Desnutrição e obesidade infantis em duas coortes de base populacional no Sul do Brasil: tendências e diferenciais

Associations of Linear Growth and Relative Weight Gain in Early Life with Human Capital at 30 Years of Age

OBJECTIVE

To assess the associations of birthweight, nutritional status and growth in childhood with IQ, years of schooling, and monthly income at 30 years of age.

STUDY DESIGN

In 1982, the 5 maternity hospitals in Pelotas, Brazil, were visited daily and 5914 live births were identified. At 30 years of age, 3701 subjects were interviewed. IQ, years of schooling, and income were measured.

RESULTS

On average, their IQ was 98 points, they had 11.4 years of schooling, and the mean income was 1593 reais. After controlling for several confounders, birthweight and attained weight and length/height for age at 2 and 4 years of age were associated positively with IQ, years of years of schooling, and income, except for the association between length at 2 years of age and income. Conditional growth analyses were used to disentangle linear growth from relative weight gain. Conditional length at 2 years of age ≥1 SD score above the expected value, compared with ≥1 SD below the expected, was associated with an increase in IQ (4.28 points; 95% CI, 2.66-5.90), years of schooling (1.58 years; 95% CI, 1.08-2.08), and monthly income (303 Brazilian reais; 95% CI, 44-563). Relative weight gain, above what would be expected from linear growth, was not associated with the outcomes.

CONCLUSION

In a middle-income setting, promotion of linear growth in the first 1000 days of life is likely to increase adult IQ, years of schooling, and income. Weight gain in excess of what is expected from linear growth does not seem to improve human capital.

Implementation of the who Multicentre Growth Reference Study in Brazil

The World Health Organization (WHO) Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) African site was Accra, Ghana. Its sample was drawn from 10 affluent residential areas where earlier research had demonstrated the presence of a child subpopulation with unconstrained growth. This subpopulation could be identified on the basis of the father's education and household income. The subjects for the longitudinal study were enrolled from 25 hospitals and delivery facilities that accounted for 80% of the study area's births. The cross-sectional sample was recruited at 117 day-care centers used by more than 80% of the targeted subpopulation. Public relations efforts were mounted to promote the study in the community. The large number of facilities involved in the longitudinal and cross-sectional components, the relatively large geographic area covered by the study, and the difficulties of working in a densely populated urban area presented special challenges. Conversely, the high rates of breastfeeding and general support for this practice greatly facilitated the implementation of the MGRS protocol.

Household Trials with Very Small Samples Predict Responses to Nutrition Counseling Intervention

Household trials were conducted to test the acceptability and feasibility of the recommendations to be delivered to the mothers in the context of a randomized intervention implemented in Pelotas, Brazil. A first home visit was paid to assess child health and feeding problems. In a second visit, the mother was encouraged to select one or two recommendations to try out over five days. The last visit was used to assess the mothers’ experiences in attempting to implement the recommendations. Nonexclusive breastfeeding, use of the bottle, monotonous diet, and low energy density of foods were the most common problems. The most frequently selected recommendations were those aiming to increase the energy density of foods. Mothers generally reported positive responses to the recommendations. The household trials highlighted the acceptability and feasibility of the planned recommendations and correctly predicted the changes that were successfully implemented by the mothers in the large intervention study.

Prevalência e fatores associados à desnutrição e ao excesso de peso em menores de cinco anos nos seis maiores municípios do Maranhão

