Hemophilia Burden of Disease: A Systematic Review of the Cost-Utility Literature for Hemophilia

Systematic review of cost-effectiveness modelling studies for haemophilia

AIMS

Haemophilia is a rare genetic disease that hinders blood clotting. We aimed to review model-based cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs) of haemophilia treatments, describe the sources of clinical evidence used by these CEAs, summarize the reported cost-effectiveness of different treatment strategies, and assess the quality and risk of bias.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature review of model-based CEAs of haemophilia treatments by searching databases, the Tufts Medical Center CEA registry, and grey literature. We summarized and qualitatively synthesized the approaches and results of the included CEAs, without a meta-analysis due the diversity of the studies.

RESULTS

32 eligible studies were performed in 12 countries and reported 53 pairwise comparisons. Most studies analysed patients with haemophilia A rather than haemophilia B. Comparisons of prophylactic versus on-demand treatment indicated that prophylaxis may not be cost-effective, but there was no clear consensus. Emicizumab was generally cost-effective compared with clotting factor treatments and was always dominant for patients with inhibitors. Immune tolerance induction following a Malmö protocol was found to be cost-effective compared to bypassing agents, while there was no consensus for the other protocols. Gene therapies as well as treatment with extended half-life coagulation factors were always cost-effective over their comparators. Studies were highly heterogenous regarding their time horizons, model structures, the inclusion of bleeding-related mortality and quality-of-life impacts. This heterogeneity limited the comparability of the studies. 19 of the 32 included studies received industry funding, which may have biased their results.

LIMITATIONS

It was not possible to perform a quantitative synthesis of the results due to the heterogeneity of the underlying studies.

CONCLUSION

Differences in results between previous CEAs may have been driven by heterogeneity in modelling approaches, clinical input data, and potential funding biases. A more consistent evidence base and modelling approach would enhance the comparability between CEAs.

Challenges associated with access to recently developed hemophilia treatments in routine care: perspectives of healthcare professionals

The treatment landscape for hemophilia continues to rapidly develop, and expectations for future treatment success are high. There is limited information on the challenges of accessing new and innovative therapies. The aim of this study was to explore challenges of accessing hemophilia treatment from the perspective of healthcare professionals (HCP). A cross-sectional study design was used. A pilot-tested, online survey was distributed to hemophilia treatment centers in Australia, Canada, France, Italy, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland, Turkey, USA and UK. The questionnaire covered questions on product access, economic considerations, health technology assessment requirements, and patient organization involvement. The results were analyzed descriptively using SPSS. A total of 154 HCP completed the questionnaire. There was heterogeneity across countries, regions, and centers regarding HCP knowledge of access to novel recently developed treatments. Notable limitations to access were reported such as differences in access based on age of patient and type of product, economic considerations, and the growing influence of health technology assessment bodies. Many countries have a hemophilia patient organization that does not have a vote at the decision-making table. There is a need to empower HCP to better understand national healthcare structures and decisions that lead to access limitations. Requirements from health technology assessment bodies must be understood to optimally design clinical studies and value generation of treatment options. This may strengthen the hemophilia treatment center's voice to collectively mandate for exchange with key involved individuals, such as the payers and politicians for the provision of optimal therapy.

Economic Burden of Haemophilia from a Societal Perspective: A Scoping Review

INTRODUCTION

Haemophilia is a rare genetic bleeding disorder that leads to musculoskeletal complications. The high cost of haemophilia treatment necessitates a thorough evaluation of its economic burden. However, due to the difficulty of estimating direct non-medical, indirect, and intangible costs, studies often underestimate the actual economic burden of haemophilia. This scoping review aims to summarise economic studies in haemophilia conducted from a societal perspective.

METHODS

A systematic search across eight scholarly databases, grey literature, and reference lists until the 5th of July 2023 was conducted to identify relevant studies. The inclusion criteria encompassed full-text, English-language publications of economic analyses in congenital haemophilia from a societal perspective. Model-based studies and those adopting a payer perspective were excluded. Costs were adjusted to international dollars (I$) and US dollars (US$) in 2022 for comparability.

RESULTS

Out of 2993 potential sources identified, 25 studies met the inclusion criteria, covering 7226 persons with haemophilia across 22 countries. All studies reported direct medical costs, with four excluding the cost of haemostatic therapy. Fifteen studies reported direct formal non-medical costs, while eight reported direct informal non-medical costs. All but one study reported the indirect costs. The average annual costs of haemophilia varied widely based on treatment modality, disease severity, geographical location, and included cost categories. When including the cost of clotting factor replacement therapy (CFRT), the total cost for severe haemophilia without inhibitors ranged from 1566 I$ to 700,070 I$ per person per year (lowest value reported in India and highest in the United States). CFRT represented up to 99.9% of the total cost for those receiving prophylaxis and up to 95.1% for episodic treatment. Haemostatic therapies accounted for 82% of the total cost in patients with inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

There is a significant heterogeneity in defining cost categories required for a comprehensive economic analysis from a societal perspective. While haemostatic therapies constitute a substantial portion of the overall cost, direct non-medical and indirect costs are crucial as they are often paid out-of-pocket and may impede access to treatment. It is essential for haematologists and economists to establish a standardised costing framework for future studies, particularly in the era of novel therapies.

Problems faced by people with hemophilia aged 18-35 years in social life: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this qualitative study is to determine and evaluate the problems faced by people with hemophilia aged 18-35 years in their social lives.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In this qualitative type research, 13 individuals aged 18-35 years with hemophilia were reached with snowball sampling and online interviews with them. Participants were asked about their sociodemographic characteristics and the problems they encountered in various fields related to hemophilia using a semi-structured question guide with open-ended questions. Thematic content analysis was carried out.

RESULTS

Most participants were diagnosed with hemophilia in early childhood and have maintained knowledge of the condition since then. Hemophilia-related complications often resulted in significant educational delays, with two participants unable to complete formal schooling. Experiences of stigmatization in school were commonly reported. Some families faced migration or job changes due to the financial burden of hemophilia. While the majority viewed current healthcare services in Türkiye as sufficient, access issues in rural areas were noted. Nearly all participants belonged to a hemophilia-related non-governmental organization, which they felt had greatly enhanced their quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

To improve the social well-being of people with hemophilia, awareness campaigns to reduce stigma and foster a more supportive social environment are needed.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Prophylactic Strategies for Hemophilia A Management: A Real-World, Longitudinal Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Hemophilia A (HA) treatment strategies aim to manage bleeding episodes and improve patients' quality of life. This study investigates the effectiveness of a preventative approach using intermediate-dose prophylaxis with standard half-life FVIII products in reducing bleeding rates and enhancing the quality of life for patients with severe HA.

