Foraging optimally for home ranges

Consistency in Verreaux's sifaka home range and core area size despite seasonal variation in resource availability as assessed by Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI)

Primates are adept at dealing with fluctuating availability of resources and display a range of responses to minimize the effects of food scarcity. An important component of primate conservation is to understand how primates adapt their foraging and ranging patterns in response to fluctuating food resources. Animals optimize resource acquisition within the home range through the selection of resource-bearing patches and choose between contrasting foraging strategies (resource-maximizing vs. area-minimizing). Our study aimed to characterize the foraging strategy of a folivorous primate, Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), by evaluating whether group home range size varied between peak and lean leaf seasons within a seasonally dry tropical forest in Madagascar. We hypothesized that Verreaux's sifaka used the resource maximization strategy to select high-value resource patches so that during periods of resource depression, the home range area did not significantly change in size. We characterized resource availability (i.e., primary productivity) by season at Kirindy Mitea National Park using remotely-sensed Enhanced Vegetation Index data. We calculated group home ranges using 10 years of focal animal sampling data collected on eight groups using both 95% and 50% kernel density estimation. We used area accumulation curves to ensure each group had an adequate number of locations to reach seasonal home range asymptotes. Neither 95% home ranges nor 50% core areas differed across peak and lean leaf resource seasons, supporting the hypothesis that Verreaux's sifaka use a resource maximization strategy. With a better understanding of animal space use strategies, managers can model anticipated changes under environmental and/or anthropogenic resource depression scenarios. These findings demonstrate the value of long-term data for characterizing and understanding foraging and ranging patterns. We also illustrate the benefits of using satellite data for characterizing food resources for folivorous primates.

Measuring the Degree of Overlap and Segregation among Multiple Probabilistic Home Ranges: A New Index with Illustrative Application to the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni

Home range overlap/segregation has several important applications to wildlife conservation and management. In this work, we first address the issue of measuring the degree of overlap/segregation among an arbitrarily large number (i.e., n ≥ 2) of probabilistic animal home ranges (i.e., utilization distributions). This subject matter has recently been solved for home ranges measured as polygons (e.g., percent minimum convex polygons and multinuclear cores) but not yet for probabilistic ones. Accordingly, we introduce a novel index named the PGOI (probabilistic general overlap index), and its complement, the PGSI (probabilistic general segregation index), an index for computation of probabilistic home range overlap/segregation at individual, population and species levels. Whatever the number of probabilistic home ranges, the PGOI returns a single score ranging in the [0, 100] interval. We applied the PGOI to five lesser kestrels (Falco naumanni) at Santeramo in Colle (Apulia region; Southern Italy) as a case study. Our new index can be applied to any animal species and to home ranges derived from any type of probabilistic home range estimator.

Some Memories Never Fade: Inferring Multi-Scale Memory Effects on Habitat Selection of a Migratory Ungulate Using Step-Selection Functions

Understanding how animals use information about their environment to make movement decisions underpins our ability to explain drivers of and predict animal movement. Memory is the cognitive process that allows species to store information about experienced landscapes, however, remains an understudied topic in movement ecology. By studying how species select for familiar locations, visited recently and in the past, we can gain insight to how they store and use local information in multiple memory types. In this study, we analyzed the movements of a migratory mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population in the Piceance Basin of Colorado, United States to investigate the influence of spatial experience over different time scales on seasonal range habitat selection. We inferred the influence of short and long-term memory from the contribution to habitat selection of previous space use within the same season and during the prior year, respectively. We fit step-selection functions to GPS collar data from 32 female deer and tested the predictive ability of covariates representing current environmental conditions and both metrics of previous space use on habitat selection, inferring the latter as the influence of memory within and between seasons (summer vs. winter). Across individuals, models incorporating covariates representing both recent and past experience and environmental covariates performed best. In the top model, locations that had been previously visited within the same season and locations from previous seasons were more strongly selected relative to environmental covariates, which we interpret as evidence for the strong influence of both short- and long-term memory in driving seasonal range habitat selection. Further, the influence of previous space uses was stronger in the summer relative to winter, which is when deer in this population demonstrated strongest philopatry to their range. Our results suggest that mule deer update their seasonal range cognitive map in real time and retain long-term information about seasonal ranges, which supports the existing theory that memory is a mechanism leading to emergent space-use patterns such as site fidelity. Lastly, these findings provide novel insight into how species store and use information over different time scales.

