DETECTION OF COPATHOGENS IN FREE-RANGING EASTERN BOX TURTLES ( TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA ) IN ILLINOIS AND TENNESSEE

Molecular epidemiology of Eimeria spp. parasites and the faecal microbiome of Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis): a non-invasive, multiplex metabarcode survey of an endangered species

Assessing individual and population health in endangered wildlife poses unique challenges due to the lack of an adequate baseline and ethical constraints on invasive sampling. For endangered bats, minimally invasive samples like guano can often be the ethical and technical limit for studies of pathogens and the microbiome. In this study, we use multiplex metabarcode sequencing to describe the faecal microbiome and parasites of 56 Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis). We show evidence of a high prevalence of Eimeria spp. protozoan parasite and characterize associations between infection and changes to the faecal microbiome. We identify a strong and significant enrichment of Clostridium species in Eimeria-positive bats, including isolates related to Clostridium perfringens.

Emydomyces testavorans Surveillance in Multiple Free-Ranging Terrestrial and Aquatic Chelonian Species in Illinois, USA

The order Onygenales contains multiple fungal pathogens that affect free-ranging and zoo-housed reptilian species. Emydomyces testavorans, an onygenalean fungus associated with skin and shell disease, has been sporadically detected in aquatic chelonians. Because of the recent discovery of this organism, little is known about its prevalence in free-ranging chelonians. The objective of this study was to perform surveillance for E. testavorans in six free-ranging aquatic and terrestrial chelonian species in Illinois, USA: Blanding's turtles (n=437; Emydoidea blandingii), painted turtles (n=199; Chrysemys picta), common snapping turtles (n=35; Chelydra serpentina), red-eared sliders (n=62; RES; Trachemys scripta elegans), eastern box turtles (n=73; Terrapene carolina carolina) and ornate box turtles (n=29; Terrapene ornata). Combined cloacal-oral swabs (COSs) or shell (carapace and plastron surfaces) swabs were collected from 2019 to 2021 and tested for E. testavorans using quantitative PCR. The PCR detected E. testavorans in COSs of an adult male, subadult female, and juvenile male Blanding's turtle (0.6%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.2-1.9%) and a shell swab from an adult female RES (1.6%; 95% CI, 0-8.7%). Shell lesions consistent with E. testavorans infection were present in two of the positive Blanding's turtles. These results document the rarity of this pathogen on the landscape in Illinois. Additional studies should determine this pathogen's impact on individuals and clarify its significance for conservation efforts of Blanding's turtle, in which E. testavorans has not been reported previously.

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF SPOTTED (CLEMMYS GUTTATA) AND PAINTED (CHRYSEMYS PICTA) TURTLES IN CAPE COD, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A, WITH DETECTION OF A NOVEL ADENOVIRUS

Freshwater turtles face numerous anthropogenic threats worldwide. Health assessments are a key component of chelonian population assessment and monitoring but are under reported in many species. The purpose of this study was to characterize the health of spotted turtles (Clemmys guttata; n = 30) and painted turtles (Chrysemys picta; n = 24) at Camp Edwards, a military base in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, using physical examinations, hematology, plasma heavy metal analyses, and pathogen surveillance via PCR. Spotted turtles had a high prevalence of carapace (n = 27, 90%) and plastron (n = 14, 46.7%) lesions, and a previously undescribed adenovirus was detected in three animals (proposed as Clemmys adenovirus-1). Female painted turtles had lower plasma copper (p = 0.012) and higher strontium (p = 0.0003) than males, and appeared to be in a similar plane of health to previous reports. This initial health assessment effort provides useful baseline data for future comparison in these species. Conservation efforts on Camp Edwards should incorporate continued health surveillance of these populations to identify intervention opportunities and determine the conservation threats, if any, of the novel adenovirus.