Prevalências de desnutrição e excesso de peso em menores de cinco anos e sua associação com fatores socioeconômicos, sanitários e demográficos foram estimadas nos seis maiores municípios do Maranhão, em 2006/2007. Por meio de inquérito domiciliar por amostragem 1.214 crianças menores de cinco anos foram aleatoriamente selecionadas. Foi utilizada amostragem por conglomerados em dois estágios, representativa dos seis municípios maranhenses com mais de cem mil habitantes. Foram aplicados questionários padronizados para as mães ou responsáveis pelas crianças e aferidos peso e estatura. Para classificação da desnutrição foram utilizados os pontos de corte < - 2 escores z pelos indicadores peso para idade, peso para estatura e estatura para idade. Para a classificação do excesso de peso foram considerados > +2 escores z, de acordo com o indicador peso para estatura, seguindo recomendações da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Pelo índice peso para idade a prevalência de desnutrição foi de 4,5%, pelo índice estatura para idade 8,5% estavam com desnutrição pregressa e pelo índice peso para estatura 3,9% encontravam-se com desnutrição atual, enquanto 6,7% apresentavam excesso de peso. Crianças de famílias chefiadas por mulheres apresentaram menores prevalências de desnutrição (Razão de Prevalências = 0,4). Variáveis socioeconômicas não estiveram associadas à desnutrição ou ao excesso de peso. Recebimento de benefício do programa bolsa família não foi associado à desnutrição ou excesso de peso. A prevalência de desnutrição infantil foi baixa, mas o excesso de peso foi mais prevalente do que a desnutrição. Não foi detectada desigualdade social em relação à desnutrição em crianças menores de cinco anos, sugerindo evolução favorável no sentido de maior equidade.

Excess weight in preschoolers: prevalence and associated factors

OBJECTIVE

To study the prevalence and factors associated with excess weight in children enrolled in public schools in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC).

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study, carried out with children aged 4 to 6 years. The studied outcome was excess weight, defined by z-score > two standard deviations for body mass index (BMI)/age, compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) reference population of 2006/2007. Anthropometric measurements of body mass and height were measured in duplicate using standard techniques, in accordance with the WHO. Data were double entered using EPI-INFO software, release 6.04. Absolute and relative frequencies were calculated, as well as mean values and standard deviations. Associations between excess weight and other variables were assessed by using Poisson model with robust variance. STATA software release 12.0 was used (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

A total of 4,914 children were evaluated (2,578 in RS and 2,336 in SC). In RS, the incidence of excess weight was 14.4% (95% CI = 13.1% to 15.8%) and in SC, 7.5% (95% CI = 6.5% to 8.7%). The variables associated with excess weight were number of household members, maternal education, marital status, number of children, mother's age at birth of first child, gestational age, and birth weight.

CONCLUSION

Children enrolled in public preschools in RS had a two-fold higher excess weight prevalence than that identified in SC, demonstrating a significant difference in the magnitude of childhood obesity in two Brazilian states located in the same region.

Association of family income with BMI from childhood to adult life: a birth cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of family income at birth with BMI among young adults who have been followed since birth.

DESIGN

A birth cohort study.

SETTING

In 1982, all children born in Pelotas, southern Brazil, were included in a perinatal survey and visited at ages 1, 2, 4, 15, 18-19 and 23 years.

SUBJECTS

Cohort members (n 4297) were traced and interviewed in 2004-2005. In all follow-ups, participants were weighed and measured, and BMI and prevalence of obesity were calculated for each age. Family income was obtained in minimum wages in 1982 and as a continuous variable, in reais, in later follow-ups. Skin colour was self-reported in 2004-2005.

RESULTS

Mean BMI and prevalence of obesity differed between males and females. In males, a direct relationship was found throughout life and among females this relationship was modified by age. During childhood, BMI was higher among girls from higher income groups and this association was inversed at age 23 years. At this same age, mean BMI among black women was 1·3 kg/m2 higher than among white women, even after adjustment for current family income.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings show in men that the relationship between income and BMI is similar to that seen in less developed areas, whereas among adult women the relationship is similar to that observed in developed countries. In addition to the effect of socio-economic status, skin colour also has an influence on the BMI of adult women.

Perinatal and early adulthood factors associated with adiposity

We used body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) as fat indicators to assess whether perinatal and early adulthood factors are associated with adiposity in early adulthood. We hypothesized that risk factors differ between men and women and are also different when WC is used for measuring adiposity as opposed to BMI. We conducted a longitudinal study based on a sample of 2,063 adults from the 1978/1979 Ribeirão Preto birth cohort. Adjustment was performed using four sequential multiple linear regression models stratified by sex. Both perinatal and early adulthood variables influenced adulthood BMI and WC. The associations differed between men and women and depending on the measure of abdominal adiposity (BMI or WC). Living with a partner, for both men and women, and high fat and alcohol intake in men were factors that were consistently associated with higher adulthood BMI and WC levels. The differences observed between sexes may point to different lifestyles of men and women, suggesting that prevention policies should consider gender specific strategies.

