The effects of urbanization on population density, occupancy, and detection probability of wild felids

Microplastic contamination in threatened wild felids of India: Understanding environmental uptake, feeding implications, and associated risks

While the presence of microplastics (MPs, <5 mm) in various aquatic organisms is well-documented, studies on the accumulation of MPs in terrestrial predators remain limited worldwide, including in India. This study aims to evaluate, for the first time, the occurrence of MPs in the scat of mid-sized felids-fishing cat and jungle cat-from their overlapping habitat in the Gangetic Estuary of India. The risk assessment of MPs and management recommendation for MP mitigation was also discussed in this context. Notably, our study is the first to report the presence of MPs and mesoplastics in fishing cat from India and jungle cat globally. The abundance of MPs was found to be higher in jungle cat (12.6 ± 1.93 MP/g d.w) compared to fishing cat (10.5 ± 2.12 MP/g d.w) in the Gangetic estuary. Furthermore, fiber-shaped (70.37%) and 1-5 mm-sized (47.73%) MPs predominated in both felid species, while fiber bundles were observed only in jungle cat. Red-colored MPs (27.62%) were predominantly found in fishing cat, whereas transparent MPs (33.33%) were more common in jungle cat. Scanning electron microscopy revealed possible environmental and digestive degradation marks on the MPs. A total of seven synthetic and one natural polymer were identified, with Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (55.56%) being predominant in fishing cat and Polyethylene (33.33%) more common in jungle cat. Polymer risk assessment indicated that the MPs in fishing cat fall into the danger category, Group IV (PHI 100-1000), while jungle cat possess high threat under extreme danger category, Group V (PHI >1000). The observed MPs and mesoplastics in felids probably come from adjacent environmental uptake and/or accumulate through trophic transfer from prey items. The evidence of MPs in felids may pose a threat to the big cat-Royal Bengal tigers in the Sundarbans. Therefore, various landscape-based policy implementations are recommended to mitigate MP pollution.

Canine distemper virus phylogenetic structure and ecological correlates of infection in mesocarnivores across anthropogenic land use gradients

Anthropogenic land use impacts infectious diseases at the wildlife-domestic-human interface by changing host spatial distribution, behavior, density, and population dynamics. Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in many wild and domestic animals. Given the propensity of CDV to infect synanthropic mesocarnivores, it is important to investigate host and environmental factors affecting mesocarnivore CDV infection. Here, we investigated patterns of CDV infection and developed a statistical model to identify environmental variables related to CDV risk in commonly affected mesocarnivores. We sampled carcasses (N = 270) submitted to the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study from January 2019 to December 2022 and sequenced the CDV H-gene of 32 CDV-positive animals. Overall, 158 out of 270 mesocarnivores (58.5%) and four species (raccoon, red fox, gray fox, and striped skunk) were diagnosed with CDV across 13 states. Ripley's K analysis showed positive cases were more spatially clustered at larger distances than expected due to chance. A generalized linear model for CDV-infected animals showed surface imperviousness, precipitation, and subadult/adult age classes were significant positive explanatory variables, but elevation had a significant negative association with CDV infection likelihood. H-gene sequence diversity among wild mesocarnivores in the southeastern United States was geographically separated into groups east and west of the Mississippi River, with only two eastern samples clustering with western groups. By identifying areas of intense human development at the highest risk for CDV, it may be possible to focus surveillance efforts in these areas, allowing for earlier outbreak identification, potentially preventing cross-species CDV transmission.

IMPORTANCE

Anthropogenic land use change can impact infectious disease spread by altering animal distribution and behavior. Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in wild and domestic carnivores. This study investigated how land use influences CDV infection in wild carnivores by examining tissues collected between 2019 and 2022 from wild carnivores found dead in the southeastern United States. CDV strains were geographically distinct, with differences between populations east and west of the Mississippi river. Statistical models showed areas with increased human development and higher precipitation had higher CDV risk; however, there was lower risk associated with higher elevations and younger animals. The importance of this study is that it identifies geographic structure of CDV in the southern United States, and identifies land-use associations with potential high-risk areas for CDV transmission-information that is useful for wildlife disease surveillance and control strategies.