No Ranaviral DNA Found in Australian Freshwater Turtles, 2014-19, Despite Previous Serologic Evidence

Ranaviruses are pathogens of ectothermic vertebrates (fish, amphibians, and reptiles). Turtles are the most common group of reptiles reported with ranaviral infections. However, there have been no surveys for wild ranaviral infection in any turtles from the suborder Pleurodira, despite ranaviral distributions and experimentally susceptible pleurodiran turtle populations overlapping in several areas, including Australia. We assayed 397 pooled blood samples from six Australian freshwater turtle species collected from five different sites in northern Australia between 2014 and 2019. Historical serologic surveys in the area had found antiranaviral antibodies; however, we did not detect any ranaviral DNA in our samples. Discrepancies between historical serologic and our molecular results may be explained by low viral prevalence during the years that these samples were collected, survivorship bias, or possibly an age class bias in sampling.

CUTANEOUS MYIASIS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO WELLNESS IN EASTERN BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) IN CAPE COD, MASSACHUSETTS

Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) face a variety of anthropogenic, infectious, and environmental threats and have been affected by high morbidity and mortality disease events. Wellness parameters in free-ranging eastern box turtles with a high prevalence of myiasis on Cape Cod, MA, were documented to identify epidemiologic trends or associations with several health parameters. There were 109 samples collected from 59 individual box turtles over the course of 4 mon. Six turtles died over the course of this study. Fly larvae infestations varied in severity and were observed in the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue (n = 18; 30.5%). Animals with myiasis had fewer plastron abnormalities than those without (P = 0.034), and all turtles found in bogs had evidence of fly larvae infections (P < 0.0001). Individuals with myiasis also had lower body condition index (P = 0.014), lower total white blood cells (P = 0.031), lower PCV (P < 0.0001), lower total solids (P < 0.0001), higher erythrocyte sedimentation rate (P < 0.0001), lower calcium (P = 0.018), and lower phosphorus (P = 0.017). Three turtles tested positive for terrapene herpesvirus 1, but presence was not associated with myiasis. Heavy metal analysis revealed no significant differences between turtles with and without myiasis. This study examined the health of a population of eastern box turtles, and continued health assessments will be beneficial in determining the impact of myiasis on future conservation plans.

Ranavirus (Frog Virus 3) Infection in Free-Living Three-Toed Box Turtles (Terrapene mexicana triunguis) in Missouri, USA

Frog virus 3 (FV3) and related ranaviruses are emerging infectious disease threats to ectothermic vertebrate species globally. Although the impact of these viruses on amphibian health is relatively well studied, less is understood about their effects on reptile health. We report two cases of FV3 infection, 11 mo apart, in three-toed box turtles (Terrapene mexicana triunguis) from a wildlife rehabilitation center. Case 1 had upper respiratory signs upon intake but had no clinical signs at the time of euthanasia 1 mo later. Case 2 presented for vehicular trauma, had ulcerative pharyngitis and glossitis, and died overnight. In case 1, we detected FV3 nucleic acid with qPCR in oral swabs, kidney, liver, spleen, and tongue. In case 2, we detected FV3 in an oral swab, an oral plaque, heart, kidney, lung, liver, spleen, and tongue. We also detected FV3 nucleic acid with in situ hybridization for case 2. For both cases, FV3 was isolated in cell culture and identified with DNA sequencing. Histopathologic examination of postmortem tissue from case 1 was unremarkable, whereas acute hemorrhagic pneumonia and splenic necrosis were noted in case 2. The difference in clinical signs between the two cases may have been due to differences in the temporal course of FV3 disease at the time of necropsy. Failure to detect this infection previously in Missouri reptiles may be due to lack of surveillance, although cases may also represent a novel spillover to box turtles in Missouri. Our findings reiterate previous suggestions that the range of FV3 infection may be greater than previously documented and that infection may occur in host species yet to be tested.

