Habitat patch size modulates terrestrial mammal activity patterns in Amazonian forest fragments

Cathemerality: a key temporal niche

Given the marked variation in abiotic and biotic conditions between day and night, many species specialise their physical activity to being diurnal or nocturnal, and it was long thought that these strategies were commonly fairly fixed and invariant. The term 'cathemeral', was coined in 1987, when Tattersall noted activity in a Madagascan primate during the hours of both daylight and darkness. Initially thought to be rare, cathemerality is now known to be a quite widespread form of time partitioning amongst arthropods, fish, birds, and mammals. Herein we provide a synthesis of present understanding of cathemeral behaviour, arguing that it should routinely be included alongside diurnal and nocturnal strategies in schemes that distinguish and categorise species across taxa according to temporal niche. This synthesis is particularly timely because (i) the study of animal activity patterns is being revolutionised by new and improved technologies; (ii) it is becoming apparent that cathemerality covers a diverse range of obligate to facultative forms, each with their own common sets of functional traits, geographic ranges and evolutionary history; (iii) daytime and nighttime activity likely plays an important but currently neglected role in temporal niche partitioning and ecosystem functioning; and (iv) cathemerality may have an important role in the ability of species to adapt to human-mediated pressures.

Effects of forest fragmentation on the dietary ecology and activity of a nocturnal lemur community in North West Madagascar

Deforestation and habitat fragmentation is the primary threat to primate populations. The primates that live within degraded and anthropogenically disturbed habitats typical of fragmented landscapes have to cope with lower availability of resources in comparison to primates in continuous, undisturbed forests. While some species are sensitive to forest fragmentation, some evidence exists to suggest that primates can alter their behavior and adapt to such changes, which enables their survival in suboptimal habitat. In this study, we assessed how forest fragmentation and its associated edge-effects impact the feeding ecology and activity levels of a nocturnal primate community in the Sahamalaza-Iles Radama National Park, North West Madagascar. From March 06, 2019 to May 17, 2022, we collected data on tree and invertebrate phenology at our study site, and feeding ecology and activity for 159 lemur individuals from four species. Fruit and flower availability varied significantly between continuous and fragmented forest, and between forest core and edge areas, with continuous forest exhibiting higher continuous fruit and flower availability. Lemur feeding ecology varied significantly too, as the feeding niches of all four species were significantly different between continuous and fragmented forest and between core and edge areas. However, lemur activity levels were mostly consistent among all forest areas. The results of this study suggest that nocturnal lemurs are able to adapt their dietary ecology in response to the available food sources within their habitat. Due to this flexible ecology and dietary plasticity, the lemurs do not need to significantly alter their behavior in different environments to fulfill their dietary needs. While nocturnal lemurs demonstrate adaptability and flexibility to degraded habitat, it is unclear how far this plasticity will stretch considering that Madagascar's forests are still being cleared at an alarming rate. Urgent conservation action is therefore needed to ensure the future of lemur habitat.

Human disturbances and the daytime activity of sympatric otters along equatorial Amazonian rivers

Background

Previous studies suggest coexistence between sympatric neotropical (Lontra longicaudis) and giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) maybe facilitated by temporal and spatial differences in activity. Yet, to date there has been no systematic evaluation of activity of these species in sympatry. Here we use extensive multi-year field data to compare temporal and spatial patterns in the diurnal activity of sympatric giant and neotropical otters to answer three questions: Do temporal patterns in daytime river use change in relation to seasonal river levels (low, rising, high and declining river levels), do they change due to human disturbances (boats and fishing nets) and do patterns in neotropical otter activity change due to the presence of the larger sized giant otter?

Methods

Direct observations of both species were recorded using standardized boat surveys along 218 km of rivers over 53 months during nine years (2011-2013 and 2015-2020). Complementary techniques (Generalized Additive Models, Kernel density estimates and non-parametric tests,) were used to compare diurnal activity patterns along rivers subdivided into 41 river reaches.

Results

The presence of giant otters decreased threefold from 67% of the least disturbed reaches (few boats no fishing nets) to 18% of the most disturbed reaches with many boats and fishing nets. In contrast neotropical otter presence nearly doubled from 44% of the least disturbed to 73% of the most disturbed reaches with fewest giant otter detections. Both species were observed across all daytime hours but were observed rarely on the same day. There was no evidence to suggest simultaneous use of the same reach. When species were detected on the same day, they were separated spatially (median distance between species 12.5 km) and temporally (median time difference 3.0 hours). There was little change in activity of either species among seasons. Giant otters were less active in river reaches with fishing nets and boat use, whereas neotropical otter activity did not appear to be strongly affected by these activities.

Conclusions

Our findings support evidence that diurnal activity in both otter species is flexible, with daytime activity changing due to human disturbances in the case of giant otters.