Evidence of economical territory selection in a cooperative carnivore

As an outcome of natural selection, animals are probably adapted to select territories economically by maximizing benefits and minimizing costs of territory ownership. Theory and empirical precedent indicate that a primary benefit of many territories is exclusive access to food resources, and primary costs of defending and using space are associated with competition, travel and mortality risk. A recently developed mechanistic model for economical territory selection provided numerous empirically testable predictions. We tested these predictions using location data from grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Montana, USA. As predicted, territories were smaller in areas with greater densities of prey, competitors and low-use roads, and for groups of greater size. Territory size increased before decreasing curvilinearly with greater terrain ruggedness and harvest mortalities. Our study provides evidence for the economical selection of territories as a causal mechanism underlying ecological patterns observed in a cooperative carnivore. Results demonstrate how a wide range of environmental and social conditions will influence economical behaviour and resulting space use. We expect similar responses would be observed in numerous territorial species. A mechanistic approach enables understanding how and why animals select particular territories. This knowledge can be used to enhance conservation efforts and more successfully predict effects of conservation actions.

Mechanistic home range analysis reveals drivers of space use patterns for a non-territorial passerine

Home ranging is a near-ubiquitous phenomenon in the animal kingdom. Understanding the behavioural mechanisms that give rise to observed home range patterns is thus an important general question, and mechanistic home range analysis (MHRA) provides the tools to address it. However, such analysis has hitherto been principally restricted to scent-marking territorial animals, so its potential breadth of application has not been tested. Here, we apply MHRA to a population of long-tailed tits Aegithalos caudatus, a non-territorial passerine, in the non-breeding season where there is no clear 'central place' near which birds need to remain. The aim is to uncover the principal movement mechanisms underlying observed home range formation. Our foundational models consist of memory-mediated conspecific avoidance between flocks, combined with attraction to woodland. These are then modified to incorporate the effects of flock size and relatedness (i.e. kinship), to uncover the effect of these on the mechanisms of home range formation. We found that a simple model of spatial avoidance, together with attraction to the central parts of woodland areas, accurately captures long-tailed tit home range patterns. Refining these models further, we show that the magnitude of spatial avoidance by a flock is negatively correlated to both the relative size of the flock (compared to its neighbour) and the relatedness of the flock with its neighbour. Our study applies MHRA beyond the confines of scent-marking, territorial animals, so paves the way for much broader taxonomic application. These could potentially help uncover general properties underlying the emergence of animal space use patterns. This is also the first study to apply MHRA to questions of relatedness and flock size, thus broadening the potential possible applications of this suite of analytic techniques.

Dispersal patterns of large-seeded plants and the foraging behaviour of a frugivorous bat

Mutualistic interactions are biologically important, diverse and poorly understood. Comprehending these interactions and the effectiveness of the mutualistic partners has been the central focus of ecological and evolutionary studies, as this task requires disentangling the pieces of mutualism under study. Here, we tested the hypothesis that feeding activity of Artibeus phaeotis influences density, diversity and distance effects of the seed rain of large-seeded plant species in a Neotropical dry forest of Costa Rica. We predicted that bats’ activity increases density and diversity metrics on dispersing sites and that bats behave as short-distance dispersers. Our data revealed that, by dispersing hundreds of seeds within their small foraging areas and mostly close to fruiting trees, the feeding activity of A. phaeotis increases the density and richness of seeds underneath night feeding roosts. The functional role of A. phaeotis as disperser may vary among plant species, as we also detected that some seeds are more dispersed than others. Further inquiries to elucidate mutualistic interactions between frugivorous bats and large-seeded plant species should focus on understanding demographic and fitness outcomes, as strong selective pressures may be shaping morphological and behavioural traits of both plants and animals, ultimately influencing the survival of each partner.