Hematology, Plasma Biochemistry, Protein Electrophoresis, and Pathogen Surveillance in Headstarted and Wild-Reared Populations of Blanding's Turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) in Three Northern Illinois, USA, Counties

Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) are a species of conservation concern throughout their natural range. Headstarting is a common chelonian conservation technique in which neonates are reared in managed-care settings before release, but health assessments are rarely incorporated. From 2020 to 2021 we assessed headstarted turtle health pre-release and 1 mo, 1 yr, and 2 yr after release using physical examination, hematology, plasma biochemistry, protein electrophoresis, and pathogen detection in three Illinois counties. Results were compared to wild-reared juveniles in the same habitats. Overall, 767 assessments from 561 turtles were included. Wild-reared and 2 yr post-release headstarts had higher incidence of hemoparasites, asymmetrical nares, and increased creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase activities (P<0.05) compared to all other groups. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and heterophil:lymphocyte ratio were greater, while total leukocyte and lymphocyte counts were lower (P<0.05) in pre-release headstarts compared to wild-reared juveniles. Total solids, albumin, and beta globulins were higher, while the calcium:phosphorous ratio was lower (P<0.05) in pre-release headstarts and wild-reared juveniles vs. other groups. Bile acid levels were highest in pre-release headstarts (P<0.05). Body condition and gamma globulins increased following release, while alpha globulins and the albumin:globulin ratio decreased following release (P<0.05). Two pre-release and one post-release headstart tested positive for Emydomyces testavorans, one post-release headstart was positive for Mycoplasmopsis sp., and nine post-release turtles were positive for adenoviruses. Overall, rearing conditions have a profound and temporally dynamic impact on Blanding's health assessment parameters. Future studies should evaluate long-term impacts on morbidity and mortality to support positive health status and conservation outcomes.

PREVALENCE OF MULTIPLE REPTILIAN PATHOGENS IN THE OROPHARYNGEAL MUCOSA, CLOACAL MUCOSA, AND BLOOD OF DIAMONDBACK TERRAPIN (MALACLEMYS TERRAPIN) POPULATIONS FROM MARYLAND AND GEORGIA, USA

The diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) is a coastal turtle with a range from Massachusetts to Texas and is the only exclusively brackish water turtle in North America. Two populations of wild terrapins from Maryland (n=55) and Georgia (n=7) were examined and tested for potential reptile pathogens. Whole blood and a mucosal (combined oropharyngeal and cloacal) swab from each animal were evaluated by quantitative PCR for 15 potential pathogens including frog virus 3, box turtle Mycoplasmopsis, Mycoplasma agassizii, Mycoplasma testudineum, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, tortoise intranuclear coccidia, testudinid alphaherpesvirus 2, terrapene herpesvirus 1, and terrapene adenovirus. Swabs were positive for a DNA segment 100% homologous to M. testudineum in both populations, with Maryland animals 87% (48 of 55) positive and Georgia animals 86% (6 of 7) positive. Although Mycoplasmopsis spp. are important respiratory pathogens for members of the order Testudines, none of the animals in the study showed any sign of upper respiratory disease. Our data suggest that M. testudineum may survive in non-Testudinidae turtles without causing clinical sigs of disease and suggesting appropriate precautions should be taken in facilities that house multiple species of turtles simultaneously.

A novel herpesvirus detected in 3 species of chelonians

Herpesviruses are found in free-living and captive chelonian populations, often in association with morbidity and mortality. To date, all known chelonian herpesviruses fall within the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae. We detected a novel herpesvirus in 3 species of chelonians: a captive leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) in western TX, USA; a steppe tortoise (Testudo [Agrionemys] horsfieldii) found near Fort Irwin, CA, USA; and 2 free-living, three-toed box turtles (Terrapene mexicana triunguis) found in Forest Park, St. Louis, MO. The leopard tortoise was coinfected with the tortoise intranuclear coccidian and had clinical signs of upper respiratory tract disease. The steppe tortoise had mucopurulent nasal discharge and lethargy. One of the three-toed box turtles had no clinical signs; the other was found dead with signs of trauma after being observed with blepharedema, tympanic membrane swelling, cervical edema, and other clinical signs several weeks prior to death. Generally, the branching order of the turtle herpesviruses mirrors the divergence patterns of their hosts, consistent with codivergence. Based on phylogenetic analysis, this novel herpesvirus clusters with a clade of viruses that infect emydid hosts and is likely of box turtle origin. Therefore, we suggest the name terrapene alphaherpesvirus 3 (TerAHV3) for the novel virus. This virus also has the ability to host-jump to tortoises, and previously documented herpesviral morbidity tends to be more common in aberrant hosts. The relationship between clinical signs and infection with TerAHV3 in these animals is unclear, and further investigation is merited.