METHODS

A 4-year prospective longitudinal study followed 35 patients with severe HA (without FVIII inhibitors) who transitioned from a reactive treatment approach to intermediate-dose prophylaxis in Taiwan from 2014 until 2018. The study tracked annual bleeding rates (ABR) and annual joint bleeding rates (AjBR) alongside associated costs and patient-reported quality-of-life measures.

RESULTS

Prophylaxis significantly reduced both ABR and AjBR compared with the previous treatment. After one year, ABR and AjBR decreased by 76.9% and 72.5%, respectively, with further reductions to 91.0% and 90.8% after 4 years (p < 0.001). While the average annual cost of factor VIII concentrate increased by 41.0% in the first year, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio demonstrated ongoing benefits from ABR avoidance over the 4 years. Additionally, patients reported significant improvements in quality-of-life measures following the switch to prophylaxis (p = 0.036).

CONCLUSION

Intermediate-dose prophylaxis effectively reduced bleeding rates and improved quality of life in patients with severe HA. Despite initial cost increases, the intervention became cost effective over time. This study provides valuable data for healthcare policymakers, highlighting the long-term benefits of prophylaxis as a preventative approach for managing bleeding and improving overall well-being in patients with severe HA.

Distribution and predictors of haemophilia-related costs in the United Kingdom: analysis of the CHESS I and CHESS II burden of illness studies

BACKGROUND

Few studies have evaluated direct medical or societal costs of haemophilia in the United Kingdom (UK), and how patient characteristics impact future costs is uncertain. Cost predictors were identified and examined using cross-sectional data from the CHESS I and II studies.

METHODS

Patient- and physician-reported outcomes were analysed for UK adult males aged ≤ 65, with haemophilia A or B and no recent clinical trial participation. Demographics, haemophilia type and severity, inhibitors, annual bleed rate (ABR), problem joints (PJs), treatment type, and comorbidities, were utilised in regression analyses. Health-related quality of life was assessed using EQ-5D. Generalised linear models estimated expected non-drug haemophilia-related direct medical costs (DMC) and societal costs (non-drug DMC, direct non-medical and indirect costs). Average marginal effects (AMEs) determined predictors of cost.

RESULTS

Costs for 378 patients were analysed. Mean age was 33 years and 79% (299) had haemophilia A. Mean annual per-patient DMC were £165,001 (including factor treatment costs) and £4,091 when excluding factor replacement treatment costs (non-drug DMC). Mean annual per-patient non-treatment societal costs were £11,550 (standard deviation £20,171) among those with data available (n = 51). Number of PJs, ABR, and treatment regimen were significant determinants of haemophilia-related non-drug DMC (all P < 0.001). Non-drug DMC increased as ABR increased (AMEs were £2,018 for ABR 1-5, £3,101 for ABR 6-10 and £5,785 for ABR ≥ 11, vs. ABR 0) and by £1,869 per additional PJ. No significant predictors of non-drug haemophilia-related societal costs were identified. Mean EQ-5D score was 0.66, with lower scores observed for people with haemophilia B (0.48) compared with haemophilia A (0.71) and with increasing haemophilia severity.

CONCLUSIONS

UK direct medical and societal costs of haemophilia are substantial. Non-drug DMC were particularly associated with ABR and number of PJs. These findings may be useful for real-world evaluations of the economic burden of haemophilia in the UK.

Assessing health care resource use, outcomes, and costs among Medicaid beneficiaries receiving factor IX prophylaxis for hemophilia B

BACKGROUND

Hemophilia B is characterized by a deficiency of clotting factor IX (FIX), leading to excessive bleeding. Hemophilia B is commonly treated using replacement FIX therapy, which may be administered prophylactically or on-demand following a bleeding episode. Previous research has found high health care resource use (HCRU) and costs among Medicare and commercially insured people with hemophilia B (PwHB), with FIX therapy being a primary driver of health care costs.

OBJECTIVE

To assess HCRU, outcomes, and costs among US Medicaid beneficiaries receiving FIX prophylaxis for hemophilia B.

METHODS

This study employed a retrospective comparative cohort design to assess HCRU, outcomes, and costs among adult male Medicaid beneficiaries receiving FIX prophylaxis for hemophilia B, relative to a matched comparator population of beneficiaries without bleeding disorders. Nationwide Medicaid claims and enrollment data from 2015 to 2020 were used for this analysis. Adult male PwHB who received FIX prophylaxis, defined as not having identified gaps in FIX therapy exceeding 60-days during a 1-year measurement period, and were continuously enrolled in Medicaid for at least 2 years, were matched 1:4 to comparator beneficiaries without bleeding disorders based on baseline demographic and clinical characteristics. Key measures of HCRU and outcomes included inpatient hospital admissions, outpatient hematologist visits, and bleeding events. Measures of health care costs were assessed among a subset of beneficiaries enrolled in fee-for-service Medicaid.

RESULTS

PwHB receiving FIX prophylaxis were significantly more likely to have multiple inpatient hospital admissions and had a longer cumulative length of stay per person relative to comparator beneficiaries (30.2 vs 14.8 days, respectively; P = 0.0473). PwHB receiving FIX prophylaxis also had significantly higher rates of bleeding events relative to comparator beneficiaries (0.54 vs 0.02 per person, respectively; P < 0.0001) and outpatient hematologist visits (1.58 vs 0.20 per person, respectively; P < 0.0001). Annual costs among PwHB receiving FIX prophylaxis were significantly higher than costs among comparator beneficiaries ($928,370 vs $34,553 per person, respectively; P < 0.0001) and were overwhelmingly driven by costs associated with FIX therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis found higher rates of HCRU and costs among Medicaid beneficiaries receiving FIX prophylaxis for hemophilia B relative to a matched comparator population of beneficiaries without bleeding disorders. Future research should examine hemophilia B costs and outcomes within the context of new treatments with innovative mechanisms of action, such as gene therapies, RNA interference therapies, and antitissue factor pathway inhibitor therapies.

Retrospective analysis of hemophilia B in Turkey: identifying main characteristics and treatment options

Background

Hemophilia B (HB), an X-linked recessive inherited bleeding disorder, exhibits a high prevalence among males.