Western gorilla space use suggests territoriality

The evolutionary origins of how modern humans share and use space are often modelled on the territorial-based violence of chimpanzees, with limited comparison to other apes. Gorillas are widely assumed to be non-territorial due to their large home ranges, extensive range overlap, and limited inter-group aggression. Using large-scale camera trapping, we monitored western gorillas in Republic of Congo across 60 km². Avoidance patterns between groups were consistent with an understanding of the “ownership” of specific regions, with greater avoidance of their neighbours the closer they were to their neighbours’ home range centres. Groups also avoided larger groups’ home ranges to a greater extent, consistent with stronger defensive responses from more dominant groups. Our results suggest that groups may show territoriality, defending core regions of their home ranges against neighbours, and mirror patterns common across human evolution, with core areas of resident dominance and larger zones of mutual tolerance. This implies western gorillas may be a key system for understanding how humans have evolved the capacity for extreme territorial-based violence and warfare, whilst also engaging in the strong affiliative inter-group relationships necessary for large-scale cooperation.

Social organization of a solitary carnivore: spatial behaviour, interactions and relatedness in the slender mongoose

The majority of carnivore species are described as solitary, but little is known about their social organization and interactions with conspecifics. We investigated the spatial organization and social interactions as well as relatedness of slender mongooses (Galerella sanguinea) living in the southern Kalahari. This is a little studied small carnivore previously described as solitary with anecdotal evidence for male associations. In our study population, mongooses arranged in spatial groups consisting of one to three males and up to four females. Male ranges, based on sleeping sites, were large and overlapping, encompassing the smaller and more exclusive female ranges. Spatial groups could be distinguished by their behaviour, communal denning and home range. Within spatial groups animals communally denned in up to 33% of nights, mainly during winter months, presumably to gain thermoregulatory benefits. Associations of related males gained reproductive benefits likely through increased territorial and female defence. Our study supports slender mongooses to be better described as solitary foragers living in a complex system of spatial groups with amicable social interactions between specific individuals. We suggest that the recognition of underlying 'hidden' complexities in these apparently 'solitary' organizations needs to be accounted for when investigating group living and social behaviour.

The burning question: does fire affect habitat selection and forage preference of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in East African savannahs?

The conservation of threatened species requires information on how management activities influence habitat quality. The Critically Endangered black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis is restricted to savannahs representing c. 5% of its historical range. Fire is used extensively in savannahs but little is known about how rhinos respond to burning. Our aim was to understand rhino responses to fire by studying habitat selection and foraging at multiple scales. We used resource selection functions and locations of 31 rhinos during 2014–2016 to study rhino habitat use in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Rhino selectivity was quantified by comparing forage consumption to plant species availability in randomly sampled vegetation plots; rhino diets were subsequently verified through DNA metabarcoding analysis of faecal samples. Rhino habitat use was a unimodal function of fire history, with highly occupied sites having fire frequencies of < 0.6 fires/year and maximum occupancy occurring at a fire frequency of 0.1 fires/year. Foraging stations had characteristic plant communities, with 17 species associated with rhino foraging. Rhinos were associated with, and disproportionately consumed, woody plants, forbs and legumes, all of which decreased in abundance with increasing fire frequency. In contrast to common management practices, multiple lines of evidence suggest that the current fire regime in the Serengeti negatively influences rhino habitat use and foraging and that frequent fire limits access of rhinos to preferred forage. We outline a conceptual model to guide managers and conservationists in the use of fire under variable habitat conditions.

Determinants of home range size and spatial overlap of Gracilinanus agilis (Mammalia: Didelphidae) in central-western Brazil

The use of space in mammals may vary according to sexual dimorphism, mating system and territorial behavior in order to ensure optimization of the reproductive success of each sex and the interactions with other species. In the present study, the determinants of home range (HR) size of males and females of Gracilinanus agilis (Burmeister 1854) were evaluated in a savanna remnant in central-western Brazil. We used live traps and capture-mark-recapture to estimate HR size. Using the method of minimum convex polygon, we estimated the HR of 24 individuals. The species showed sexual dimorphism, with males showing larger body size. The HR estimated was 0.38±0.41 ha and the highest estimated HR was for a male, with 2.08 ha. Females’ HR sizes varied according to body mass, food availability and number of captures. The more important predictor for males was the number of females found within their HRs. The overlapping areas between pairs of males were larger than those between pairs of females, suggesting that females have territorial behavior as they had mostly exclusive HRs. Considering that food availability was an important predictor for female HR size, we hypothesize that the territorial behavior in females is related to food resource.