[Association between mothers' quality of life and infants' nutritional status]

OBJECTIVE

Determine associations between the quality of life of mothers and the nutritional status of children.

METHODS

case-control study involving 152 mothers of children aged zero to five years, living in the coverage area of a basic health unit in the city of Porto Alegre. The calculation of sample size was estimated as 152 mothers - 76 mothers with children at nutritional risk/malnutrition (cases) and 76 mothers with eutrophic children (controls). Information was collected regarding the quality of life of mothers, measured by the instrument of the World Health Organization, and the association between maternal quality of life and nutritional status of children was examined.

RESULTS

In relation to the psychiatric realm, for each eutrophic child whose mother has lower quality of life there is a chance of 5.4 children at nutritional risk/malnutrition with mothers in the same condition. In the environmental field, for each eutrophic child whose mother has lower quality of life there is a chance of 2.9 children at nutritional risk/malnutrition with mothers in the same condition. Regarding educational level, for each eutrophic child whose mother has lower quality of life there is a chance of 4.2 children at nutritional risk/malnutrition with mothers in the same condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers' low quality of life was associated with an infant in nutritional risk/malnutrition and may be a risk factor for the nutritional status of children.

[Food and Nutritional Surveillance System (SISVAN) in children from Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil: coverage, nutritional status, and data reliability]

This study aimed to evaluate: the coverage of the Food and Nutritional Surveillance System (SISVAN) in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and it Regional Health Offices in 2006; the nutritional status of children 0-10 years of age; and the reliability of data on nutritional status recorded in the system. A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted with secondary data on 63,320 children. Coverage was defined as the proportion of children younger than 10 years covered by the Family Health Strategy in the State's various municipalities (counties). Height-for-age (H/A) and body mass index for age (BMI/A) were classified according to World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Agreement between the nutritional classifications recorded in the system and those calculated in this study was evaluated with the weighted kappa coefficient (at 5%). The system's coverage in the State of Rio Grande do Sul was 10.5%. Low height-for-age was found in 7.1% of children and overweight in 8.4%. Agreement between the classifications showed a kappa coefficient of 0.43. The system's coverage and agreement between classifications were both low, and the study showed the coexistence of high overweight and stunting rates in this age group.

Size at birth and height in early adolescence: a prospective birth cohort study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between size at birth (birthweight and birth length) and height in early adolescence in a prospective birth cohort study in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Interviews were carried out in 1993, including measurements of birthweight and length, and in 2004-2005, including measurements of weight and height. This analysis includes 4,452 individuals, with a mean age of 11.3 years (standard deviation-SD=0.3), representing a follow-up rate of 87.5%. Mean height at 11 years was 145.8 cm (SD=7.9), or 144.9 cm (SD=7.7) in boys and 146.8 cm (SD=7.9) in girls. Birthweight and birth length were positively associated with height in early adolescence in the crude analysis, but after adjustment for confounding and for each other, only the effect of birth length was still significant. A one z-score increase in birth length was associated with a 1.63 cm increase in height at 11 years. The present study shows that birth length is a strong predictor of later height, while the effect of birth weight disappears after adjustment for birth length.

Estado nutricional e níveis hematológicos e séricos de ferro em pré-escolares de municípios com diferentes índices de desenvolvimento infantil

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o estado nutricional e os níveis hematológicos e séricos de ferro em pré-escolares de municípios com diferentes índices de desenvolvimento infantil (IDI). MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal de 34 pré-escolares com idade de três a seis anos do município de Laranjal, Paraná, com IDI baixo e com o mesmo número de crianças pareadas por idade e gênero, provenientes de Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, município com IDI médio. Avaliou-se o estado nutricional por meio do escore Z das relações peso/estatura e estatura/idade. A avaliação bioquímica constou de dosagens de hemoglobina, hematócrito, ferro sérico e ferritina. Para a análise estatística foram usados os testes t de Student, Mann-Whitney, qui-quadrado e o exato de Fisher. RESULTADOS: Peso, estatura e escore Z das relações antropométricas foram significantemente menores no grupo de crianças de Laranjal comparados aos de Presidente Prudente. A prevalência de anemia em ambos os grupos foi 8,8%, não havendo diferença significante para a prevalência de ferropenia e para os valores de ferritina sérica. CONCLUSÕES: Pré-escolares do município com IDI baixo apresentam mais desnutrição, enquanto sobrepeso e obesidade são predominantes nos pré-escolares do município com IDI médio. Quanto às alterações dos níveis hematológicos e séricos de ferro, não há diferença entre os pré-escolares dos municípios estudados.