Objectives

To present the first national cohort of persons with HB to define the demographics, clinical characteristics, and treatment patterns in Turkey.

Methods

This multicenter, retrospective study included 433 alive persons with HB registered in 35 centers between 1961 and 2018. Analyses were performed by age subgroups (0-17 years, 18-64 years, and ≥65 years), disease severity by factor levels (severe, <1 IU/dL; moderate, 1-5 IU/dL; mild, >5 IU/dL). Additionally, patients were stratified based on the initiation year of follow-up at the relevant study center, creating 2 periods: 1993-2006 (referred to as period A) and 2007-2018 (referred to as period B).

Results

Predominantly male (98.6%), the median age at data entry was 22.1 years (n = 429). The majority (49.0%) had moderate HB, followed by severe (30.0%) and mild (15.7%) disease. Of the 377 patients with complete treatment details, 209 (55.4%) were under prophylaxis from their diagnosis onwards, while 79 patients (21.0%) only received on-demand treatment. Additionally, 89 patients (23.6%) initially underwent on-demand treatment and later were switched to prophylaxis. Knees were the primary site of bleeding and the most frequently intervened joints. Most of the major (47.5%) and minor (53.3%) orthopedic procedures were carried out in persons with severe HB, while half of radioactive synovectomy procedures were performed on persons with moderate HB.

Conclusion

This paper describes the demographics, clinical characteristics, and treatments patterns of a large cohort of alive persons with HB on a national scale.

Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Economic Evaluations of Orphan Drugs in Rare Diseases: An Umbrella Review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

There are significant challenges when obtaining clinical and economic evidence for health technology assessments of rare diseases. Many of them have been highlighted in previous systematic reviews but they have not been summarised in a comprehensive manner. For all stakeholders working with rare diseases, it is important to be aware and understand these issues. The objective of this review is to identify the main challenges for the economic evaluation of orphan drugs in rare diseases.

METHODS

An umbrella review of systematic reviews of economic studies concerned with orphan and ultra-orphan drugs was conducted. Studies that were not systematic reviews, or on advanced therapeutic medicinal products, personalised medicines or other interventions that were not considered orphan drugs were excluded. The database searches included publications from 2010 to 2023, and were conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane library using filters for systematic reviews, and economic evaluations and models. These filters were combined with search terms for rare diseases and orphan drugs. A hand search supplemented the literature searches. The findings were reported by a compliant Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow diagram.

RESULTS

Two hundred and eighty-two records were identified from the literature searches, of which 64 were duplicates, whereas five reviews were identified from the hand search. A total of 36 reviews were included after screening against inclusion/exclusion criteria, 35 from literature searches and one from hand searching. Of those studies 1, 27 and 8 were low, moderate and high quality, respectively. The reviews highlight the scarcity of evidence for health economic parameters, for example, clinical effectiveness, costs, quality of life and the natural history of disease. Health economic evaluations such as cost-effectiveness and budget-impact analyses were scarce, and generally low-to-moderate quality. The causes were limited health economic parameters, together with publications bias, especially for cost-effectiveness analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlighted issues around a considerable paucity of evidence for economic evaluations and few cost-effectiveness analyses, supporting the notion that a paucity of evidence makes economic evaluations of rare diseases more challenging compared with more prevalent diseases. Furthermore, we provide recommendations for more sustainable approaches in economic evaluations of rare diseases.

In vivo LNP-CRISPR Approaches for the Treatment of Hemophilia

Hemophilia is a genetic disorder that is caused by mutations in coagulation factor VIII (hemophilia A) or IX (hemophilia B) genes resulting in blood clotting disorders. Despite advances in therapies, such as recombinant proteins and products with extended half-lives, the treatment of hemophilia still faces two major limitations: the short duration of therapeutic effect and production of neutralizing antibodies against clotting factors (inhibitor). To overcome these limitations, new hemophilia treatment strategies have been established such as gene therapy, bispecific antibody, and rebalancing therapy. Although these strategies have shown promising results, it is difficult to achieve a permanent therapeutic effect. Advances in the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) technology have allowed sustainable treatment by correcting mutated genes. Since genome editing generates irreversible changes in host genome, safety must be ensured by delivering target organs. Therefore, the delivery tool of the CRISPR system is crucial for safe, accurate, and efficient genome editing. Recently, non-viral vector lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as safer tools for delivering CRISPR systems than other viral vectors. Several previous hemophilia pre-clinical studies using LNP-CRISPR showed that sufficient and sustainable therapeutic effects, which means that LNP-CRISPR-mediated genome-editing therapy can be a valid option for the treatment of hemophilia. In this paper, we summarize the latest advancements in the successful treatment of hemophilia and the potential of CRISPR-mediated genome-editing therapy using LNPs.

Health utilities in adults with hemophilia A: A retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Haemophilia A negatively affects a patient's quality of life. There is a limited amount of health utility data (a measure of health-related quality of life) available for patients with haemophilia A. This information is crucial for cost-effectiveness analysis for haemophilia A treatment.

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this project is to elicit the health utilities and factors impacting utility values for haemophilia A patients in Canada.

METHODS

This is a population-based, cross-sectional, retrospective study of health utilities in patients with haemophilia A using Patient Report Outcomes Burdens and Experiences (PROBE) components from the Canadian Bleeding Disorders Registry (CBDR). A review of the mean utilities for three severity states, defined by clotting factor VIII level, was completed. A multiple linear regression analysis was completed to examine the determinants of health utilities including age, treatment type, chronic pain status, number of limited joints, and bleed rate.

RESULTS

The average utility values (and standard deviations) for patients with haemophilia A in Canada are .79(.17), .76(.20), and .77(.19) for patients with severe, moderate, and mild haemophilia. The regression showed chronic pain status and the number of additional comorbidities as major significant factors (p-value < .001) in haemophilia A utility. Haemophilia severity was shown to be a major factor with smaller p-value (p-value < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Haemophilia A patients have lower utility than the general population. Chronic pain was shown to be a significant, major factor in health-related quality of life. Our study is essential for valuing health outcomes in haemophilia A-related cost-effectiveness analysis.