The behaviour and activity budgets of two sympatric sloths; Bradypus variegatus and Choloepus hoffmanni

It is usually beneficial for species to restrict activity to a particular phase of the 24-hour cycle as this enables the development of morphological and behavioural adaptations to enhance survival under specific biotic and abiotic conditions. Sloth activity patterns are thought to be strongly related to the environmental conditions due to the metabolic consequences of having a low and highly variable core body temperature. Understanding the drivers of sloth activity and their ability to withstand environmental fluctuations is of growing importance for the development of effective conservation measures, particularly when we consider the vulnerability of tropical ecosystems to climate change and the escalating impacts of anthropogenic activities in South and Central America. Unfortunately, the cryptic nature of sloths makes long term observational research difficult and so there is very little existing literature examining the behavioural ecology of wild sloths. Here, we used micro data loggers to continuously record, for the first time, the behaviour of both Bradypus and Choloepus sloths over periods of days to weeks. We investigate how fluctuations in the environmental conditions affect the activity of sloths inhabiting a lowland rainforest on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and examined how this might relate to their low power lifestyle. Both Bradypus and Choloepus sloths were found to be cathemeral in their activity, with high levels of between-individual and within-individual variation in the amounts of time spent active, and in the temporal distribution of activity over the 24-hour cycle. Daily temperature did not affect activity, although Bradypus sloths were found to show increased nocturnal activity on colder nights, and on nights following colder days. Our results demonstrate a distinct lack of synchronicity within the same population, and we suggest that this pattern provides sloths with the flexibility to exploit favourable environmental conditions whilst reducing the threat of predation.

Video Validation of Tri-Axial Accelerometer for Monitoring Zoo-Housed Tamandua tetradactyla Activity Patterns in Response to Changes in Husbandry Conditions

Accelerometers are a technology that is increasingly used in the evaluation of animal behaviour. A tri-axial accelerometer attached to a vest was used on Tamandua tetradactyla individuals (n = 10) at Biodiversity Park. First, the influence of using a vest on the animals’ behaviour was evaluated (ABA-type: A1 and A2, without a vest; B, with a vest; each stage lasted 24 h), and no changes were detected. Second, their behaviour was monitored using videos and the accelerometer simultaneously (experimental room, 20 min). The observed behaviours were correlated with the accelerometer data, and summary measures (X, Y and Z axes) were obtained. Additionally, the overall dynamic body acceleration was calculated, determining a threshold to discriminate activity/inactivity events (variance = 0.0055). Then, based on a 24 h complementary test (video sampling every 5 min), the sensitivity (85.91%) and precision (100%) of the accelerometer were assessed. Animals were exposed to an ABA-type experimental design: A1 and A2: complex enclosure; B: decreased complexity (each stage lasted 24 h). An increase in total activity (%) was revealed using the accelerometer (26.15 ± 1.50, 29.29 ± 2.25, and 35.36 ± 3.15, respectively). Similar activity levels were detected using video analysis. The results demonstrate that the use of the accelerometer is reliable to determine the activity. Considering that the zoo-housed lesser anteaters exhibit a cathemeral activity pattern, this study contributes to easily monitoring their activities and responses to different management procedures supporting welfare programs, as well as ex situ conservation.

El gato andino Leopardus jacobita y otros mamíferos en el sitio prioritario Andenes de Cuyocuyo, Puno, Perú

El gato andino es uno de los gatos más raros en Sudamérica. Si bien tiene una distribución amplia en los Andes, hay pocos registros confiables y muchos sitios cuya presencia no ha sido confirmada. El objetivo del estudio fue confirmar la presencia del gato andino (Leopardus jacobita) en el sitio prioritario Andenes de Cuyocuyo, ubicado al sureste del Perú. En el 2018, con un esfuerzo de 1275 cámaras-trampa/día, se obtuvo 123 detecciones de 11 mamíferos, los más frecuentes fueron: Lagidium viscacia, Leopardus jacobita, Hippocamelus antisensis y Leopardus garleppi. El índice de abundancia relativa del gato andino resultó en 9.09 (N= 12, DE= 32.20) y el patrón de actividad indica que tienen hábito diurno (Fr= 0.42) y nocturno (Fr= 0.33). La confirmación de presencia del gato andino en el sitio prioritario Andenes de Cuyocuyo resalta que es necesario implementar mecanismos de conservación con las comunidades campesinas que aseguren la conservación del gato andino y de los otros mamíferos en esta región del Perú.

Temporal activity patterns of North China leopards and their prey in response to moonlight and habitat factors

The nocturnal activities of predators and prey are influenced by several factors, including physiological adaptations, habitat quality and, we suspect, corresponds to changes in brightness of moonlight according to moon phase. In this study, we used a dataset from 102 camera traps to explore which factors are related to the activity pattern of North China leopards (Panthera pardus japonensis) in Shanxi Tieqiaoshan Provincial Nature Reserve (TPNR), China. We found that nocturnal activities of leopards were irregular during four different lunar phases, and while not strictly lunar philic or lunar phobic, their temporal activity was highest during the brighter moon phases (especially the last quarter) and lower during the new moon phase. On the contrary, roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) exhibited lunar philic activity, while wild boar (Sus scrofa) and tolai hare (Lepus tolai) were evidently lunar phobic, with high and low temporal activity during the full moon, respectively. In terms of temporal overlap, there was positive overlap between leopards and their prey species, including roe deer and tolai hare, while leopard activity did not dip to the same low level of wild boar during the full moon phase. Human activities also more influenced the temporal activity of leopards and wild boar than other species investigated. Generally, our results suggested that besides moonlight risk index (MRI), cloud cover and season have diverse effects on leopard and prey nocturnal activity. Finally, distinct daytime and nighttime habitats were identified, with leopards, wild boar, and tolai hare all using lower elevations at night and higher elevations during the day, while leopards and roe deer were closer to secondary roads during the day than at night.

