomic characteristics of congenital LAMA2-RD in a patient's cohort of 17 families (21 patients) from the Gulf and Middle East. Affected subjects exhibited the classic phenotype of generalized hypotonia, developmental delay, and progressive muscular weakness. Despite the homogeneous background of most of our patients, clinical variability was evident; however, none of our patients was able to achieve independent ambulation. The associated features of nephrocalcinosis, infantile-onset osteopenia, and cardiac arrest were first described in this study. LAMA2 mutations constituted 48% of the genetic causes underlying congenital muscular dystrophies (CMDs) in our patients. We estimated a point prevalence of 0.8 in 100.000 for LAMA2-RD in Qatar, relatively higher compared to that described in Europe's studies. The founder mutation and high rate of consanguinity are potential contributors. This study identified five LAMA2 truncating variants, two novel and three recurrent, of which the c.6488delA-frameshift that was found in 12 unrelated Qatari families, highlighting a founder mutation in Qatari patients. The two novel variants involved an acceptor splice site and N-terminus deletion that removes the LAMA2 promoter, exon1, and part of intron1. The "residual" expression of LAMA2 transcript and protein associated with this large N-terminus deletion suggested an alternative promoter that, while seems to be activated, acts less efficiently.

The role of delayed bone age in the evaluation of stature and bone health in glucocorticoid treated patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Background

Low bone mineral density and an increased risk of appendicular and vertebral fractures are well-established consequences of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and the risk of fractures is exacerbated by long-term glucocorticoid treatment. Monitoring of endocrine and skeletal health and timely intervention in at-risk patients is important in the management of children with DMD.

Methods

As part of the Norwegian Duchenne muscular dystrophy cohort study, we examined the skeletal maturation of 62 boys less than 18 years old, both currently glucocorticoid treated (n = 44), previously treated (n = 6) and naïve (n = 12). The relationship between bone age, height and bone mineral density (BMD) Z-scores was explored.

Results

The participants in the glucocorticoid treated group were short in stature and puberty was delayed. Bone age was significantly delayed, and the delay increased with age and duration of treatment. The difference in height between glucocorticoid treated and naïve boys was no longer significant when height was corrected for delayed skeletal maturation. Mean BMD Z-scores fell below − 2 before 12 years of age in the glucocorticoid treated group, with scores significantly correlated with age, duration of treatment and pubertal development. When BMD Z-scores were corrected for by retarded bone age, the increase in BMD Z-scores was significant for all age groups.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that skeletal maturation should be assessed in the evaluation of short stature and bone health in GC treated boys with DMD, as failing to consider delayed bone age leads to underestimation of BMD Z-scores and potentially overestimation of fracture risk.

Off-label uses of denosumab in metabolic bone diseases

Denosumab (Dmab), a monoclonal antibody against the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK) ligand (RANKL) which substantially suppresses osteoclast activity, has been approved for the treatment of common metabolic bone diseases, including postmenopausal osteoporosis, male osteoporosis, and glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis, in which the pathway of the RANK/RANKL/osteoprotegerin is dysregulated. However, the imbalance of RANKL/RANK/osteoprotegerin is also implicated in the pathogenesis of several other rare metabolic bone diseases, including Juvenile Paget disease, fibrous dysplasia, Hajdu Cheney syndrome and Langerhans cell histiocytosis, thus rendering Dmab a potential treatment option for these diseases. Dmab has been also administered off-label in selected patients (e.g., with Paget's disease, osteogenesis imperfecta, aneurysmal bone cysts) due to contraindications or unresponsiveness to standard treatment, such as bisphosphonates. Moreover, Dmab was administered to improve hypercalcemia induced by various diseases, including primary hyperparathyroidism, tuberculosis and immobilization. The aim of this review is to summarize existing evidence on off-label uses of Dmab in metabolic bone diseases and provide opinion for or against its use, which should be always considered on an individual basis.