High-cost drugs for rare diseases: their expenditure and value based on a regional area-based study

Background: in the field of rare diseases (RDs) most of the European studies on budget impact analysis of drugs that have been conducted often lay on theoretical assumptions and focus only on Orphan drugs (ODs). Objectives: we aimed to estimate the budget impact of specific drugs for non-oncological RDs, both ODs and non-ODs, using real-world data about patients residing in Veneto Region (Italy) and to describe its expenditure structure and dynamics. Methods: a population-based multi-source observational study was conducted using data from Regional administrative databases; an ad-hoc drugs' list specific for RDs including both ODs and non-ODs and classifying them by ATC codes has been created. Results: In 2019, the total expenditure for drugs specific for RDs was EUR 97.2 million (6.6% of the total Regional budget). The RD drug list included 58 ATC codes, of which 15 ATC had an annual budget impact over EUR 1 million ("blockbuster drugs"). The most expensive treatment was a non-OD drug (Coagulation factor VIII). The two most represented therapeutical areas were the metabolic and the hematological ones. Conclusions: Cost analyses on RD high-cost drugs expenditure should consider any specific RD drug, not only ODs. Expenditure dynamics for RD drugs are peculiar showing "blockbuster drugs". Some therapeutical areas seem to be lacking in the drug research field.

EFFECTIVENESS OF VISCOSUPPLEMENTATION IN THE TREATMENT OF HEMOPHILIC ARTHROPATHY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Objective

To describe the efficacy of using viscosupplementation in patients with hemophilic arthropathy (HA), on pain, limb functionality, and quality of life.

Methods

A systematic review of the literature was performed following the PRISMA guidelines without limitations of language or year of publication. The search was performed on the following medical databases: PubMed, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, BVS/BIREME, Scopus, Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and PROQUEST in April 2020. The search used the following word: (hemophilia AND joint diseases) OR (haemophilic arthropathy OR hemophilic arthropathy) AND viscosupplementation.

Results

The systematic review identified 127 articles, 10 of which were selected for data extraction and qualitative analysis. The 10 selected articles included 297 joints with HA in 177 hemophilic subjects. Our review showed positive results in alleviating pain and improving functional capacity, and quality of life. No major adverse effects were observed.

Conclusion

There is a lack of scientific evidence regarding viscosupplementation with hyaluronic acid, but the results presented in this research suggest that it is an effective and safe therapeutic option to alleviate pain and improve functional capacity in patients with HA. Level of Evidence II, Systematic Review.

Efficacy, safety and cost of emicizumab prophylaxis in haemophilia A patients with inhibitors: A nationwide observational study in Taiwan

INTRODUCTION

Emicizumab mimicking the cofactor function of activated factor VIII (FVIII) restores haemostasis.

METHODS

This nationwide observational study aimed to retrospectively investigate efficacy, safety, and cost in 1 year before and up to 3 years after emicizumab prophylaxis for haemophilia A (HA) patients with FVIII inhibitors.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 39 severe HA patients with a median age of 23.0 years were enrolled. The median historical peak FVIII inhibitor titre was 174.2 BU/mL with an interquartile range of 56.5-578.8 BU/mL. The median annualized bleeding rate reduced from 24 to 0 events in the first year after emicizumab prophylaxis (p < .01) and sustained in the second and third years. The median annualized joint bleeding rate reduced to 0 and maintained up to 3 years (p < .01). Twenty-seven patients (69.2%) had target joints before emicizumab prophylaxis and only seven patients (17.9%) of them had target joints after prophylaxis. Medical costs, including cost of haemostatic therapy, frequency of outpatient department visits, emergency room visits and hospital admission, were significantly reduced after emicizumab prophylaxis (p < .01). FVIII inhibitor titre decreased after emicizumab prophylaxis. Overall, three (7.7%) patients experienced 202 grade 1 drug-related adverse events after emicizumab prophylaxis. No serious adverse events were reported during emicizumab prophylaxis period. The adherence to emicizumab prophylaxis was 100% up to 3 years.

CONCLUSIONS

HA patients with FVIII inhibitors treated with emicizumab prophylaxis resulted in a significant reduction in treated bleeds and associated costs. No new safety events were observed.

Real-world analysis of patients with haemophilia A and haemophilia A carriers in the United States: Demographics, clinical characteristics and costs

INTRODUCTION

Females with haemophilia A (HA [FHAs]) and HA carriers (HACs) have an increased risk of bleeding and complications compared to the general population.

AIM

To examine the characteristics, billed annualised bleed rates (ABRb ), costs and healthcare resource utilisation for males with HA (MHAs), FHAs and HACs in the United States.

METHODS

Data were extracted from the IBM® MarketScan® Research Databases (Commercial and Medicaid) for claims during the index period (July 2016 to September 2018) and analysed across MHAs, FHAs and HACs.

RESULTS

Dual diagnosis females (DDFs; both HA and HAC claims) were grouped as a separate cohort. MHAs were generally younger than females (all cohorts) by up to 19 years (Commercial) and 23 years (Medicaid). ABRb  >0 was more frequent in females. Factor VIII claims were higher for MHAs versus female cohorts. Joint-related health issues were reported for 24.4 and 25.6% (Commercial) and 29.3 and 26.6% (Medicaid) of MHAs and FHAs, respectively; lower rates were reported in the other two cohorts. Heavy menstrual bleeding claims occurred for approximately a fifth (Commercial) to a quarter (Medicaid) of female cohorts. All-cause emergency department and inpatient visits in FHAs and DDFs were similar to, or more frequent than, those in MHAs; bleed-related inpatient visits were infrequent. In MHAs (Commercial), mean all-cause total costs ($214,083) were higher than in FHAs ($40,388), HACs ($15,647) and DDFs ($28,320) with similar trends for Medicaid patients.

CONCLUSIONS

FHAs and HACs may be undermanaged and undertreated. Further research is needed to fully understand these cohorts' bleeding rates, long-term complications and costs.

Cost-effectiveness of recombinant factor VIII Fc versus emicizumab for prophylaxis in adults and adolescents with haemophilia A without inhibitors in the UK

INTRODUCTION

The economic and clinical burden of haemophilia A is high. Primary prophylaxis with factor VIII replacement therapy is the recognised standard of care, but the emergence of non-factor therapies, such as emicizumab, is extending treatment options for people with haemophilia A.

AIM

There are currently no direct comparisons of efficacy or cost between recombinant factor FVIII Fc-fusion protein efmoroctocog alfa (a recombinant factor FVIII Fc-fusion protein referred to herein as rFVIIIFc) and emicizumab; therefore, a cost-effectiveness model was developed to compare prophylactic treatment with rFVIIIFc versus emicizumab in patients with haemophilia A without inhibitors in the UK.