Ecology, occurrence and distribution of wild felids in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo

Sarawak is the largest state in the megadiverse country of Malaysia. Its rich biodiversity is threatened by land-use change and hunting, with mammalian carnivores particularly affected. Data on the ecology, occurrence and distribution of small carnivores are crucial to inform their effective conservation, but no large-scale assessments have previously been conducted in Sarawak. Here we examine the status of the five species of felids in Sarawak based on data from camera-trap studies over 17 years (May 2003–February 2021) across 31 study areas, including protected areas of various sizes, production forests and forest matrix within oil palm plantations. Felids were detected at 39% of 845 camera stations. The marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata and Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi had higher probabilities of occurrence in protected than unprotected areas, and vice versa for the leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis and bay cat Catopuma badia. The marbled and bay cats were mostly diurnal, and the leopard cat was predominantly nocturnal; activity patterns did not substantively differ between protected and unprotected sites. The probabilities of occurrence of marbled and bay cats increased with greater distance from roads. The leopard cat and flat-headed cat Prionailurus planiceps were more likely, and the clouded leopard less likely, to occur near rivers. Flat-headed cats preferred peat swamp forest, bay cats lowland forest, and marbled cats and clouded leopards occurred in both lowland and montane forest. Felids may tolerate higher elevations to avoid anthropogenic disturbance; therefore, it is critical to preserve lowland and mid-elevation habitats that provide refugia from climate change and the destruction of lowland habitat.

Lassiter E, Massey A, Roberts CP, T. Veon J. Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) activity patterns are influenced by human activity

As the human footprint upon the landscape expands, wildlife seeking to avoid human contact are losing the option of altering their spatial distribution and instead are shifting their daily activity patterns to be active at different times than humans. In this study, we used game cameras to evaluate how human development and activity were related to the daily activity patterns of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) along an urban to rural gradient in Arkansas, USA during the winter of 2020-2021. We found that armadillos had substantial behavioral plasticity in regard to the timing of their activity patterns; >95% of armadillo activity was nocturnal at six of the study sites, whereas between 30% and 60% of activity occurred during the day at three other sites. The likelihood of diurnal armadillo activity was best explained by the distance to downtown Fayetteville (the nearest population center) and estimated ambient sound level (both indices of human activity) with armadillos being most active during the day at quiet sites far from Fayetteville. Furthermore, armadillo activity occurred later during the night period (minutes after sunset) at sites near downtown and with higher anthropogenic sound. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the observed activity shift may be in response to not only human activity but also the presence of domestic dogs. Our results provide further evidence that human activity has subtle nonlethal impacts on even common, widespread wildlife species. Because armadillos have low body temperatures and basal metabolism, being active during cold winter nights likely has measurable fitness costs. Nature reserves near human population centers may not serve as safe harbors for wildlife as we intend, and managers could benefit from considering these nonlethal responses in how they manage recreation and visitation in these natural areas.

Effects of oil palm and human presence on activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in the Colombian Llanos

The ability of animals to adjust their behaviour can influence how they respond to environmental changes and human presence. We quantified activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in oil palm plantations and native riparian forest in Colombia to determine if species exhibited behavioural changes depending on the type of habitat and the presence of humans. Despite the large sampling effort (12,403 camera-days), we were only able to examine the activity patterns of ten species in riparian forests and seven species in oil palm plantations, with four species (capybara, giant anteater, lesser anteater and common opossum) being represented by enough records (i.e. n > 20) in both oil palm and forest to allow robust comparisons. Only capybaras showed an apparent change in activity patterns between oil palm plantations and riparian forests, shifting from being crepuscular in forest to predominantly nocturnal inside oil palm plantations. Further, capybaras, giant anteaters and white-tailed deer appeared to modify their activities to avoid human presence inside oil palm plantations by increasing nocturnality (temporal overlap $$\widehat{\Delta }$$ Δ ^ ranged from 0.13 to 0.36), whereas jaguarundi had high overlap with human activities [$$\widehat{\Delta }$$ Δ ^ =0.85 (0.61–0.90)]. Species pair-wise analysis within oil palm revealed evidence for temporal segregation between species occupying the same trophic position (e.g. foxes and jaguarundi), whereas some predators and their prey (e.g. ocelots and armadillos) had high overlaps in temporal activity patterns as might be expected. Our findings shed light on the potential behavioural adaptation of mammals to anthropogenic landscapes, a feature not captured in traditional studies that focus on measures such as species richness or abundance.

Effect of anthropogenic activity on mammal activity patterns in two ecosystems

Adaptations in species activity patterns allow animals to avoid risks generated by human activities and domestic and feral species. We aimed to evaluate the effect of anthropogenic activity on mammal activity patterns in two tropical ecosystems -semi-evergreen forest and cloud forest-, and its temporal variation in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, Mexico. We expected mammal activity patterns to show significant differences from activity patterns of humans and domestic species. From July 2014 to June 2015, we placed camera traps in 23 sites in a semi-evergreen forest and 23 sites in a cloud forest. We estimated the activity level of each species and calculated the activity overlap between wild species and humans and domestic species in each season. We recorded a total of 16 species of wild mammals, four domestic species, and obtained 738 human records. We found no evidence of an effect of anthropogenic activity on the activity patterns of wild mammals: we found similar activity levels between seasons and ecosystems, and moderate to high overlap between the activity patterns of some wild mammal species and of humans and domestic species. Low human population density, human activity temporal dynamics, and the plasticity of wild species could explain the results of our study.