Effectiveness of pharmacological treatments in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, important advances have been made in the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). This protocol proposes a methodology for carrying out a systematic review and meta-analysis that aims to: (1) improve the evidence of the benefits of different pharmacological treatments in boys with DMD, and (2) compare the benefit of treatments specifically aimed at delaying the progression of disease in the functional outcomes.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This protocol is guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) and by the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook. A thorough selection of the literature will be done through the MEDLINE, EMBASE and Web of Science databases. The search will be conducted in English and Spanish. The Risk of Bias 2.0 tool from the Cochrane Collaboration will be used to assess the risk of bias. A narrative synthesis of the data will be performed. Meta-analysis will be conducted for effect of treatment on the 6 min walking distance (6MWD), North Star Ambulatory Assessment and Timed Functional Tests. Subgroup analyses will be performed by age or baseline values of the 6MWD, and overall bias.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The approval of an ethical committee is not required. All the included trials will comply with the current ethical standards and the Declaration of Helsinki. The results of this proposed systematic review and meta-analysis will provide a general overview and evidence concerning the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Findings will be disseminated to academic audiences through peer-reviewed publications, as well as to clinical audiences, patients' associations and policy makers, and may influence guideline developers in order to improve outcomes for these patients.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018102207.

Eosinophils Do Not Drive Acute Muscle Pathology in the mdx Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Eosinophils are present in muscle lesions associated with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and dystrophin-deficient mdx mice that phenocopy this disorder. Although it has been hypothesized that eosinophils promote characteristic inflammatory muscle damage, this has not been fully examined. In this study, we generated mice with the dystrophin mutation introduced into PHIL, a strain with a transgene that directs lineage-specific eosinophil ablation. We also explored the impact of eosinophil overabundance on dystrophinopathy by introducing the dystrophin mutation into IL-5 transgenic mice. We evaluated the degree of eosinophil infiltration in association with myofiber size distribution, centralized nuclei, serum creatine kinase, and quantitative histopathology scores. Among our findings, eosinophils were prominent in the quadriceps muscles of 4-wk-old male mdx mice but no profound differences were observed in the quantitative measures of muscle damage when comparing mdx versus mdx.PHIL versus mdx.IL5tg mice, despite dramatic differences in eosinophil infiltration (CD45+CD11c-Gr1-MHC class IIloSiglecF+ eosinophils at 1.2 ± 0.34% versus <0.1% versus 20 ± 7.6% of total cells, respectively). Further evaluation revealed elevated levels of eosinophil chemoatttractants eotaxin-1 and RANTES in the muscle tissue of all three dystrophin-deficient strains; eotaxin-1 concentration in muscle correlated inversely with age. Cytokines IL-4 and IL-1R antagonist were also detected in association with eosinophils in muscle. Taken together, our findings challenge the long-held perception of eosinophils as cytotoxic in dystrophin-deficient muscle; we show clearly that eosinophil infiltration is not a driving force behind acute muscle damage in the mdx mouse strain. Ongoing studies will focus on the functional properties of eosinophils in this unique microenvironment.

Growth, pubertal development, and skeletal health in boys with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Glucocorticoid therapy is currently the most widely used treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), having consistently shown to prolong ambulation by 2 years, reduce the frequency of scoliosis, and improve cardiorespiratory function. Among the most frequent side effects of glucocorticoids are fractures due to osteoporosis, linear growth retardation or arrest, and pubertal delay, the subjects of this review.

RECENT FINDINGS

The diagnosis of osteoporosis has shifted in recent years away from a bone mineral density-centric to a fracture-focused approach, with particular emphasis on early vertebral fracture identification (one of the key triggers for osteoporosis intervention). Delayed puberty should be addressed in an age-appropriate manner, with numerous options available for sex steroid replacement. Growth impairment, however, is a more challenging complication of glucocorticoid-treated DMD, one that is most likely best addressed through growth-sparing therapies that target the dystrophinopathy.

SUMMARY

With glucocorticoid prescription an increasingly prevalent component of DMD care, early attention to management of osteoporosis and delayed puberty are important components of multidisciplinary and anticipatory care. The treatment of short stature remains controversial, with no accepted therapy currently available to over-ride the toxic effects of glucocorticoids on the growth axis.