Coxiella burnetii in 3 Species of Turtles in the Upper Midwest, United States

Coxiella burnetii, the causative bacterium of the zoonotic disease Q fever, has been documented in many different species. We describe documented turtles that were PCR positive for C. burnetii from multiple locations in Illinois and Wisconsin, USA. Assessing the conservation implications, reservoir potential, and zoonotic risk requires further research.

Herpesviruses in Captive Chelonians in Europe Between 2016 and 2020

Herpesviruses are important pathogens in tortoises and turtles, yet little is known about the epidemiology of these viruses. We analyzed herpesviruses detected by PCR in samples from captive chelonians in Europe according to virus strain, host species, year and season in which the animal was tested, and country in which the animal was kept. A total of 4,797 samples submitted to a diagnostic laboratory in Europe between January 2016 and December 2020 were evaluated. Of these, 312 (6.50%) were positive for herpesviruses. The types most commonly found were testudinid herpesvirus (TeHV)1 (143 positive, 45.83%) and TeHV3 (153 positive, 49.04%), but also included TeHV2 (1 positive, 0.32%), TeHV4 (3 positive, 0.96%), Terrapene herpesvirus 1 (7 positive, 2.24%), Trachemys herpesvirus 1 (2 positive, 0.64%), and three previously undescribed herpesviruses (0.96%). Herpesviruses were detected in chelonians in the families Testudinidae, Emydidae, Geoemydidae, and in the suborder Pleurodira. Among the species for which 100 samples or more were available, the highest proportions of positive samples (positivity rates) were found in samples from Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii) (14.96%), and radiated tortoises (Astrochelys radiata) (14.05%). Among tortoises (Testudinidae), viruses were most often detected in the spring, while in emydid turtles (Emydidae) they were most often detected in the summer. A comparison of the positivity rates according to country showed significant differences, with the highest rate in samples from Italy (16.01%). This study indicated possible differences in herpesvirus positivity rates depending on host species, virus strain, year of sampling, season, and country of origin. It provides useful information in further understanding fluctuations in infection rates as well as in helping to guide decision making for herpesvirus diagnostics in chelonian patients. It also provides evidence for the international dispersal of herpesviruses with their hosts through international trade.

PREVALENCE AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE PATTERNS OF SALMONELLA SPP. IN TWO FREE-RANGING POPULATIONS OF EASTERN BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA)

Salmonellosis is an important zoonotic infection, and exposure to pet reptiles has been implicated in several human outbreaks. Although several studies report a low prevalence of salmonellae in free-ranging chelonians, they may serve as a reservoir. In spring and summer of 2013 and 2019, free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from populations in Illinois (rural) and Tennessee (urban) were collected through canine and visual search. Cloacal swab samples were collected from each turtle, selectively enriched with tetrathionate broth, then plated on selective and differential media to isolate Salmonella spp. Genus was confirmed via MALDI-TOF MS and antibiotic sensitivities were performed. Isolates were serotyped by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory. Of the 341 turtles sampled, Salmonella spp. were detected in nine individuals (2.64%; 95% CI: 1.2-5.0%). The isolates included five different serovars: Anatum (n = 2), Newport (n = 2), Thompson (n = 1), Bareilly (n = 2), and Hartford (n = 2). Salmonella spp. were detected from six animals in 2013 (3.19%, 95% CI: 1.2-6.8%) and three in 2019 (1.96%, 95% CI: 0.4-5.6%). There was no significant difference in prevalence between state, (P = 0.115), Illinois locations (P = 0.224), season (P = 0.525), year (P = 0.297), sex (P = 0.435), or age class (P = 0.549). The health of Salmonella-positive and -negative turtles was not significantly different, as assessed through hematology and plasma biochemistry (P > 0.05), indicating asymptomatic carrier status. The low prevalence detected in this study likely concludes that free-ranging eastern box turtles play a minimal role in the spread of salmonellae. However, the identified serotypes are potentially human- and animal-pathogenic. Documenting the prevalence of Salmonella serotypes in animal indicators furthers our understanding of their spread between humans, animal agriculture, and the environment.