METHODS

The cost-effectiveness model was based on a matching-adjusted indirect comparison and included male patients, aged ≥12 years, with haemophilia A without inhibitors. The model was designed as a Markov process with a flexible lifelong time horizon, and cost-effectiveness was presented as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. Base-case analysis and sensitivity analyses (including scenario analyses, one-way deterministic sensitivity analysis [DSA] and probability sensitivity analysis [PSA]) were performed using the following treatment strategies: individualised prophylaxis with rFVIIIFc and prophylaxis with emicizumab administered once weekly (scenario analyses used regimens of once every 2 weeks or once every 4 weeks).

RESULTS

Base-case analysis, DSA and PSA indicated that, compared with emicizumab administered once weekly, rFVIIIFc individualised prophylaxis was the dominant treatment strategy, with lower costs, a greater number of quality-adjusted life years, and a lower number of bleeds.

CONCLUSIONS

rFVIIIFc has proven efficacy and is cost-effective compared with emicizumab, providing clinicians with a viable treatment option to improve the health outcomes for adults and adolescents with haemophilia A in the UK.

Rasch Measurement and Patient Reported Value Claims: A Primer for Hemophilia

This commentary proposes that Rasch Measurement Theory (RMT) is an innovative method for assessments of patient-centric therapy response in hemophilia A and B, as they are in other disease states or target patient populations. RMT is a necessary and sufficient approach to moving from ordinal observations to interval measurement, which has arithmetic properties. This applies across the board in hemophilia and other disease states for clinical value claims, patient centric or subjective value claims as well as those for anticipated drug utilization and other medical care resources. The purpose of this commentary is to point out limitations regarding current methods for making claims regarding hemophilia response and to propose a new start in hemophilia studies to identify core claims that meet required measurement standards. This applies to both the development of new patient reported outcome instruments as well as the evaluation of existing instruments, with a focus on polytomous instruments and their sub-domains, to evaluate their possible application as measures that approximate RMT requirements.

Management of haemophilia A with inhibitors: A regional cross-talk

INTRODUCTION

The development of inhibitors with factor VIII (FVIII) replacement therapy is one of the most common and challenging complications of haemophilia A (HA) treatment, jeopardising treatment efficacy and predisposing patients to high risks of morbidity and mortality. The management of patients with inhibitors is particularly challenging in countries where resources are limited.

AIM

To provide a comprehensive summary of the management of HA with inhibitors while focusing on differences in practice between Western and non-Western countries and how resource scarcity can impact HA management, leading to suboptimal outcomes in patients with inhibitors.

METHODS

Summary of key evidence and regional expert opinion.

RESULTS

We address, particularly, the diagnosis of and testing for inhibitors, as well as the epidemiology of inhibitors, including incidence, prevalence and disease burden. Secondly, we provide an overview of the current treatment landscape in HA with inhibitors regarding the eradication of inhibitors with immune tolerance induction and the treatment and prevention of bleeding with bypassing agents, non-factor replacement agents and other experimental therapies. This is complemented with insights from the authors around the applicability of, and challenges associated with, such therapies in their settings of practice.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude by proposing some key steps towards bridging the gaps in the management of HA with inhibitors in resource-limited countries, including: (1) the collection of quality data that can inform healthcare reforms and policies; (2) improving disease knowledge among healthcare practitioners and patients with the aim of standardising disease management across centres and (3) working towards promoting equal access to HA care and therapies for everyone.

Health-related quality of life among adults with haemophilia in China: A comparison with age-matched general population

INTRODUCTION

Evaluating health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is vital for informing the improvement of the overall health of people with haemophilia (PwH). While there is lacking such data in China and comparisons with the general population.

AIM

To evaluate the HRQoL and its associated factors among adults with haemophilia, and compare it with a sample of the general population in China.

METHODS

PwH were recruited in this study using telephone-based interviews. Demographic and clinical characteristics were first collected. HRQoL was then evaluated using the self-reported Short Form 6-dimensions version 2 (SF-6Dv2) instrument. An age and gender-matched sample of the general population in China was also included as the comparator group. Linear regression was used to assess the association between the SF-6Dv2 utility value and the demographic and clinical variables of the patients.

RESULTS

This study included 206 PwH (mean [SD] age: 41.36 [14.48] years) and 206 respondents from the general population. PwH reported worse levels in physical functioning, role limitation, social functioning, and mental health dimensions on SF-6Dv2 than the general respondents. The mean (SD) utility of patients was .650 (.251), which was significantly lower than the general respondents (.786 [.183], P < .001). Being a student, having a higher monthly income, absence of comorbidities, having no target joints and requiring no treatment are independent predictors of a higher HRQoL for PwH.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first practical evidence of a significantly lower level of HRQoL in PwH than in the general population in China.

The long-term clinical benefits and economic costs associated with increased use of prophylaxis among patients with haemophilia A in China: Population-based predictions from 2018 to 2033

AIM

To predict the long-term benefits and economic costs of the improvements in haemophilia care in China demonstrated by increasing use of prophylaxis, compared with the current status.

METHODS

City-level predictions from 2018 to 2033 were conducted for five representative cities in China. The long-term clinical and economic outcomes in the scenario where haemophilia care has significantly improved and the existing scenario of haemophilia care were calculated and compared. The model input data were obtained from local records, expert interviews, published literature, and other sources. Outcome measures including number of bleeds and joint bleeds, number of target joints, disability rate, direct and indirect costs were calculated at the patient and population levels.

RESULTS

The long-term predictions for 2033 demonstrated significantly improved bleed control and joint outcomes due to increased use of prophylaxis. The total number of averted bleed events per patient ranged from 3.9 in Shenyang to 16.1 in Zhengzhou in 2033, and the population-level averted bleed events ranged from 1963 in Xiamen to 14,868 in Zhengzhou. The treatment improvement also leads to significant economic costs driven by increase in clotting factor costs (more than 90%). At the population level, the additional total costs were highest in Zhengzhou (CNY 177.4 million) and lowest in Shenyang (CNY 45.4 million), due to their different population sizes and various existing treatment regimens. The outpatient and hospitalization costs decreased, while the factor costs increased.

CONCLUSION

The long-term prophylaxis is associated with avoided bleed events and disabilities. The improved treatment regimens are also associated with a significant economic burden, driven by factor costs.

Cost-minimization analysis of recombinant factor VIII Fc versus emicizumab for treating patients with hemophilia A without inhibitors in Europe

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

A cost-minimization model was developed to compare recombinant factor VIII Fc (rFVIIIFc) and emicizumab as prophylaxis for hemophilia A without inhibitors.