Association with humans and seasonality interact to reverse predictions for animal space use

BACKGROUND

Variation in animal space use reflects fitness trade-offs associated with ecological constraints. Associated theories such as the metabolic theory of ecology and the resource dispersion hypothesis generate predictions about what drives variation in animal space use. But, metabolic theory is usually tested in macro-ecological studies and is seldom invoked explicitly in within-species studies. Full evaluation of the resource dispersion hypothesis requires testing in more species. Neither have been evaluated in the context of anthropogenic landscape change.

METHODS

In this study, we used data for banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) in northeastern Botswana, along a gradient of association with humans, to test for effects of space use drivers predicted by these theories. We used Bayesian parameter estimation and inference from linear models to test for seasonal differences in space use metrics and to model seasonal effects of space use drivers.

RESULTS

Results suggest that space use is strongly associated with variation in the level of overlap that mongoose groups have with humans. Seasonality influences this association, reversing seasonal space use predictions historically-accepted by ecologists. We found support for predictions of the metabolic theory when moderated by seasonality, by association with humans and by their interaction. Space use of mongooses living in association with humans was more concentrated in the dry season than the wet season, when historically-accepted ecological theory predicted more dispersed space use. Resource richness factors such as building density were associated with space use only during the dry season. We found negligible support for predictions of the resource dispersion hypothesis in general or for metabolic theory where seasonality and association with humans were not included. For mongooses living in association with humans, space use was not associated with patch dispersion or group size over both seasons.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, living in association with humans influenced space use patterns that diverged from historically-accepted predictions. There is growing need to explicitly incorporate human-animal interactions into ecological theory and research. Our results and methodology may contribute to understanding effects of anthropogenic landscape change on wildlife populations.

What do territory owners defend against?

Theoretical research on evolutionary aspects of territoriality has a long history. Existing studies, however, differ widely in modelling approach and research question. A generalized view on the evolution of territoriality is accordingly still missing. In this review, we show that territorial conflicts can be classified into qualitatively distinct types according to what mode of access to a territory which competitor attempts to gain. We argue that many of the inconsistencies between existing studies can be traced back to the fact that, while using the same terminology, different instances of these types of conflicts have been investigated. We discuss the connections of each type of conflict to existing research within the wider area of animal conflicts. We conclude that a clear conceptual separation of different types of territorial conflicts is helpful but that a more general theory of territoriality has to account for interdependencies between them and that a more mechanistic approach to modelling territoriality is needed.

High site fidelity and restricted ranging patterns in southern Australian bottlenose dolphins

Information on site fidelity and ranging patterns of wild animals is critical to understand how they use their environment and guide conservation and management strategies. Delphinids show a wide variety of site fidelity and ranging patterns. Between September 2013 and October 2015, we used boat‐based surveys, photographic identification, biopsy sampling, clustering analysis, and geographic information systems to determine the site‐fidelity patterns and representative ranges of southern Australian bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops cf. australis) inhabiting the inner area of Coffin Bay, a highly productive inverse estuary located within Thorny Passage Marine Park, South Australia. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) of individuals’ site‐fidelity index and sighting rates indicated that the majority of dolphins within the inner area of Coffin Bay are “regular residents” (n = 125), followed by “occasional residents” (n = 28), and “occasional visitors” (n = 26). The low standard distance deviation indicated that resident dolphins remained close to their main center of use (range = 0.7–4.7 km, X ± SD = 2.3 ± 0.9 km). Representative ranges of resident dolphins were small (range = 3.9–33.5 km², X ± SD = 15.2 ± 6.8 km²), with no significant differences between males and females (Kruskal–Wallis, χ² = 0.426, p = .808). The representative range of 56% of the resident dolphins was restricted to a particular bay within the study area. The strong site fidelity and restricted ranging patterns among individuals could be linked to the high population density of this species in the inner area of Coffin Bay, coupled with differences in social structure and feeding habits. Our results emphasize the importance of productive habitats as a major factor driving site fidelity and restricted movement patterns in highly mobile marine mammals and the high conservation value of the inner area of Coffin Bay for southern Australian bottlenose dolphins.