Herpesviruses in Reptiles

Since the 1970s, several species of herpesviruses have been identified and associated with significant diseases in reptiles. Earlier discoveries placed these viruses into different taxonomic groups on the basis of morphological and biological characteristics, while advancements in molecular methods have led to more recent descriptions of novel reptilian herpesviruses, as well as providing insight into the phylogenetic relationship of these viruses. Herpesvirus infections in reptiles are often characterised by non-pathognomonic signs including stomatitis, encephalitis, conjunctivitis, hepatitis and proliferative lesions. With the exception of fibropapillomatosis in marine turtles, the absence of specific clinical signs has fostered misdiagnosis and underreporting of the actual disease burden in reptilian populations and hampered potential investigations that could lead to the effective control of these diseases. In addition, complex life histories, sampling bias and poor monitoring systems have limited the assessment of the impact of herpesvirus infections in wild populations and captive collections. Here we review the current published knowledge of the taxonomy, pathogenesis, pathology and epidemiology of reptilian herpesviruses.

BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATIONS IN EASTERN BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) FOLLOWING CAPTURE BY A CANINE SEARCH TEAM

Studies to assess wildlife health commonly evaluate clinical pathology changes, immune responses, pathogen presence, and contaminant exposure, but novel modalities are needed to characterize the unique physiologic responses of reptiles. Lactate is an indicator of hypoperfusion and/or anaerobic respiration and can be quickly and easily measured using a point-of-care analyzer. This study evaluated baseline blood lactate concentrations in free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina, n = 116) using a point of care analyzer and then determined the effect of handling time, physical examination (PE) abnormalities, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction pathogen detection (Terrapene herpesvirus 1, Mycoplasma sp., Terrapene adenovirus) on lactate concentrations. Blood lactate concentrations were higher in turtles with Terrapene herpesvirus 1 (n = 11), quiet mentation, and increased packed cell volume (P < 0.05). Lactate concentrations increased between initial capture and PE, with peak values reaching 129 min after capture. Lactate at PE was positively associated with baseline lactate concentrations. Turtles with Terrapene herpesvirus 1 may have alterations in blood flow, oxygen delivery, or activity patterns, driving increases in baseline lactate. Increased handling time likely leads to more escape behaviors and/or breath holding, causing turtles to undergo anaerobic metabolism and raising lactate concentrations. Overall, lactate measured by a point of care analyzer shows variability caused by capture and health factors in eastern box turtles and may be a useful adjunctive diagnostic test in this species after full methodologic validation.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF EMYDOIDEA HERPESVIRUS 1 IN FREE-RANGING BLANDING'S TURTLES (EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII) FROM ILLINOIS

Herpesvirus infections have been associated with high morbidity and mortality in populations of captive emydid chelonians worldwide, but novel herpesviruses have also recently been identified in apparently healthy free-ranging emydid populations. Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii), an endangered species in Illinois, has experienced range-wide declines because of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. A novel herpesvirus, Emydoidea herpesvirus 1 (EBHV1), was identified in Blanding's turtles in DuPage County, IL, in 2015. Combined oral-cloacal swabs were collected from radio transmitter-fitted and trapped (n = 54) turtles multiple times over the 2016 activity season. In addition, swabs were collected at a single time point from trapped and incidentally captured (n = 84) Blanding's turtles in DuPage (n = 33) and Lake (n = 51) counties over the same field season. Each sample was tested for EBHV1 using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). EBHV1 was detected in 15 adult females for an overall prevalence of 10.8% (n = 15/138; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 6.2-17.3%). In radio transmitter-fitted females, there was a significantly higher prevalence of EBHV1 DNA in May (23.8%, n = 10/42) than June (3.6%, n = 1/28), July (0%, n = 0/42), August (0%, n = 0/47), or September (7.7%, n = 3/39) (odds ratio: 12.19; 95% CI: 3.60-41.30). The peak in May corresponds to the onset of nesting and may be associated with increased physiologic demands. Furthermore, all positive turtles were qPCR negative in subsequent months. There were no clinical signs associated with EBHV1 detection. This investigation is the critical first step to characterizing the implications of EBHV1 for Blanding's turtle population health and identifying management changes that may improve sustainability.