Activity patterns of tayra (Eira barbara) across their distribution

Species’ activity patterns are driven by the need to meet basic requirements of food, social interactions, movement, and rest, but often are influenced by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. We used camera-trap data to describe and compare the activity patterns of the relatively poorly studied tayra (Eira barbara) across 10 populations distributed from the south of Mexico to the north of Argentina, and attempted to identify biotic or abiotic factors that may be associated with variation in level of diurnality. In a subset of sites we also aimed to document potential seasonal variation in activity. We used a kernel density estimator based on the time of independent photographic events to calculate the proportion of diurnal, crepuscular, and nocturnal activity of each population. Tayras were mostly active during diurnal periods (79.31%, 759 records), with a lower proportion of crepuscular activity (18.07%, 173 records) yet we documented some variation in patterns across the 10 study areas (activity overlap coefficient varied from Δ 4 = 0.64 to Δ 1 = 0.95). In northern localities, activity peaked twice during the day (bimodal) with most activity ocurring in the morning, whereas closer to the geographical equator, activity was constant (unimodal) throughout the day, peaking at midday: activity either was unimodal or bimodal in southern localities. Despite investigating multiple potential abiotic and biotic predictors, only latitude was associated with variation in the proportion of diurnal activity by tayras across its range, with increased diurnal activity closer to the equator. Seasonal comparisons in activity showed a tendency to reduce diurnality in dry versus rainy seasons, but the pattern was not consistently significant. This is the most comprehensive description of tayra activity patterns to date, and lends novel insight into the potential flexibility of the species to adapt to local conditions.

Spatiotemporal co-occurrence and overlap of two sympatric mongoose species in an urban environment

Small carnivores are becoming increasingly common in urban areas. What has received less attention is whether and how resource partitioning among sympatric species in urban areas facilitates their coexistence. We examined the spatial, temporal and combined spatiotemporal occurrence and overlap of co-existing yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata and slender mongoose Galerella sanguinea in an urban estate in South Africa. The reserve comprised two parts, an Eco-Estate where human residential and natural areas are interspersed and wildlife has greater contact with people, and a Nature Estate, where contact is reduced by palisade fencing between people and natural areas. Using photographic data from camera traps collected over 11 consecutive months, we found a moderate level of spatial overlap between the mongoose species. Differences between the species occurred at a finer habitat scale: yellow mongooses were more common in open habitats located near human residents whereas the slender mongooses were more common in covered areas further away from human residents. The detection probability of the yellow mongoose, however, was greater than that of the slender mongoose, and the occupancy probability of the slender mongoose was reduced in the presence of the yellow mongoose. Although both species demonstrated bimodal diurnal peaks in activity, they varied in their active periods, with temporal overlap being greater during colder than warmer months. No complete spatiotemporal overlap (occurrence in the same place at the same time/within a 10-min period) occurred. This may have been as a result of the difference in detection and occupancy probabilities of the two species. Resource availability (food), however, appears to influence the different habitat selection, space use, and activity patterns of yellow and slender mongoose in the study area. Therefore, we conclude that partitioning along the spatial and somewhat on the temporal dimensions aids in the coexistence of these mongoose species in an urban environment.

The lag-time constraint for behavioural plasticity

Environmental instability (i.e. environments changing often) can select fixed phenotypes because of the lag time of plastically adapting to environmental changes, known as the lag-time constraint. Because behaviour can change rapidly (e.g. switching between foraging strategies), the lag-time constraint is not considered important for behavioural plasticity. Instead, it is often argued that responsive behaviour (i.e. behaviour that changes according to the environment) evolves to cope with unstable environments. But proficiently performing certain behaviours may require time for learning, for practising or, in social animals, for the group to adjust to one's behaviour. Conversely, not using certain behaviours for a period of time can reduce their level of performance. Here, using individual-based evolutionary simulations, we show that environmental instability selects for fixed behaviour when the ratio between the rates of increase and reduction in behavioural performance is below a certain threshold; only above this threshold does responsive behaviour evolve in unstable environments. Thus, the lag-time constraint can apply to behaviours that attain high performance either slowly or rapidly, depending on the relative rate with which their performance decreases when not used. We discuss these results in the context of the evolution of reduced behavioural plasticity, as seen in fixed personality differences.

A question of size and fear: competition and predation risk perception among frugivores and predators

Mammalian spatial and temporal activity patterns can vary depending on foraging behavior or the perception of predation or competition risk among species. These behaviors may in turn be altered by human influences such as defaunation. Herein, we evaluate whether frugivores avoid areas with high visitation rates by potential predators or competitors, and whether this avoidance changes in areas with different degrees of defaunation. We installed 189 cameras under fruit trees in six areas of the Atlantic Forest, Brazil, that differ in the abundance of top predators and large frugivores. Small predators and small frugivores were more frequent at night while large frugivores were more frequent during the day, but small frugivores visited and spent less time at fruiting trees on brighter nights, unlike large predators and large frugivores. Small frugivores also were less frequent in areas with high visitation by large frugivores and more frequent in highly defaunated areas. Our results suggest that the dynamics among mammalian functional groups varied according to diel patterns, potential competitors, and defaunation. We highlight the importance of understanding how species interactions are changing in areas exposed to strong human impacts to mitigate the indirect effects of defaunation.