Individual variation in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) habitat and home range in the Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico

Historically, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) had a distribution area as large as the Chihuahuan Desert in Mexico, but in recent years, its populations have decreased and distribution areas have become isolated. This species exhibits a high degree of intraspecific variation in its use of habitat resources and home range size. In the Mapimí Biosphere Reserve, where the southernmost population of mule deer is located, over the course of 3 years, 7 females and 1 young male mule deer were monitored using radiotelemetry. Based on the deer location data, home range and habitat use were estimated for each deer. The mean (± SD) home range size for females was 14.70 km2 (± 5.89), the home range of the male was 18.05 km2. These estimates are among the smallest reported for the species. During the dry season, the use of certain topographic characteristics of the habitat was more similar among the individual deer than it was during the rainy season. The group of deer we sampled did not show preference for any particular type of vegetation, but rather used the majority of plant associations, depending on their availability. Preference was only exhibited by individual deer. The young male made use of the habitat similar to that of most of the females.

El venado bura (Odocoileus hemionus) históricamente tenía un área de distribución tan grande como el Desierto Chihuahuense de México, sin embargo, en los últimos años sus poblaciones y áreas de distribución se han visto reducidas y aisladas. Se sabe que la especie exhibe gran variación intraespecífica en el uso de los recursos del hábitat y en los ámbitos hogareños. Dentro de la Reserva de Biosfera de Mapimí donde se encuentra la población más sureña de los venados buras, a lo largo de 3 años se monitorearon mediante radiotelemetría, 7 hembras y 1 macho joven de venado bura. Utilizando las localizaciones se estimaron los ámbitos hogareños y el uso del hábitat de cada animal. El promedio (± DE) del tamaño del ámbito hogareño para las hembras fue de 14.70 km2 (± 5.89), el tamaño del ámbito hogareño del macho fue de 18.05 km2. Estas estimaciones son de las áreas más pequeñas reportadas para la especie. Durante la temporada de secas el uso de las características topográficas del hábitat entre individuos fue más parecido entre ellos que en lluvias. Entre el conjunto de venados que muestreamos, no se presentó preferencia por alguna asociación vegetal en particular, los individuos usan la mayoría de las asociaciones vegetales de acuerdo a su disponibilidad, las preferencias únicamente se observaron a nivel individual. El macho joven hizo un uso del hábitat similar al que hicieron la mayoría de las hembras.

Permissible Home Range Estimation (PHRE) in Restricted Habitats: A New Algorithm and an Evaluation for Sea Otters

Parametric and nonparametric kernel methods dominate studies of animal home ranges and space use. Most existing methods are unable to incorporate information about the underlying physical environment, leading to poor performance in excluding areas that are not used. Using radio-telemetry data from sea otters, we developed and evaluated a new algorithm for estimating home ranges (hereafter Permissible Home Range Estimation, or “PHRE”) that reflects habitat suitability. We began by transforming sighting locations into relevant landscape features (for sea otters, coastal position and distance from shore). Then, we generated a bivariate kernel probability density function in landscape space and back-transformed this to geographic space in order to define a permissible home range. Compared to two commonly used home range estimation methods, kernel densities and local convex hulls, PHRE better excluded unused areas and required a smaller sample size. Our PHRE method is applicable to species whose ranges are restricted by complex physical boundaries or environmental gradients and will improve understanding of habitat-use requirements and, ultimately, aid in conservation efforts.

Guiana dolphin home range analysis based on 11 years of photo-identification research in a tropical estuary