Coyote use of prairie dog colonies is most frequent in areas used by American badgers

The consequences of intraguild predation on vulnerable subordinate species are an important consideration in the recovery of endangered species. In prairie ecosystems, coyotes (Canis latrans) are the primary predator of endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes; hereafter, ferrets) and presumably compete for prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) prey. Coyote predation of ferrets is thought to occur at night when ferrets are active aboveground; however, the apparent source of competition, diurnal prairie dogs, are belowground and inaccessible to coyotes at this time, presenting a perplexing temporal mismatch between actual and expected times that coyotes and ferrets come into conflict. Our study used remote wildlife cameras, occupancy models, and overlap of circadian activity patterns to investigate how landscape features, prairie dog colony attributes, and attraction to sympatric species, i.e., American badgers (Taxidea taxus; hereafter, badgers) and lagomorphs (cottontail rabbits and jackrabbits) influence Coyote use of prairie dog colonies and potential Coyote-ferret interactions. We first evaluated Coyote use (i.e., occupancy) between prairie dog colonies and surrounding available grasslands, finding that coyotes whose home ranges include prairie dog colonies used colonies nearly twice as much as surrounding grasslands. Next, we investigated biotic and abiotic factors that may influence Coyote use and frequency of use (i.e., detection probability) on prairie dog colonies. We found high Coyote use across all areas on prairie dog colonies; however, their frequency of use increased in areas that were also used by badgers. High overlap between Coyote and badger activity patterns (81%) further supports the spatial use patterns revealed by our occupancy analysis, and badgers and coyotes are known to form hunting associations. Interspecific competition and overlapping patterns of resource use between badgers and ferrets have been documented in previous studies; our study supports these findings and suggests that Coyote attraction to badger activity may influence Coyote-ferret interactions.

Do Mesocarnivores Respond to the Seasonality in Management Practices in an Agroforestry Landscape?

In the Mediterranean, we find a mosaic of natural and cultural landscapes, where a variety of forest management practices created intermediate disturbance regimes that potentially increased biodiversity values. Nonetheless, it is essential to understand the species' long-term response to the dynamic management in agroecosystems, since the species tolerance to disturbance can change throughout the life cycle. Mammalian carnivores can be sensitive to human disturbance and are an essential part of ecosystems due to their regulatory and community structuring effects. We investigated the spatial response of five mesocarnivores species to spatially- and temporally- varying management practices in an agroforestry landscape. More specifically, we assessed the mesocarnivores' temporal changes in space use by implementing multi-season occupancy models in a Bayesian framework, using seasonal camera-trapping surveys for a 2-year period. All species had a weak response of local extinction to forestry management and livestock grazing pressure. For forest-dwelling species, occupancy was higher where productivity of perennial vegetation was high, while colonization between seasons was positively associated with vegetation cover. For habitat generalist species, we found that occupancy in the wet season increased with the distance to cattle exclusion plots. Most of these plots are pine stands which are subject to forestry interventions during winter. During the 2-year period we found seasonal fluctuations in occupancy for all species, with an overall slight decrease for three mesocarnivore species, while for the two forest-dwelling species there was an increase in occupancy between years. The weak species response to management practices supports the importance of traditional management for upholding a diverse mesocarnivore community in agroforestry systems but could also reflect these species' ecological plasticity and resilience to disturbance.

Population density and ranging behaviour of a generalist carnivore varies with human population

Canid species are highly adaptable, including to urban and peri-urban areas, where they can come into close contact with people. Understanding the mechanisms of wild canid population persistence in these areas is key to managing any negative impacts. The resource dispersion hypothesis predicts that animal density increases and home range size decreases as resource concentration increases, and may help to explain how canids are distributed in environments with an urban-natural gradient. In Australia, dingoes have adapted to human presence, sometimes living in close proximity to towns. Using a targeted camera trap survey and spatial capture-recapture models, we estimated spatial variation in the population density and detection rates of dingoes on Worimi Country in the Great Lakes region of the NSW coast. We tested whether dingo home range and population densities varied across a gradient of human population density, in a mixed-use landscape including, urban, peri-urban, and National Park environs. We found human population density to be a strong driver of dingo density (ranging from 0.025 to 0.433 dingoes/km2 across the natural-urban gradient), and to have a negative effect on dingo home range size. The spatial scale parameter changed depending on survey period, being smaller in the peak tourism period, when human population increases in the area, than in adjacent survey periods, potentially indicating reduced home range size when additional resources are available. Our study highlights the potential value of managing anthropogenic resource availability to manage carnivore densities and potential risk of human-carnivore interactions.