Natural Habitat, Housing, and Restraint of Six Selected Neotropical Animals in Trinidad and Tobago with the Potential for Domestication

This paper highlights the natural habitat, housing, and restraint needs of 6 Neotropical animals that are found in Trinidad and Tobago with the potential for domestication: agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), lappe/paca (Cuniculus paca/Agouti paca), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), manicou/opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu/Pecari tajacu), and red brocket deer (Mazama americana). The year of the earliest reference cited was 1950 and the most recent was 2018, with over 100 references being used. The average density, home range size, social group, and housing requirements were also examined as these factors would play a role in designing enclosures. A number of different physical and chemical restraint techniques were also discussed. Information from other species within the same genus was incorporated as some of the animals did not have sufficient literature.

Regional-scale variation on Dromiciops gliroides occurrence, abundance, and activity patterns along a habitat disturbance gradient

Habitat structure may have a significant influence on the occurrence, abundance, and activity patterns of forest mammals. However, anthropogenic habitat disturbance changes habitat structure, which may alter those patterns of activity. We assessed occurrence, relative abundance, and activity patterns of Dromiciops gliroides, an arboreal marsupial endemic to the temperate rainforests of southern South America, contrasting four forest conditions at a regional scale: old-growth, second-growth, and logged forests, and abandoned exotic plantations. We conducted a camera-trap assessment in two consecutive austral summers across most of the Chilean range of D. gliroides, and compared habitat structure along a disturbance gradient. All structural features assessed differed among forest conditions. Dromiciops gliroides was present in all forest conditions, but its abundance decreased and activity got narrower as disturbance increased, being significantly lower in the exotic plantations. Activity patterns were variable among forest conditions and months, and were significantly more restricted temporally at exotic plantations. Although D. gliroides is tolerant to habitat disturbance, we show that structural alteration results in lower abundances and narrower activity patterns.

Flexible Use of Urban Resources by the Yellow Mongoose Cynictis penicillata

Several species are negatively impacted by urbanization, while others thrive in urban areas by exploiting anthropogenic habitats matching their pre-existing niche preferences, or by modifying their behavior for urban life. We studied the ecology of a recent urban resident, the yellow mongoose, in an urban ecological estate in South Africa. We assessed urban dwelling yellow mongooses' diet, spatial and temporal occurrence, home range size, and whenever possible, compared our findings to the published literature on their non-urban conspecifics. Additionally, we evaluated occurrence overlap with residential gardens. Similar to their non-urban counterparts, scat analyses revealed that yellow mongooses in urban areas fed mainly on insects, particularly during spring/summer. In the colder months, anthropogenic items, small mammals and birds in scats increased. Camera trap surveys showed that the mongooses were common in open habitats, similar to previous studies, and exhibited a species-typical bimodal diurnal activity pattern. The occurrence of these mongooses was greater near human residences than at sites further away. Home range sizes were considerably smaller than those of non-urban mongoose. Mongoose occurred in residential gardens, more so during the colder months. The urban yellow mongooses' diet, habitat preference and activity patterns were similar to non-urban conspecifics. Nonetheless, the exploitation of anthropogenic food sources, occurrence in residential gardens and smaller home range sizes showed that they respond flexibly to urbanization, and these modifications might aid in their success in urban areas.

Effect of free-ranging dogs and cats on medium-sized wild mammal assemblages in urban protected areas of a Mexican city

Abstract ContextUrban protected areas (PAs) are the habitat of several Neotropical medium-sized wild mammal (MSWM) species. However, this richness is seriously threatened by the growing populations of free-ranging dogs and cats in these areas. AimsThe aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of free-ranging dogs and cats on the assemblage structure of MSWM in PAs of Xalapa city, Veracruz, Mexico. MethodsCamera traps were used to assess the effect of abundance and activity of dogs and cats on richness, abundance, dominance and activity of MSWM across two urban and three peri-urban PAs. The effect of plant diversity, vegetation structure and PA on mammal richness, activity and abundance were also evaluated. Key resultsThe dominance of MSWM was higher in peri-urban areas than urban areas, and the activity of dogs and cats from peri-urban and urban PAs was similar with wildest MSWM. Only inside urban areas did the size of the area and the dogs’ activity have a negative effect on the richness, activity and abundance of MSWM. Moreover, the activity and abundance of cats also had a negative effect on the activity of MSWM in urban PAs. The presence of dogs affected the latency of appearance of MSWM. ConclusionsThe presence of free-ranging dogs and cats in urban PAs affects MSWM assemblages and their appearance latency. ImplicationsThe potential harm of free-ranging dogs and cats on the community of MSWM in urban areas is clear, as is the need for increased scientific research to aid in the control of these exotic species in urban landscapes.