Infant malnutrition and obesity in three population-based birth cohort studies in Southern Brazil: trends and differences

The aim of this study was to compare the evolution of nutritional deficits and overweight in one-year-old children from three birth cohorts started in 1982, 1993 and 2004 in Pelotas, Southern Brazil. Samples from the 1982 and 1993 cohorts and all children from 2004 were weighed and measured, and their mothers interviewed. Anthropometric deficits and overweight were assessed using both NCHS and WHO growth standards. A comparison of the existence of nutritional deficits showed that, after a decline between 1982 and 1993, its prevalence stabilized between 1993 and 2004. Across the whole period, a decrease in all deficits was observed. Obesity, on the other hand, increased. A deficit in the ratio of body length to age was found to be strongly associated with family income. The group with income below one minimum wage was the only to present a significant reduction of stunting during the study period. The most significant improvements in the reduction of nutritional deficits occurred in the first half of the study period, while social differentials remained. Fighting malnutrition is still necessary among the 40% of the population considered poor, and must be accompanied by efforts to combat overweight which is being observed in all social strata.

Is overweight a risk factor for wheezing in pre-school children? A study in 14 Brazilian communities

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between overweight and wheezing in pre-school children in 14 small Brazilian communities.

METHODS

Cross-sectional epidemiological study, conducted between 2001 and 2002. A sample of 3453 children under 5 years of age was taken from nine communities in the state of Bahia and five in the state of São Paulo. Data on housing, family and children were obtained by applying structured questionnaires in loco. Weight and height for each child were also measured. The association between wheezing and overweight was assessed by unconditional logistic multivariate regression models.

RESULTS

Overweight children had a greater frequency of wheezing and an odds ratio of 2.57 (95% confidence interval 1.51-4.37) was estimated after controlling for several potential confounding variables. The magnitude of the risk was not affected by several different model specifications.

CONCLUSION

Excess weight is associated with increased risk for wheezing in this population of children below 5 years of age.

Estado nutricional e sua relação com fatores biológicos, sociais e demográficos de crianças assistidas em creches da Prefeitura do Município de São Paulo

OBJETIVOS: descrever os fatores associados ao estado nutricional de crianças assistidas em creches da Prefeitura do Município de São Paulo. MÉTODOS: foi selecionada amostra probabilística de crianças de 4 a 84 meses (n=556), utilizando procedimento de amostragem por conglomerados. Adotou-se o padrão de referência do National Centre for Health Statistics, para os índices peso/idade, peso/estatura e estatura/idade, considerando-se em déficit nutricional as crianças que apresentaram esses índices dois escores z abaixo do valor mediano da população de referência e sobrepeso com índice peso/estatura dois escores z acima. Foram construídos dois modelos de regressão logística multivariada para identificar quais as variáveis associa-das com o déficit de estatura e o sobrepeso. RESULTADOS: encontrou-se 5,2% de prevalência de déficit de estatura e 5,0% de sobrepeso. As variáveis número de irmãos e faixa etária da criança se associaram inversamente com os dois agravos em estudo, onde ter dois ou mais irmãos e idade inferior a dois anos é fator de risco para déficit de estatura e ter dois ou mais irmãos e idade inferior a cinco anos é fator de proteção para sobrepeso. CONCLUSÕES: verificou-se prevalência de déficit de estatura e sobrepeso acima do esperado para a população de referência, justificando intervenções nutricionais que contemplem esses dois agravos.