METHODS

The model was based on 100 patients from the healthcare payer perspective in the UK, France, Italy, Spain, and Germany (5-year time horizon). Costs included: drug acquisition; emicizumab wastage by bodyweight (manufacturer's dosing recommendations); and additional FVIII for breakthrough bleeds. Scenario analyses (UK only): reduced emicizumab dosing frequency; and emicizumab maximum wastage.

RESULTS

Total incremental 5-year savings for rFVIIIFc rather than emicizumab use range from €89,320,131 to €149,990,408 in adolescents/adults (≥12 years) and €173,417,486 to €253,240,465 in children (<12 years). Emicizumab wastage accounts for 6% of its total cost in adolescents/adults and 26% in children. Reducing the emicizumab dosing frequency reduces the incremental cost savings with rFVIIIFc, but these remain substantial (adolescents/adults, >€92 million; children >€32 million). Maximum emicizumab wastage increases by 86% and 106%, respectively, increasing the incremental cost savings with rFVIIIFc to €125,352,125 and €105,872,727, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Based on cost-minimization modeling, rFVIIIFc use for hemophilia A prophylaxis in patients without inhibitors is associated with substantial cost savings in Europe, reflecting not only higher acquisition costs of emicizumab, but also other costs including wastage related to available vial sizes.

Indirect Treatment Comparison of Damoctocog Alfa Pegol versus Turoctocog Alfa Pegol as Prophylactic Treatment in Patients with Hemophilia A

Purpose

To assess the efficacy and FVIII consumption of BAY 94-9027 versus N8-GP in prophylaxis in adolescent and adult patients with severe hemophilia A (HA).

Patients and Methods

A systematic literature review was conducted to identify studies on the efficacy of BAY-94-9027 and N8-GP for prophylaxis in patients with HA aged ≥12 years without a history of inhibitors. Eight studies met systematic literature review inclusion criteria, but only data from PROTECT VIII on BAY 94-9027 and PATHFINDER 2 on N8-GP could be used for an indirect comparison. Matching-adjusted indirect comparison (MAIC) and simulated treatment comparison were performed.

Results

No significant differences (unadjusted and adjusted) were observed in the mean annualized bleeding rate (ABR) for any bleed and proportion of patients with zero bleeds when comparing BAY 94-9027 to N8-GP. The adjusted treatment difference [incidence rate ratio (IRR)] in terms of ABR was 1.11 (95% CI, 0.85–1.44). The odds ratio (OR) of any bleed, measuring the relative effect of BAY 94-9027 versus N8-GP on the proportion of patients with zero bleeds, was 1.03 (95% CI, 0.60–1.77). FVIII consumption was significantly lower in BAY 94-9027 [mean adjusted difference=−1292.57 IU/kg/year (95% CI, ‒2152.44 to ‒432.70)]; a 26.7% reduction in consumption of BAY-94-9027. The results of the sensitivity analyses were similar to the main analysis for mean ABRs, percentages of patients with zero bleeds, and significant reduction in rFVIII consumption. For patients on BAY 94-9027 every-5-days and every-7-days, no differences versus every-4-days N8-GP were observed for the mean ABR for any bleed [IRR=0.90 (95% CI, 0.68‒1.20)] and proportion of patients with zero bleeds [OR=1.06 (95% CI, 0.56‒2.02)].

Conclusion

BAY 94-9027 prophylaxis demonstrated 26.7% lower annual consumption when compared to N8-GP with similar efficacy in terms of ABR and percentage of patients with zero bleeds.

Patients' and parents' satisfaction with, and preference for, haemophilia A treatments: a cross-sectional, multicentre, observational study

INTRODUCTION

Reports on patients' satisfaction and preferred characteristics for treatments would be worthwhile when choosing an optimal treatment reflecting patients' perspectives.

AIM

To identify the characteristics and treatment patterns of patients with haemophilia A, or their caregivers, in Korea and explore patient preferences and satisfaction with their treatment.

METHODS

This cross-sectional, multicentre, observational study was conducted from April 2018 to September 2019 at six nationwide hospitals and three Korea Hemophilia Foundation clinics. Patients aged ≥16 years, or legal caregivers of paediatric patients, who had used factor VIII (FVIII) concentrates for ≥1 month were enrolled. Satisfaction with treatment was measured using the Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire for Medication (TSQM); preference was evaluated using discrete choice experiment (DCE), with 10 series of two hypothetical treatment options created from D-efficient block design, which varied across five attributes.

RESULTS

Overall, 505 patients (mean age 31 years) were enrolled in the study. Patients had received FVIII concentrate for an average of 102.9 months (prophylaxis: 53.5%; on-demand: 22.2%). Mean TSQM scores were 64.6 (effectiveness domain), 97.9 (side effects), 57.1 (convenience) and 66.8 (global satisfaction). The number of vials per injection, and the frequency of drug administration, was significantly associated with treatment satisfaction. According to DCE, simpler treatment options were preferred by patients/caregivers.

CONCLUSION

The lowest satisfaction levels were shown in the treatment convenience domain. Patients/parents preferred simpler and easier treatment characteristics. In an attempt to enhance the overall satisfaction of patients and caregivers with treatment, consideration of more convenient characteristics is required in future decisions regarding treatment selection.

Differences in the Selection of Health State Utility Values by Sponsorship in Published Cost-Effectiveness Analyses

BACKGROUND

Health state utility values (HSUVs) are among the most influential attributes of cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs). Our objective was to evaluate whether industry-funded studies select systematically different HSUVs as compared with studies without industry funding.

METHODS

Among 10 diseases with high disease burden in the United States, we further identified 31 progressive health states. We then searched the Tufts Medical Center's CEA Registry to identify studies that included HSUVs and were submitted to the registry between 2002 and 2019. Two reviewers mapped the free-text descriptions of health states onto the 31 predefined health states. We analyzed the effect of industry funding on the point estimates of these HSUVs with a beta regression. We also analyzed the difference between related health states within studies by funding source with a linear regression.

RESULTS

After identifying 26,222 HSUVs from 4198 CEAs, we matched 2573 HSUVs to the 31 predefined health states. We observed large variations within each health state: 12 of 31 health states included a range of HSUVs greater than 0.5. The point estimate model showed 1 statistically significant difference of 31 comparisons between studies with any industry funding and those without. The utility difference model found 3 significant differences out of 39 comparisons between CEAs with any industry funding and those without.