Plasticity in the timing of activity in the Red-rumped Agouti, Dasyprocta leporina (Mammalia: Rodentia), in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil

Abstract Timing of activity is a consequence of adaptations to daily and seasonal changes in the environment and examining these patterns is important to better understand the temporal niches of the species. Here we examine temporal activity in the Red-rumped Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) in two fragments of Atlantic Forest and those factors that influence the circadian rhythm in the study areas. Camera traps were used to gather data in two protected areas (one montane and other coastal) in the state of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil. A total of 49 photos were taken in the mountains and 152 in the coastal area. Activity patterns were diurnal and bimodal, and animals were active for 14-15 hours each day. Activity peaked in the morning soon after sunrise and then before and during dusk. Activity patterns were different in the two study areas (W = 6.77, p = 0.034). There was a longer peak in the morning in the coastal area, and a higher peak in the evening in the mountains, where activity starts later and becomes less intense earlier. The difference between activity patterns in the two locations suggests plasticity in agouti behavior. Because the two study areas are at about the same latitude, we suggest that the behavioral plasticity is due to different temperature regimes associated with a local effect of altitude and topography of the terrain on the incidence of solar rays inside the forest. The influence of other factors is also discussed. In addition to a better understanding of the temporal niche of the Red-rumped Agouti, the behavior patterns we describe here can be useful to optimize strategies for D. leporina conservation in southeastern Brazil once the species is more susceptible to poaching at times when animals are most active.

From natural forest to coffee agroforest: implications for communities of large mammals in the Ethiopian highlands

In tropical regions the extent of agricultural land is increasing rapidly at the expense of natural forest, with associated losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Agroforestry has long been proposed as a more sustainable agricultural system, conserving biodiversity while providing significant local livelihoods. In this context, camera traps were deployed to compare communities of large mammals between natural forest (22,272 hours across 24 deployments) and extensively managed coffee forest (19,059 hours, 23 deployments) for the first time in the south-west Ethiopian highlands. Mammal communities in the two forest types were similar in species richness and Shannon diversity but differed in community composition. Significant indicator species of coffee forest were the crested porcupine Hystrix cristata and the Ethiopian hare Lepus fagani, whereas leopards Panthera pardus and civets Civettictis civetta had a preference for natural forest. The number of detections of mammals was higher in coffee forest, where activity patterns were predominantly crepuscular and nocturnal, which may be a direct adaptation to frequent human disturbance. In natural forest, mammal activity peaked during daytime. Despite the high mammal diversity in extensively managed coffee forest, it cannot fully replace natural forest as a habitat for large mammals. We suggest that a balanced landscape mosaic of coffee and natural forest may be a valuable combination for both conservation and coffee cultivation.

The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality

Rapid expansion of human activity has driven well-documented shifts in the spatial distribution of wildlife, but the cumulative effect of human disturbance on the temporal dynamics of animals has not been quantified. We examined anthropogenic effects on mammal diel activity patterns, conducting a meta-analysis of 76 studies of 62 species from six continents. Our global study revealed a strong effect of humans on daily patterns of wildlife activity. Animals increased their nocturnality by an average factor of 1.36 in response to human disturbance. This finding was consistent across continents, habitats, taxa, and human activities. As the global human footprint expands, temporal avoidance of humans may facilitate human-wildlife coexistence. However, such responses can result in marked shifts away from natural patterns of activity, with consequences for fitness, population persistence, community interactions, and evolution.

Diversity of terrestrial mammal seed dispersers along a lowland Amazon forest regrowth gradient

There is increasing interest in the restoration/regeneration of degraded tropical habitats yet the potential role of natural regenerators remains unclear. We test the hypothesis that the richness and functional diversity of terrestrial mammals differs between forest regrowth stages. We quantified the richness and functional diversity of eight terrestrial mammal seed-disperser species across a forest regrowth gradient in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. We installed camera-traps in 15 sites within small-holder properties with forest regrowth stage classified into three groups, with five sites each of: late second-regrowth forest, early second-regrowth forest and abandoned pasture. Species richness and functional dispersion from the regrowth sites were compared with 15 paired forest control sites. Multi model selection showed that regrowth class was more important for explaining patterns in richness and functional diversity than other variables from three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses: hunting (distance to house, distance to river, distance to town, small holder residence), land cover (% forest cover within 50 meters, 1 kilometer and 5 kilometers) and land use (regrowth class, time since last use). Differences in functional diversity were most strongly explained by a loss of body mass. We found that diversity in regrowth sites could be similar to control sites even in some early-second regrowth areas. This finding suggests that when surrounded by large intact forest areas the richness and functional diversity close to human small-holdings can return to pre-degradation values. Yet we also found a significant reduction in richness and functional diversity in more intensely degraded pasture sites. This reduction in richness and functional diversity may limit the potential for regeneration and increase costs for ecological regeneration and restoration actions around more intense regrowth areas.