Breastfeeding and overweight in childhood: evidence from the Pelotas 1993 birth cohort study

OBJECTIVES

The effect of breastfeeding duration on the prevalence of overweight and on mean weight for height z-score (WHZ) was evaluated in Brazilian children.

DESIGN

Prospective population-based birth cohort study.

SUBJECTS

In total, 1,273 children aged 4 years, corresponding to a follow-up rate of 87.2%.

MEASUREMENTS

Three explanatory variables were studied: duration of any breastfeeding, duration of exclusive or predominant breastfeeding, and ever breastfeeding. Weight and height were measured using a digital electronic scale and a portable stadiometer. Overweight was defined as WHZ >2 using the National Center for Health Statistics reference curve.

RESULTS

Overweight prevalence at the age of 4 years was 10.2% (95% CI 8.4; 11.8). The lowest prevalence (6.5%) was observed among children breastfed for >11 months. Among those breastfed for less than 3 months, the prevalence of overweight was approximately 9.5%. Mean WHZ ranged from 0.38 among children breastfed for less than 1 month to 0.62 among those breastfed for 9-11.9 months. No linear trends were detected in the association between breastfeeding and anthropometric indicators. None of the three breastfeeding variables was significantly associated with the prevalence of overweight or mean WHZ in multivariable analyses. No interactions were detected between breastfeeding and the variables sex, birth weight, socioeconomic status, skin color and pregestational in body mass index.

CONCLUSION

Our results do not support the hypothesis that breastfeeding promotion would reduce overweight or obesity in this population. Existing evidence on many other benefits of breastfeeding for the mother and the child supports its continued promotion, protection and support.

[Prevalence of overweight in adolescents: a population-based study in a southern Brazilian city]

The prevalence of overweight and its association with demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral, and biological variables were evaluated. The sample included 810 adolescents (10-19 years of age) living in the urban area of Pelotas, a southern Brazilian city. Overweight was defined as a body mass index > or = the 85th percentile, according to sex and age, and compared to the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, following the WHO recommendation for adolescents. A clustering sampling strategy was used, and both the crude and adjusted analyses (Poisson Regression) took this strategy into account. The prevalence of overweight was 19.3% (95%CI: 16.6-22.0) and there was no difference between the sexes. The following groups presented a greater probability of being overweight: those classified in the wealthiest socioeconomic groups, those who had dieted to lose weight within the previous 3 months, those who watch 4 or more hours of television per day, and those who have less than 3 regular meals per day. After stratification by gender, high socioeconomic level was associated with greatest risk of overweight among boys. Dieting to lose weight during the previous 3 months, 4 or more hours of television viewing per day, and less than 3 formal meals per day were risk factors for overweight among girls.

Prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade em escolares de alto nível socioeconômico em Londrina, Paraná, Brasil

OBJETIVO: Verificar a prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade em escolares na faixa etária entre sete e dez anos, de ambos os sexos e de alto nível socioeconômico. MÉTODOS: Quinhentos e onze escolares (274 meninos e 237 meninas) foram submetidos a medidas antropométricas de massa corporal, estatura e espessuras de dobras cutâneas (tricipital e subescapular). Valores de índice de massa corporal maiores ou iguais ao percentil 85 e menores do que percentil 95 foram utilizados para a determinação de sobrepeso, ao passo que valores de índice de massa corporal maior ou igual ao percentil 95 foram adotados como indicadores de obesidade. O nível socioeconômico foi estabelecido a partir de informações produzidas por um questionário, de acordo com o grau de instrução dos pais e os bens de consumo familiar. RESULTADOS: A prevalência total de sobrepeso foi de 19,7% nos meninos e 17,3% nas meninas, sem diferenças significantes entre sexo e faixa etária (p>0,05). Por outro lado, a prevalência de obesidade em meninos e meninas foi de 17,5% e 9,3%, respectivamente, com diferenças significantes entre os sexos aos nove (p<0,01) e dez anos (p<0,05), bem como no conjunto de todas as idades (p<0,01). CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados indicam taxas de prevalência de sobrepeso (~19%) e de obesidade (~14%) bastante superiores à média da população brasileira na faixa etária entre os sete e dez anos. Portanto, diferentemente do observado em países desenvolvidos, o alto nível socioeconômico parece afetar negativamente a prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade, aumentando os riscos para o desenvolvimento de disfunções metabólicas em idades precoces.