LIMITATIONS

Inclusion of unpublished CEAs may have affected our conclusions about the effect of industry funding on selection of HSUVs. We also relied on free-text descriptions of health states available in the CEA Registry and did not include adjustment for multiple comparisons.

CONCLUSION

Limited evidence exists that industry-funded studies select different HSUVs compared to non-industry-funded studies for the health states we considered.

Hemophilia Gene Therapy: Approaching the First Licensed Product

The clinical potential of hemophilia gene therapy has now been pursued for the past 30 years, and there is a realistic expectation that this goal will be achieved within the next couple of years with the licensing of a gene therapy product. While recent late phase clinical trials of hemophilia gene therapy have shown promising results, there remain a number of issues that require further attention with regard to both efficacy and safety of this therapeutic approach. In this review, we present information relating to the current status of the field and focus attention on the unanswered questions for hemophilia gene therapy and the future challenges that need to be overcome to enable the widespread application of this treatment paradigm.

Reflections on the Importance of Cost of Illness Analysis in Rare Diseases: A Proposal

In the field of rare diseases (RDs), the evidence standard is often lower than that required by health technology assessment (HTA) and payer authorities. In this commentary, we propose that appropriate economic evaluation for rare disease treatments should be initially informed by cost-of-illness (COI) studies conducted using a societal perspective. Such an approach contributes to improving countries' understanding of RDs in their entirety as societal and not merely clinical, or product-specific issues. In order to exemplify how the disease burden's distribution has changed over the last fifteen years, key COI studies for Hemophilia, Fragile X Syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis are examined. Evidence shows that, besides methodological variability and cross-country differences, the disease burden's share represented by direct costs generally grows over time as novel treatments become available. Hence, to support effective decision-making processes, it seems necessary to assess the re-allocation of the burden produced by new medicinal products, and this approach requires identifying cost drivers through COI studies with robust design and standardized methodology.

An overview of patients with haemophilia A in China: Epidemiology, disease severity and treatment strategies

INTRODUCTION

Haemophilia A (HA) is a rare X chromosome-linked bleeding disorder resulting in missing or defective clotting factor VIII (FVIII) and causes large disease burden.

AIM

As a member of World Federation of Hemophilia, China seeks to understand the current epidemiology, disease profile and treatment landscape of patients with HA through the Hemophilia Treatment Center Collaboration Network of China (HTCCNC).

METHODS

The HTCCNC enabled data collection on patients with HA from 166 member hospitals (2007-2019) across China. The distribution of patients across 31 divisions was summarized using a heat map. Patient demographics, disease severity and clinical and treatment information were summarized using descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

HTCCNC identified 17,779 patients with HA during 2007-2019. Patients were predominantly male (99.99%), and 28.3% had a known family history of haemophilia. Among patients with lab-measured disease severity (N = 13,116), 6,519 had severe HA (49.7%), 4,788 had moderate HA (36.5%), and 1,809 had mild HA (13.8%). Among patients with information on the delays, delays in diagnosis and in treatment initiation were observed in 1,437 (28.8%) and 1,750 (39.2%) patients, respectively. On average, those patients had an 8.4 years gap between the first bleed and HA diagnosis and a delay of 8.6 years from the first bleed to treatment initiation. Additionally, 44.33% of patients relied solely on episodic treatments, and 16.2% received any prophylaxis treatments.

CONCLUSIONS

Using data from the largest haemophilia registry in China, this study indicated that delayed diagnosis and treatment, together with low utilization of prophylaxis, are key challenges for patients with HA.

The societal burden of haemophilia A. I - A snapshot of haemophilia A in Australia and beyond

INTRODUCTION

Few studies, both in Australia and overseas, have examined the social impacts of living with haemophilia A (HA) or the economic costs associated with the disorder. The purpose of this paper is to examine the epidemiology and societal burden of people with HA (PwHA) in Australia, with a particular focus on men with this disorder.

METHODS

The epidemiology and societal burden of HA in Australia, with a particular focus on men with this disorder, were assessed, using data available in the Australian and international literature and publicly available data.

RESULTS

The mean annual prevalence of HA is approximately 1-2 per 10 000 males. Prophylactic treatment is used in one-quarter (25.1%) of people with moderate HA, and 82.2% of people with severe HA. Within the latter group, 16.1% have inhibitors for Factor VIII, predisposing them to worse morbidity, mortality and quality of life when compared to the non-inhibitor population. Joint pain and joint disease occur commonly in PwHA, with up to 70% of adults with HA experiencing joint problems. HA is associated with poor physical health, and PwHA miss school and work due to bleeding-related events.

CONCLUSION

HA is associated with substantial economic burden; with large differences in costs reported between countries. Overall, HA imposes a significant burden of disease on PwHA, their families and the community at large.

Prevalence of FVIII Inhibitors Among Children with Hemophilia A: Experience at the Jordanian Royal Medical Services

Introduction:

Replacement therapy is constantly required by Hemophilia A (HA) patients lacking coagulation factor VIII (FVIII). The most serious complication of this treatment is the development of neutralizing antibodies (inhibitors).

Aim:

The aim of this study is to determine the frequency of FVIII inhibitors among children treated for HA at the Jordanian Royal Medical Services.

Methods:

A total of 165 diagnosed HA patients receiving on-demand treatment, were tested for FVIII inhibitors between 2003 and 2018. The age range was 6 months to 16 years. Coagulation and inhibitor screening assays were performed, followed by Bethesda assay for inhibitor-positive samples to quantify FVIII inhibitor titers.

Results:

Out of the 165 patients, 111 had severe hemophilia with FVIII level < 1%, 26 had moderate hemophilia with FVIII levels of 1–5% and 28 had mild hemophilia with FVIII levels of > 5%. Twenty patients had FVIII inhibitors, of whom 18 had high titers, 2 had low titers. The mean inhibitor level in low (titer) responders was 2.40 ± 0.85 BU, as opposed to 116.25 ±169.25 BU in high (titer) responders. In terms of disease severity, 18 of the 20 patients with FVIII inhibitors had severe HA, whereas two had moderate HA. No inhibitors were encountered in the mild HA group.

Conclusion:

Inhibitors only developed in moderate and severe cases of HA. The severity of the disease and age were the main contributing factors. The association between family history of inhibitors and the incidence of inhibitor formation warrants genetic evaluations to look for relevant mutations.