Activity pattern of medium and large sized mammals and density estimates of Cuniculus paca (Rodentia: Cuniculidae) in the Brazilian Pampa

Between July 2014 and April 2015, we conducted weekly inventories of the circadian activity patterns of mammals in Passo Novo locality, municipality of Alegrete, southern Brazil. The vegetation is comprised by a grassy-woody steppe (grassland). We used two camera traps alternately located on one of four 1 km transects, each separated by 1 km. We classified the activity pattern of species by the percentage of photographic records taken in each daily period. We identify Cuniculus paca individuals by differences in the patterns of flank spots. We then estimate the density 1) considering the area of riparian forest present in the sampling area, and 2) through capture/recapture analysis. Cuniculus paca, Conepatus chinga and Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris were nocturnal, Cerdocyon thous had a crepuscular/nocturnal pattern, while Mazama gouazoubira was cathemeral. The patterns of circadian activity observed for medium and large mammals in this Pampa region (southern grasslands) may reflect not only evolutionary, biological and ecological affects, but also human impacts not assessed in this study. We identified ten individuals of C. paca through skin spot patterns during the study period, which were recorded in different transects and months. The minimum population density of C. paca was 3.5 individuals per km2 (resident animals only) and the total density estimates varied from 7.1 to 11.8 individuals per km2, when considering all individuals recorded or the result of the capture/recapture analysis, respectively.

Water availability not fruitfall modulates the dry season distribution of frugivorous terrestrial vertebrates in a lowland Amazon forest

Terrestrial vertebrate frugivores constitute one of the major guilds in tropical forests. Previous studies show that the meso-scale distribution of this group is only weakly explained by variables such as altitude and tree basal area in lowland Amazon forests. For the first time we test whether seasonally limiting resources (water and fallen fruit) affect the dry season distribution in 25 species of terrestrial vertebrates. To examine the effects of the spatial availability of fruit and water on terrestrial vertebrates we used a standardized, regularly spaced arrangement of camera-traps within 25km² of lowland Amazon forest. Generalized linear models (GLMs) were then used to examine the influence of four variables (altitude, distance to large rivers, distance to nearest water, and presence vs absence of fruits) on the number of photos on five functional groups (all frugivores, small, medium, large and very large frugivores) and on seven of the most abundant frugivore species (Cuniculus paca, Dasyprocta leporina, Mazama americana, Mazama nemorivaga, Myoprocta acouchy, Pecari tajacu and Psophia crepitans). A total of 279 independent photos of 25 species were obtained from 900 camera-trap days. For most species and three functional groups, the variation in the number of photos per camera was significantly but weakly explained by the GLMs (deviance explained ranging from 6.2 to 48.8%). Generally, we found that the presence of water availability was more important than the presence of fallen fruit for the groups and species studied. Medium frugivores, large-bodied frugivores, and two of the more abundant species (C. paca and P. crepitans) were recorded more frequently closer to water bodies; while none of the functional groups nor the most abundant species showed any significant relationship with the presence of fallen fruit. Two functional groups and two of the seven most common frugivore species assessed in the GLMs showed significant results with species-specific responses to altitude. Our findings provide a more detailed understanding of how frugivorous vertebrates cope with periods of water and fruit scarcity in lowland Amazon forests.

Unpaved roads are not adequate surrogates of true transects for sampling agoutis

The distance sampling is one of the most widely used techniques for estimating abundance and density, particularly for mammals. Managers/researchers sometimes sample unpaved roads assuming that these do not violate important assumptions. However, relatively few studies have attempted to address this, simultaneously comparing behavior between roads and transects, a key issue as behavior can potentially affect detection. Here, we used distance sampling to compare abundance and behavior of agoutis between transects and unpaved roads. We sampled an isolated agouti population during two contrasting seasons. Road densities (347–432 agoutis/km

Time partitioning in mesocarnivore communities from different habitats of NW Italy: insights into martens’ competitive abilities

Most studies focused on species coexistence have been directed at the differential use of habitat and food resources; nonetheless, the differential use of the diel cycle may enhance the coexistence of same-sized species. We investigated the activity patterns of mesocarnivores (red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European badger (Meles meles), pine marten (Martes martes), stone marten (M. foina)) in NW Italy via camera-trapping. We hypothesized that the smallest species would tend to avoid competition by selecting time periods when larger species were less active. Foxes, badgers, and stone martens were mainly nocturnal. In lowland areas overlap between coexisting species was generally low, while in Mediterranean habitats all activity patterns tended to be unimodal and overlap was generally high. The pine marten showed a cathemeral pattern. We suggest that the lower ability of the stone marten to avoid interference competition at community-level may play a major role in determining its widespread exclusion from forested areas by the pine marten.

A framework for integrating thermal biology into fragmentation research

Habitat fragmentation changes thermal conditions in remnant patches, and thermal conditions strongly influence organism morphology, distribution, and activity patterns. However, few studies explore temperature as a mechanism driving ecological responses to fragmentation. Here we offer a conceptual framework that integrates thermal biology into fragmentation research to better understand individual, species, community, and ecosystem-level responses to fragmentation. Specifically, the framework addresses how fragmentation changes temperature and how the effects of those temperature changes spread through the ecosystem, from organism response via thermal sensitivity, to changes in species distribution and activity patterns, to shifts in community structure following species' responses, and ultimately to changes in ecosystem functions. We place a strong emphasis on future research directions by outlining "Critical gaps" for each step of the framework. Empirical efforts to apply and test this framework promise new understanding of fragmentation's ecological consequences and new strategies for conservation in an increasingly fragmented and warmer world.