Prevalence of obesity in preschool children from five towns in São Paulo State, Brazil

Health and nutritional characteristics of children under 5 years of age were investigated through a cross-sectional study in 5 small cities from different regions in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, which displayed different socioeconomic profiles: Bady Bassit, Bofete, Jaborandi, Morungaba, and Riversul. Data were obtained using a systematic sampling from the 1991 National Census. Anthropometric data were collected from all children under 5 years of age living in the selected households. Nutritional status was determined by height/age and weight/height according to the National Center for Health Statistics -- NCHS standards. Stunting was defined as HAZ below -- 2 Z scores and obesity as WHZ above 2 Z scores. The study sample consisted of 987 children (490 boys and 497 girls). Prevalence of obesity was 6.6% (65) and stunting 5.0% (51). Per capita income displayed a significant and positive association with obesity (p = 0.018), in contrast to an inverse association with stunting (p = 0.038).

[Trends in the nutritional profile of children born in 1993 in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: longitudinal analyses]

Trends in nutritional status were studied in children born in 1993 in the city of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. During that year, all infants born in the city were identified, and a sub-sample of 1,273 children was visited twice at home for anthropometric examinations at an average age of 12 and 54 months, respectively. Approximately 10% of all children were lost to follow up from birth to 4 years. The prevalence of nutritional deficit decreased, while that of overweight increased between ages 1 and 4 years. The prevalence of nutritional deficit showed an inverse association with birth weight, while overweight showed a direct relationship. About 50% of the children with height/age deficit at 12 months remained in this same condition at 4 years old, while a third of overweight children remained in this condition during the same period. On the other hand, some 10% of non-overweight children became overweight between 1 and 4 years of age. The nutritional transition observed in Pelotas requires a paradigm shift in health services, which are still concentrated on detecting and treating malnutrition rather than obesity.

Prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade em crianças pré-escolares matriculadas em duas escolas particulares de Recife, Pernambuco

OBJETIVOS: determinar a prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade entre pré-escolares de duas escolas particulares em Recife. MÉTODOS: realizou-se um estudo de corte transversal com 230 pré-escolares matriculados em duas escolas particulares de Recife, no ano de 2000. Foram classificadas como portadoras de sobrepeso as crianças com índice peso/estatura entre +1 a +2 escores z e, como obesas, aquelas com peso/estatura acima de +2 escores z. RESULTADOS: as prevalências de sobrepeso e obesidade foram de 22,6% e 11,3%, respectivamente. Entre as crianças do sexo feminino, a prevalência de sobrepeso foi de 27,0% e a de obesidade foi de 9,8%. No sexo masculino, a prevalência de sobrepeso foi de 17,6% e a de obesidade foi de 13,0%. CONCLUSÕES: as prevalências de sobrepeso e obesidade foram elevadas nesse grupo de pré-escolares, provenientes em sua maioria de famílias de classe socioeconômica média e alta. O pediatra deve estar atento para a crescente prevalência da obesidade infantil, a fim de atuar na prevenção, diagnóstico e tratamento dessa condição.

[Risk factors for overweight in children from Southern Brazil]

Risk factors for overweight were investigated in a cross-sectional survey of children aged 12-59 months in the Southern Brazilian city of Porto Alegre (n = 2,660). Odds ratios (OR) for overweight, defined by weight/height > 2 z-scores of the NCHS standards, were estimated for socioeconomic and demographic conditions, social environment, and childhood health events. Prevalence of overweight was 6.5%. In the multivariate model, the odds of overweight were positively associated with maternal education (schooling > 12 years, OR = 2.36; 95%CI: 1.21-4.60; 9-11 years, OR = 2.07; 95%CI: 1.16-3.70) and family income per capita > 2 times the minimum wage (OR = 1.86; 95%CI: 1.13-3.08) and negatively associated with maternal work (OR = 0.72; 95%CI: 0.52-0.99). Odds were higher for children born large-for-gestational-age (OR = 2.29; 95%CI: 1.36-3.85) and lower for children born small (OR = 0.57; 95%CI: 0.33-0.99), as compared to those born with adequate birth weight for gestational age. Paternal schooling, parental occupation, and maternal age at the child's birth were associated with overweight in the unadjusted model only. Programs are needed to prevent overweight during childhood, with special attention to families and children at increased risk.