Assessing the potential cost-effectiveness of a gene therapy for the treatment of hemophilia A

Aim: Hemophilia A is a genetic, chronic disorder classified by deficient or defective coagulation factor VIII (FVIII) that puts those affected at risk for spontaneous bleeding episodes, which lead to joint damage and chronic pain over time. Currently, most severe hemophilia A patients are treated with prophylactic FVIII, which requires costly and frequent infusions and life-long adherence to medication. A gene therapy (valoctocogene roxaparvovec) is currently in development for the treatment of severe hemophilia A. This model assessed the potential cost-effectiveness of treating patients with valoctocogene roxaparvovec rather than prophylactic therapy.Materials and methods: We developed an individual-based, state-transition microsimulation model for assessing the likely cost-effectiveness of valoctocogene roxaparvovec compared to prophylactic FVIII. Men aged 30 with severe hemophilia A were modeled over a lifetime horizon, and costs were reported from the perspective of the United States health care system. Through microsimulation, patient-level heterogeneity was captured in starting weight, starting Pettersson score (PS), durability of valoctocogene roxaparvovec, and annual bleed rate (ABR).Results: The model projects that treatment with single-administration valoctocogene roxaparvovec would be cost-saving to people with hemophilia A at a price point comparable to other currently available gene therapy products due to its potential to reduce FVIII utilization, direct medical costs, lifetime bleeds, and accumulated joint damage.Limitations: The model relies upon evidence-based assumptions for clinical inputs due to limited data availability. Such uncertainty was mitigated by modeling heterogeneity across the population, specifically with regards to long-term gene therapy durability, lifetime bleed rates, and joint damage progression.Conclusion: Valoctocogene roxaparvovec was found to be cost-saving-on average by about $6.8 million per patient-and more effective than prophylactic therapy for treatment of hemophilia A. The comparative benefit of gene therapy was observed across a broad range of simulated patients that were representative of the real-world severe hemophilia A population.

Treatment of Hemophilia A Using Factor VIII Messenger RNA Lipid Nanoparticles

Hemophilia A (HemA) patients are currently treated with costly and inconvenient replacement therapy of short-lived factor VIII (FVIII) protein. Development of lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-encapsulated mRNA encoding FVIII can change this paradigm. LNP technology constitutes a biocompatible and scalable system to efficiently package and deliver mRNA to the target site. Mice intravenously infused with the luciferase mRNA LNPs showed luminescence signals predominantly in the liver 4 h after injection. Repeated injections of LNPs did not induce elevation of liver transaminases. We next injected LNPs carrying mRNAs encoding different variants of human FVIII (F8 LNPs) into HemA mice. A single injection of B domain-deleted F8 LNPs using different dosing regimens achieved a wide range of therapeutic activities rapidly, which can be beneficial for various usages in hemophilia treatment. The expression slowly declined yet remained above therapeutic levels up to 5–7 days post-injection. Furthermore, routine repeated injections of F8 LNPs in immunodeficient mice produced consistent expression of FVIII over time. In conclusion, F8 LNP treatment produced rapid and prolonged duration of FVIII expression that could be applied to prophylactic treatment and potentially various other treatment options. Our study showed potential for a safe and effective platform of new mRNA therapies for HemA.

Antithrombin inhibition using nanobodies to correct bleeding in hemophilia

In this issue of EMBO Molecular Medicine, Barbon et al describe a new approach to rebalancing coagulation in patients with hemophilia (PWH) through targeted inhibition of anticoagulant antithrombin (AT) (Barbon et al, 2020). In contrast to previous studies that used RNA interference (RNAi) therapy to reduce AT levels (Sehgal et al, 2015; Pasi et al, 2017), the authors utilized llama‐derived single‐domain antibodies (sdAbs or nanobodies) to inhibit AT activity (Fig 1). These engineered sdAbs successfully restored thrombin generation in hemophilic plasma and corrected bleeding phenotype in a murine hemophilia model. Furthermore, long‐term AAV8‐mediated hepatic expression of the sdAb was well tolerated and associated with a sustained correction in bleeding in hemophilia A and B mice. Collectively, these exciting data uncover a novel AT‐targeting approach that may be useful as an alternative therapy for restoring normal hemostasis in PWH.

The cost of hemophilia treatment: the importance of minimizing it without detriment to its quality

Introduction: Hemophilia is a very expensive disease. Ameliorations in the management of hemophilia cause increased patient survival, more complex disease management, and augmented treatment costs. A literature search related to the cost of hemophilia was analyzed.Areas covered: Clotting factor concentrates, which are the keystone of management, are costly. In fact, the yearly expenditure in the USA is 250,000 USD per adult patient. Indirect expenses also play a part in the economic load, and include lost productive capacity, uncompensated caretaker tariffs, and hemophilia-related physical handicap. Factor concentrates are responsible for more than 90% of the direct health-care expenditures of hemophilia. In an evaluation of the cost of management with high-dose prophylaxis in previously untreated patients from childbirth to puberty, including immune tolerance induction (ITI), the average annual treatment cost (Euros per kilogram) was 4391 EUR (approximately 4865 USD), and the average ITI cost was 383,448 EUR (approximately 424,860 USD). The expected ITI recovery period in the aforementioned evaluation was 1.8 years. To reduce costs, strategies such as disease management programs and drug pricing programs have also been implemented.Expert opinion: Knowing the current cost of hemophilia is essential to ensure that patients are treated as efficiently as possible.

Eptacog beta: a novel recombinant human factor VIIa for the treatment of hemophilia A and B with inhibitors

INTRODUCTION

Hemophilia A and B are X-linked recessive disorders caused by the deficiency of factor VIII or factor IX, respectively. Bleeding episodes are treated with factor replacement therapy. The most serious complication of this treatment is the development of inhibitors. In such patients, bypassing agents, such as activated recombinant human factor VII (rhFVIIa) or plasma-derived activated prothrombin complex concentrates, are administered to prevent or treat bleeding episodes. The high cost of the current bypassing agents limits their availability in emerging countries. Areas covered: Authors reviewed the published data on the development and clinical testing of eptacog beta, a new second-generation rhFVIIa produced in the milk of transgenic rabbits. The available data indicate that activated eptacog beta exhibits structural (N- and O- glycosylation), pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic characteristics similar to activated eptacog alfa, its main competitor, but binds slightly better to platelets and HUVEC, and it is safe and effective. Expert commentary: This critical review of available data on activated eptacog beta shows that it represents an alternative source of rhFVIIa at potentially lower cost with easily expandable manufacturing capacity that could contribute to cover the future patient needs.