Diet Overlap and Foraging Activity between Feral Pigs and Native Peccaries in the Pantanal

Inter-specific competition is considered one of the main selective pressures affecting species distribution and coexistence. Different species vary in the way they forage in order to minimize encounters with their competitors and with their predators. However, it is still poorly known whether and how native species change their foraging behavior in the presence of exotic species, particularly in South America. Here we compare diet overlap of fruits and foraging activity period of two sympatric native ungulates (the white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari, and the collared peccary, Pecari tajacu) with the invasive feral pig (Sus scrofa) in the Brazilian Pantanal. We found high diet overlap between white-lipped peccaries and feral pigs, but low overlap between collared peccaries and feral pigs. Furthermore, we found that feral pigs may influence the foraging period of both native peccaries, but in different ways. In the absence of feral pigs, collared peccary activity peaks in the early evening, possibly allowing them to avoid white-lipped peccary activity peaks, which occur in the morning. In the presence of feral pigs, collared peccaries forage mostly in early morning, while white-lipped peccaries forage throughout the day. Our results indicate that collared peccaries may avoid foraging at the same time as white-lipped peccaries. However, they forage during the same periods as feral pigs, with whom they have lower diet overlap. Our study highlights how an exotic species may alter interactions between native species by interfering in their foraging periods.

Effects of reduced-impact logging on medium and large-bodied forest vertebrates in eastern Amazonia

Standard line-transect census techniques were deployed to generate a checklist and quantify the abundance of medium and large-bodied vertebrate species in forest areas of eastern Amazonia with and without a history of reduced-impact logging (RIL). Three areas were allocated a total of 1,196.9 km of line-transect census effort. Sampling was conducted from April to June 2012 and from April to August 2013, and detected 29 forest vertebrate species considered in this study belonging to 15 orders, 20 families and 28 genera. Additionally, eight species were recorded outside census walks through direct and indirect observations. Of this total, six species are considered vulnerable according to IUCN (Ateles paniscus, Myrmecophaga tridactyla, Priodontes maximus, Tapirus terrestris, Tayassu peccary, Chelonoidis denticulata). Observed species richness ranged from 21 to 24 species in logged and unlogged areas, and encounter rates along transects were highly variable between treatments. However, the relative abundance of species per transect did not differ between transects in logged and unlogged forests. Of the species detected during censuses, only three showed different relative abundance between the two treatments (Saguinus midas, Tinamus spp. and Dasyprocta leporina). Our results show that the effect of RIL forest management was a relatively unimportant determinant of population abundance for most medium and large vertebrates over the time period of the survey.

Biogeography of time partitioning in mammals

Many animals regulate their activity over a 24-h sleep-wake cycle, concentrating their peak periods of activity to coincide with the hours of daylight, darkness, or twilight, or using different periods of light and darkness in more complex ways. These behavioral differences, which are in themselves functional traits, are associated with suites of physiological and morphological adaptations with implications for the ecological roles of species. The biogeography of diel time partitioning is, however, poorly understood. Here, we document basic biogeographic patterns of time partitioning by mammals and ecologically relevant large-scale patterns of natural variation in "illuminated activity time" constrained by temperature, and we determine how well the first of these are predicted by the second. Although the majority of mammals are nocturnal, the distributions of diurnal and crepuscular species richness are strongly associated with the availability of biologically useful daylight and twilight, respectively. Cathemerality is associated with relatively long hours of daylight and twilight in the northern Holarctic region, whereas the proportion of nocturnal species is highest in arid regions and lowest at extreme high altitudes. Although thermal constraints on activity have been identified as key to the distributions of organisms, constraints due to functional adaptation to the light environment are less well studied. Global patterns in diversity are constrained by the availability of the temporal niche; disruption of these constraints by the spread of artificial lighting and anthropogenic climate change, and the potential effects on time partitioning, are likely to be critical influences on species' future distributions.

Unusual temporal niche overlap in a phytophagous bat ensemble of western Cuba

We assessed the differences and similarities in diel activities among five phytophagous bat species at two habitats over two seasons within the Sierra del Rosario Biosphere Reserve in Cuba. We characterized temporal patterns of activity and overlap of temporal activity for frugivore and nectarivore bat species (Artibeus jamaicensis, Monophyllus redmani, Phyllonycteris poeyi, Phyllops falcatus and Brachyphylla nana) that occur in tropical evergreen forest sites with distinct altitude and vegetation structure during wet and dry seasons. Capture frequencies using mist-nets of 1180 capture events were the empirical basis for analyses. For each species we compared activity patterns between habitats, between seasons, between males and females, as well as between reproductive and non-reproductive females. We also assessed temporal overlap among each possible pair of species at each habitat and used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate assemblage-wide temporal niche overlap using a new algorithm, termed Rosario, designed specifically for temporal data. The two habitats had the same species composition and bat diel rhythms tended to be consistent across habitats, seasons and sexes for most bat species. In general bat species pairwise temporal niche overlap was high, and the ensemble-wide temporal overlap was consistently high across habitats and seasons indicating a common constraint for bat activities. Activity peaks of most bat species coincided at 4–5 h after sunset, this being in sharp contrast to other Neotropical bat assemblages at continental sites where activity peaks usually overlap within the first 2 h after sunset. This strong disparity in timing of activity peaks between continental and insular bat assemblages can provide the framework for the generation of hypotheses that explain the potential role of time as a mediator of ecological interactions in bat assemblages.