[Prevalence of malnutrition among children in Embu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 1996-1997]

This paper focused on the nutritional profile of children in the municipality of Embu, São Paulo State, Brazil, in 1996-1997, to identify vulnerable population segments that require specific action by health services. The sample consisted of 320 children < or = 5 years of age distributed into four socioeconomic strata. The indices were expressed as z-scores: weight/age (W/A), height/age (H/A), and weight/height (W/H) to analyze the nutritional status, and the reference for normality was the NCHS curve. In all population strata and age groups, the height/age index was the most frequently affected, while the weight/height index had the fewest deficits. No statistically significant differences were observed in children's nutritional status between the four population strata or between the different age groups. Children with low birth weight showed the highest prevalence of deficits in all indices. In the municipality, the frequency of deficits were: H/A< 2z: 7.1%, W/H< 2z: 0.2%, and W/A< 2z: 2.9%. Height deficit can be used as an early warning, considering that loss observed over the course of years has future consequences.

The low prevalence of weight-for-height deficits in Brazilian children is related to body proportions

Compared with children from other regions, Latin American children living in poverty have much lower prevalences of weight-for-height deficits than would be expected given the observed rates of stunting. This study was aimed at investigating whether variations in body proportions, particularly abdominal circumference, could explain this paradoxical finding. In a cross-sectional study, children aged 12-35 mo (n = 197) were studied in Southern Brazil. Half of these children were from a high socioeconomic status (SES) group whose growth closely resembled that of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO reference; the other half were from low income families. The following 11 anthropometric measurements were collected: weight, height, sitting height/crown-rump length, head, chest, upper arm and abdominal circumference, triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds. These measures were compared between the two groups of children and with values for North American children [mostly from Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II)]. For nearly all measures, low SES Brazilian children tended to be smaller than both high SES and North American children. However, when body proportionality was assessed by dividing the measurements by the child's height, these differences tended to disappear or even to change direction, as was the case for head, chest and abdominal circumferences. Mean abdominal circumference was virtually identical between low and high SES children, and the former had larger abdomens for a given height. Despite slight differences in measuring techniques, Brazilian children had larger abdomens than North Americans. These findings may explain in part why deprived Latin American children have higher weights for their height compared with the NCHS/WHO reference.

Tendência secular do crescimento pós-natal na cidade de São Paulo (1974-1996)

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar o crescimento linear nos primeiros cinco anos de vida, conhecer sua distribuição social, estabelecer sua tendência secular e analisar sua determinação, através de dados coletados por três inquéritos domiciliares realizados na cidade de São Paulo, SP, em 1974/75, 1984/85 e 1995/96. MÉTODOS: Os três inquéritos estudaram amostras probabilísticas da população residente na cidade com idades entre zero e 59 meses (1.008 crianças em 1974/75; 1.016 em 1984/85 e 1.280 em 1995/96). Crianças com menos de 24 meses foram medidas na posição deitada e crianças mais velhas na posição em pé. O padrão internacional de crescimento foi utilizado para avaliação da altura segundo a idade e o sexo da criança. O estudo da distribuição social do crescimento levou em conta tercis da renda familiar per capita em cada um dos inquéritos. A estratégia analítica, para estudar os determinantes da tendência secular do crescimento, empregou modelos hierárquicos de causalidade, análises multivariadas de regressão e procedimentos análogos aos utilizados para calcular riscos atribuíveis populacionais. RESULTADOS/CONCLUSÕES: No período de 22 anos, coberto pelos três inquéritos, a tendência secular do crescimento pós-natal na cidade de São Paulo foi positiva, contínua e aparentemente uniforme ao longo do tempo, correspondendo a um ganho médio total de 0,650 escores z da referência internacional de crescimento, ou cerca de 2,3 cm na idade de 30 meses. O maior ganho foi registrado para o terço mais pobre da população -- 3,3 cm <FONT FACE=Symbol>¾</font> e o menor para o terço mais rico -- 1,7 cm. Mudanças positivas em determinantes distais (renda familiar e escolaridade materna) e intermediárias (condições de moradia, saneamento do meio, acesso a serviços de saúde e antecedentes reprodutivos) do crescimento infantil, justificaram parte substancial do incremento de altura observado entre meados das décadas de 80 e de 90.