Home range studies provide significant insights on social organization and interactions, limiting resources and habitat use. Knowledge on home range and habitat use by Guiana dolphins, Sotalia guianensis , is still scarce. The aim of this study was to identify and analyze individual’s home ranges of Guiana dolphins in the Cananéia Estuary (~25°03′S, 47°55′W), located in southeastern Brazil. Photo-identification efforts were conducted between 2000 and 2010. From a total of 135,918 pictures taken, 34,086 (25%) were useful for individual identification. Two-hundred and five individuals were cataloged based on permanent notches along dorsal fin borders. Of the cataloged individuals, 31 had been identified a minimum of 20 times, on distinct dates, prior to this analysis. Home ranges were estimated for these individuals using 4 methods: minimum convex polygon (MCP), adaptive kernel with least-squares cross-validation (AKLSCV), fixed kernel with reference bandwidth (FKHREF), and fixed kernel with least-squares cross-validation (FKLSCV). The sizes of the estimated home ranges varied between 2.2 and 43.8 km 2 ( X¯ = 17.5 km 2 ) with MCP, between 0.8 and 82.5 km 2 ( X¯ = 15.6 km 2 ) with AKLSCV, between 3.9 and 244 km 2 ( X¯ = 72.4 km 2 ) with FKHREF, and from 0.6 to 70.6 km 2 ( X¯ = 13.5 km 2 ) with FKLSCV. Significant differences in size and shape of the generated areas were detected when comparing the 4 tested methods. Variation of individual’s home range sizes and an extensive overlap among home ranges of different Guiana dolphins in the Cananéia Estuary provide evidence that the region supports important resources for this species. Therefore, preventing habitat loss in this region is essential to guaranteeing the persistence of this population.

O estudo sobre o uso de área pode fornecer informações sobre organização social e interações, recursos limitantes e sobre o uso de habitat. Ainda é escasso o conhecimento sobre como o boto-cinza, Sotalia guianensis usa seu habitat. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar e analisar as áreas de uso individuais de S. guianensis no estuário de Cananéia (~25°03′S; 47°55′W), localizado no sudeste brasileiro. Os esforços de foto-identificação foram realizados entre os anos de 2000 e 2010. De um total de 135.918 fotografias tomadas, 34.086 (25%) foram úteis para identificações individuais. Duzentos e cinco indivíduos foram catalogados através das marcas permanentes presentes em suas nadadeiras dorsais. Dentre os indivíduos catalogados, 31 foram identificados ao menos em 20 ocasiões, em dias distintos, antes destas análises. As áreas de uso foram estimadas para estes indivíduos utilizando quatro métodos distintos: mínimo polígono convexo (MPC), kernel adaptativo com largura determinada pelo método de validação cruzada de quadrados mínimos (AKLSCV), kernel fixo com largura de referência (FKHREF) e kernel fixo com largura determinada pelo método de validação cruzada de quadrados mínimos (FKLSCV). Os tamanhos das áreas de uso geradas variaram entre 2,2 e 43,8 km 2 ( X¯ = 17,5 km 2 ) com o uso do MPC, 0,8 e 82,5 km 2 ( X¯ = 15,6 km 2 ) com o uso do AKLSCV, 3,9 e 244 km 2 ( X¯ = 72,4 km 2 ) com o uso do FKHREF, e de 0,6 a 70,6 km 2 ( X¯ = 13,5 km 2 ) com o uso do FKLSCV. Foram detectadas diferenças significativas no tamanho e formato das áreas geradas pelos quatro métodos testados. Variações nos tamanhos das áreas de uso individuais e a extensa sobreposição entre diferentes áreas de uso dos botos-cinza no estuário de Cananéia fornecem evidências de que a região provê recursos importantes para esta espécie. Portanto, prevenir a perda de habitat na região é essencial para garantir a persistência dessa população.

Spatial organization and activity patterns of the masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) in central-south China

Movement and activity patterns are important components of life history, being central to resource acquisition and defense, mating behavior, and individual survival and fitness. Here, we present results from the 1st systematic radiotracking study of the masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), a widespread viverrid found in subtropical and tropical forests of Asia. From June 2004 to November 2007, we radiotracked 12 masked palm civets (5 males and 7 females) in central-south China. Mean individual home-range size based on 95% minimum convex polygons was 192.6 ha ± 42.6 SE (range = 64-451 ha). Although males had larger mean home-range sizes than females (276.8 and 136.5 ha, respectively), these differences were not statistically significant. Males also exhibited greater daily movement distances and extents than females, but we found no evidence of sexual dimorphism in body size. Masked palm civets were predominantly nocturnal, but were active intermittently during the day. No significant seasonal (monthly) differences in daily activity patterns were apparent. We did, however, observe reduced hours of activity-but not continuous inactivity-during winter; consequently, we concluded that our study animals did not hibernate or semihibernate. We speculate that our observations of home-range overlap among individuals may indicate group living in the masked palm civet.