CHARACTERIZING THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HISTORIC AND NOVEL PATHOGENS IN BLANDING'S TURTLES (EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII)

Pathogens such as herpesviruses, Mycoplasma spp., and frog virus 3-like ranavirus have contributed to morbidity and mortality in many species of free-living and zoo-maintained chelonians. However, their prevalence is understudied in Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) across North America. To assess the presence of these pathogens, Blanding's turtles were sampled in Lake County, Illinois, in 2017 (N = 213) and 2018 (N = 160). DNA from cloacal-oral swabs was assayed for four ranaviruses, three Mycoplasma spp., two Salmonella spp., Emydoidea herpesvirus 1 (EBHV1), and tortoise intranuclear coccidiosis (TINC) using a multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Pathogens were most frequently detected in adult turtles (n = 25) and rarely in subadults (n = 2) or juveniles (n = 1). EBHV1 was detected in 22 individuals with no clinical signs of illness, most (n = 20) occurring in the month of May (P < 0.0001). EBHV1 cases at one study site significantly clustered within the same 0.64-km area from 17 to 22 May 2017 (P < 0.0001) and 14 to 15 May 2018 (P = 0.0006). Individuals were rarely positive for Salmonella typhimurium (n = 6). A novel Mycoplasma sp. sharing high homology with other emydid Mycoplasma spp. was detected in one turtle with nasal discharge. Neither TINC nor any ranaviruses were detected. Continued monitoring of this population and habitat may facilitate identification of risk factors for pathogen occurrence and clarify the impact of infectious diseases on Blanding's turtle conservation outcomes.

Divergent impacts of warming weather on wildlife disease risk across climates

Disease outbreaks among wildlife have surged in recent decades alongside climate change, although it remains unclear how climate change alters disease dynamics across different geographic regions. We amassed a global, spatiotemporal dataset describing parasite prevalence across 7346 wildlife populations and 2021 host-parasite combinations, compiling local weather and climate records at each location. We found that hosts from cool and warm climates experienced increased disease risk at abnormally warm and cool temperatures, respectively, as predicted by the thermal mismatch hypothesis. This effect was greatest in ectothermic hosts and similar in terrestrial and freshwater systems. Projections based on climate change models indicate that ectothermic wildlife hosts from temperate and tropical zones may experience sharp increases and moderate reductions in disease risk, respectively, though the magnitude of these changes depends on parasite identity.

Ophidiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of snakes: Targeted surveillance on military lands and detection in the western US and Puerto Rico

Wildlife disease surveillance and pathogen detection are fundamental for conservation, population sustainability, and public health. Detection of pathogens in snakes is often overlooked despite their essential roles as both predators and prey within their communities. Ophidiomycosis (formerly referred to as Snake Fungal Disease, SFD), an emergent disease on the North American landscape caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, poses a threat to snake population health and stability. We tested 657 individual snakes representing 58 species in 31 states from 56 military bases in the continental US and Puerto Rico for O. ophiodiicola. Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola DNA was detected in samples from 113 snakes for a prevalence of 17.2% (95% CI: 14.4–20.3%), representing 25 species from 19 states/territories, including the first reports of the pathogen in snakes in Idaho, Oklahoma, and Puerto Rico. Most animals were ophidiomycosis negative (n = 462), with Ophidiomyces detected by qPCR (n = 64), possible ophidiomycosis (n = 82), and apparent ophidiomycosis (n = 49) occurring less frequently. Adults had 2.38 times greater odds than juveniles of being diagnosed with ophidiomycosis. Snakes from Georgia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia all had greater odds of ophidiomycosis diagnosis, while snakes from Idaho were less likely to be diagnosed with ophidiomycosis. The results of this survey indicate that this pathogen is endemic in the eastern US and identified new sites that could represent emergence or improved detection of endemic sites. The direct mortality of snakes with ophidiomycosis is unknown from this study, but the presence of numerous individuals with clinical disease warrants further investigation and possible conservation action.