[Diagnosis of overweight in adolescents: comparative study of the performance different criteria for body mass index]

OBJECTIVE

In an attempt to simplify the screening process for detecting obesity in adolescence, the performance of different cutoff values for body mass index (BMI) was assessed in a population-based cohort in Southern Brazil.

METHODS

A total of 493 adolescents aged 15-16 years who lived in the city of Pelotas, Brazil, were studied. Obesity was defined according to the WHO criteria taking into account age and sex (a BMI equal to or greater than the 85th percentile of the NHANES I reference, plus subscapular and triceps skinfold equal to or greater than the 90th percentile of the same reference). Different BMI cutoff values were used to assess their specificity and sensitivity.

RESULTS

For boys, BMI>/=25 kg/m(2) showed the best performance for detecting obesity, with a sensitivity of 90% and only 5% of false positives. The Brazilian proposed criteria that was used had 100% sensitivity but up to 23% of false positives. Higher cutoff values were also tested, but there was a slight increase in specificity, accompanied by a marked reduction in sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

The BMI cutoff of 25 kg/m(2) presented the best performance for screening obesity in the studied sample, and it is recommended for adolescents aged 15 and more in populations with similar characteristics. It provides a single cutoff value to be used in primary health services, eliminating the need for age and sex-specific values and skinfold measurements, and it is also consistent with the cutoff value proposed to identifying overweight adults.

[Understanding the low prevalence of weight-for-height deficit in lower-income Brazilian children: correlations among anthropometric values]

The sample for this study consisted of 386 children from six to 59 months of age. The objective was to study the association between wasting and abdominal circumference. Thirteen anthropometric measurements were taken: weight, height or length, crown-rump length, 4 circumferences, 4 skin fold thicknesses, and 2 breadths. Muscle, fat, and total upper arm areas and leg length were calculated. Indices of body proportionality were obtained by dividing the anthropometric variables by height. Height-for-age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height deficits were 25.9%, 14.4%, and 3.5%, respectively. The smallest and lightest children were those with the highest abdominal circumferences divided by height. According to this study, abdominal circumference for Brazilian children without height-for-age deficit is, on average, 1.2 cm larger than for US children. Using this as a basis, the study calculated that prevalence of weight-for-height deficit would increase from 3.5% to 7.0% by increasing 2 cm in the abdominal circumference. The low prevalence of wasting and the high prevalence of stunting as indicated by several Brazilian studies could be explained partially by larger mean abdominal circumference values.

[Low prevalence of bodyweight-for-height deficit: comparison of stunned and no-stunned Brazilian children]

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between abdominal circumference and weight-for-height in children. The average of 18 anthropometric and body proportionality indexes were compared among four groups of children: stunted and non-stunted Brazilians, Peruvians and North-Americans.

METHODS

There were studied 386 children aged 6-59 months living in a poor neighborhood in Pelotas, Brazil. Anthropometric measurements (weight, recumbent length or height, sitting height or crown-rump length; head, chest, upper arm and abdominal circumferences; triceps, biceps, subescapular and suprailiac skinfold thickness; biacromial and biiliac breadths) were obtained. Muscle, fat, total upper arm areas, leg length and body proportionality indexes were calculated.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The study sample showed high levels of morbidity, low parental educational levels, poor access to health services and poor housing conditions. Stunted Brazilian children had lower means for most of the anthropometric measurements when compared to non-stunted Brazilians and North-American children. However, stunted children showed larger abdominal, head and thoracic circumference in relation to their stature than non-stunted children. The low prevalence of weight-for-height among the children of this study is not a result of excess of fat or muscle tissue, and may be partly explained by an increase in head and trunk dimensions (including abdominal circumference) relative to the child's stature.