Emerging Infectious Diseases of Chelonians: An Update

Chelonians are increasingly challenged by anthropogenic threats and disease. This article summarizes recent literature and clinical experiences regarding 4 emerging infectious diseases in turtles and tortoises: ranaviruses, cryptosporidiosis, intranuclear coccodiosis of Testudines, and Emydomyces testavorans.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and hemoglobin-binding protein in free-living box turtles (Terrapene spp.)

The acute phase response is a highly conserved reaction to infection, inflammation, trauma, stress, and neoplasia. Acute phase assays are useful for wildlife health assessment, however, they are infrequently utilized in reptiles. This study evaluated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) in eastern (Terrapene carolina carolina) and ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) and hemoglobin-binding protein (HBP) in T. ornata. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate in 90 T. carolina and 105 T. ornata was negatively associated with packed cell volume and was greater in unhealthy turtles (p < 0.05). Female T. ornata had higher ESR values than males (p < 0.05). Measurement of ESR with a microhematocrit tube proportionally overestimated values from a commercial kit (Winpette), though both methods may retain utility with separate reference intervals. Hemoglobin-binding protein concentration in 184 T. ornata was significantly increased in adults and unhealthy turtles (p < 0.05). Erythrocyte sedimentation rate values were similar between seasons and populations, and HBP values were consistent between years, indicating that these analytes may have more stable baseline values than traditional health metrics in reptiles. This study demonstrates that ESR and HBP are promising diagnostics for health assessment in wild box turtles. Incorporating these tests into wild herptile health assessment protocols may support conservation efforts and improve ecosystem health monitoring.

Epidemiological Investigation of a Mortality Event in a Translocated Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) Population in Northwest Florida

Nokuse Plantation, a 22,055 ha private conservation preserve in northwest Florida, is a recipient site for gopher tortoises translocated from development sites in Florida. Since 2006, Nokuse has received over 5,000 tortoises from multiple development sites. During 2013-2015, 52 tortoises were found sick (n = 14) or dead (n = 38) in multiple soft-release enclosures in which tortoises consistently exhibited clinical signs, with additional sick (n = 5) and dead (n = 5) tortoises presenting similarly during 2016-2017. When found alive, tortoises behaved abnormally (e.g., frequently out of burrows during cold weather, pacing along enclosure fencing), appeared emaciated, were lethargic, and had developed redness under plastron scutes. Similar numbers of male (n = 28) and female (n = 32) tortoises were recovered along with two of unidentified sex, including mainly adults (n = 59) and three subadults. Physical examination, blood analysis, and other diagnostics were indicative of starvation and dehydration. Most sick tortoises provided with supportive care recovered. Necropsy findings generally confirmed starvation, with no evidence of infectious pathogens or contaminants. There were no apparent differences in quality of habitat, plant community, or soil or water among affected and unaffected enclosures. Botanical surveys indicated adequate forage quality and quantity, with no poisonous exotic or native plants detected. No land management practices changed prior to this event. Analysis of epidemiological data and demographic factors from before and during this mortality event identified initial density of tortoises in the enclosures as exerting the strongest influence on detection of tortoise morbidity and mortality. We believe that the stress associated with mixing tortoises from different populations and at higher densities during translocation impacted an individual tortoise's ability to obtain or absorb adequate nutrients from foraging, ultimately leading to a wasting condition consistent with starvation. Based on our findings, we recommend a maximum of 3 gopher tortoises per ha in soft-release enclosures for translocation, but further research is warranted to investigate the complexity of stress and social pressures associated with translocation.

Pathogen Surveillance and Detection of Ranavirus (Frog virus 3) in Translocated Gopher Tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus)

Emerging pathogens may pose additional threats to already vulnerable populations of chelonians, such as gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). In response to a mortality event on a translocation site in northwest Florida, US during 2013-15, 13 gopher tortoises were necropsied and their tissues were screened for 12 pathogens, including Mycoplasma agassizii, Mycoplasma testudineum, and Frog virus 3-like ranavirus (FV3). The DNA of FV3 was detected via quantitative PCR in the gastrointestinal tract of three tortoises. Subsequently, pathogen surveillance was performed on whole blood and oral-cloacal swab samples of live translocated tortoises from two different enclosures within the site (n=68), rehabilitated tortoises from the site (n=18), and tortoises prior to release on site (n=35) during 2015-17. Mycoplasma spp. were present in all groups and years of live tortoises tested. The DNA of FV3 was detected in 15 individuals both with and without clinical signs of disease in 2016. We recaptured 20 tortoises and captured an additional 20 tortoises in 2017 for surveillance, yet FV3 DNA was no longer detected, even in those that had previously tested positive (n=7). The results of this study contribute to the epidemiology of ranavirus in chelonians and suggests that gopher tortoises could be reservoirs for FV3. We recommend that the status of Ranavirus infection should be included for health screens for gopher tortoises in translocation programs.

Lack of molecular detection of frog virus 3-like ranavirus (FV3) in mosquitoes during natural outbreak and nonoutbreak conditions

Ranaviruses are worldwide pathogens of ectothermic vertebrates that can threaten herptile conservation efforts. Identifying transmission routes is critical for understanding disease ecology and promoting species conservation. Frog virus 3 (FV3) DNA was detected in mosquitoes during a ranavirus outbreak in semicaptive box turtles, but the role that insect vectors play under natural conditions is unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we collected mosquito species known to take blood meals from reptiles and amphibians ( Aedes canadensis, Culex erraticus, Culex territans, and Uranotaenia sapphirina) from mid-May to early August, 2014, at four study sites in Vermilion County, Illinois, two of which had historic or ongoing FV3 outbreaks in box turtles and amphibians. Mosquitoes were batched by date and species, DNA was extracted, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction was performed for detection of FV3. FV3 was not detected despite one of the sites having an active FV3 outbreak during the study period. Our findings indicate that FV3 detection is uncommon in mosquitoes during outbreak and nonoutbreak conditions at these sites in Illinois. Thus, we cannot establish that mosquitoes contribute to transmission during natural mortality events without performing further studies.

Adenoviruses in free-ranging Australian bearded dragons (Pogona spp.)

Adenoviruses are a relatively common infection of reptiles globally and are most often reported in captive central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). We report the first evidence of adenoviruses in bearded dragons in their native habitat in Australia. Oral-cloacal swabs and blood samples were collected from 48 free-ranging bearded dragons from four study populations: western bearded dragons (P. minor minor) from Western Australia (n = 4), central bearded dragons (P. vitticeps) from central Australia (n = 2) and western New South Wales (NSW) (n = 29), and coastal bearded dragons (P. barbata) from south-east Queensland (n = 13). Samples were tested for the presence of adenoviruses using a broadly reactive (pan-adenovirus) PCR and a PCR specific for agamid adenovirus-1. Agamid adenovirus-1 was detected in swabs from eight of the dragons from western NSW and one of the coastal bearded dragons. Lizard atadenovirus A was detected in one of the dragons from western NSW. Adenoviruses were not detected in any blood sample. All bearded dragons, except one, were apparently healthy and so finding these adenoviruses in these animals is consistent with bearded dragons being natural hosts for these viruses.

Ranaviruses and reptiles

Ranaviruses can infect many vertebrate classes including fish, amphibians and reptiles, but for the most part, research has been focused on non-reptilian hosts, amphibians in particular. More recently, reports of ranaviral infections of reptiles are increasing with over 12 families of reptiles currently susceptible to ranaviral infection. Reptiles are infected by ranaviruses that are genetically similar to, or the same as, the viruses that infect amphibians and fish; however, physiological and ecological differences result in differences in study designs. Although ranaviral disease in reptiles is often influenced by host species, viral strain and environmental differences, general trends in pathogenesis are emerging. More experimental studies using a variety of reptile species, life stages and routes of transmission are required to unravel the complexity of wild ranavirus transmission. Further, our understanding of the reptilian immune response to ranaviral infection is still lacking, although the considerable amount of work conducted in amphibians will serve as a useful guide for future studies in reptiles.