Assessing mammal population densities in response to urbanization using camera trap distance sampling

Environmental filtering is deemed to play a predominant role in regulating the abundance and distribution of animals during the urbanization process. However, the current knowledge about the effects of urbanization on the population densities of terrestrial mammals is limited. In this study, we compared two invasive mammals (dogs Canis lupus familiaris and cats Felis silvestris) and three indigenous mammals (Siberian weasels Mustela sibirica, Amur hedgehogs Erinaceus amurensis, and Tolai hares Lepus tolai) in response to urbanization using camera trap distance sampling (CTDS) in the rural-urban landscape of Tianjin, China. We used generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) to test the specific responses of their densities to levels of urbanization. Invasive dogs (2.63 individuals/km2, 95% CI: 0.91-7.62) exhibited similar density estimations to cats (2.15 individuals/km2, 95% CI: 1.31-3.50). Amur hedgehogs were the most abundant species (6.73 individuals/km2, 95% CI: 3.15-14.38), followed by Tolai hares (2.22 individuals/km2, 95% CI: 0.87-5.68) and Siberian weasels (2.15 individuals/km2, 95% CI: 1.06-4.36). The densities of cats, Siberian weasels, and Amur hedgehogs increased with the level of urbanization. The population densities of dogs and cats were only influenced by urban-related variables, while the densities of Siberian weasels and Amur hedgehogs were influenced by both urban-related variables and nature-related variables. Our findings highlight that the CTDS is a suitable and promising method for wildlife surveys in rural-urban landscapes, and urban wildlife management needs to consider the integrated repercussions of urban- and nature-related factors, especially the critical impacts of green space habitats at finer scales.

Assessing microhabitat, landscape features and intraguild relationships in the occupancy of the enigmatic and threatened Andean tiger cat (Leopardus tigrinus pardinoides) in the cloud forests of northwestern Colombia

Mesocarnivores play a key role in ecosystem dynamics through the regulation of prey populations and are sensitive to environmental changes; thus, they are often considered good model organisms for conservation planning. However, data regarding the factors that influence the habitat use of threatened small wild felids such as the Andean tiger cat (Leopardus tigrinus pardinoides) are scarce. We conducted a two-year survey with 58 camera trap stations to evaluate the determinants of Andean tiger cat habitat use in three protected areas in the Middle Cauca, Colombia. We developed site occupancy models and found that Andean tiger cat habitat use increased with leaf litter depth at intermediate elevations and far from human settlements. Through conditional cooccurrence models, we found that Andean tiger cat habitat use was invariant to the presence of prey or potential intraguild competitors and killers/predators, but its detectability increased when they were present and detected. This suggests that Andean tiger cats may be more likely to be detected in sites with high prey availability. We found that Andean tiger cats preferred sites with deep leaf litter, which is a particular feature of cloud forests that provides suitable conditions for ambush hunting and hiding from intraguild enemies. Our results showed that Andean tiger cats avoided human settlements, which may minimize potential mortality risks in those areas. Moreover, the restricted use of middle elevations by Andean tiger cats suggested that they could be used as a sentinel species to track the effects of climate change since their suitable habitat is likely to be projected upward in elevation. Future conservation actions must be focused on identifying and mitigating human-related threats close to the Andean tiger cat habitat while preserving microhabitat conditions and the existing networks of protected areas.

Critical pedagogy of place to enhance ecological engagement activities

Scientists in higher education institutions around the globe recognize the importance of engaging with public stakeholders to share their enthusiasm, explain their science, and encourage primary and secondary students to enter the sciences. However, without direct consideration of students' and teachers' perspectives and interests, scientists may design activities around their own goals, limiting the impact on school stakeholders (i.e., students, teachers, paraprofessional staff, students' parents, and other caregivers). We drew from natural and social science research to describe how expanding the conception of place beyond the biophysical can help engage school stakeholders in meaningful ways. We describe the multidimensional PLACE framework that we developed to integrate perspectives, knowledge, and values of all stakeholders in engagement programming. The framework is organized around topics that stakeholders should discuss early on to ensure successful partnerships. We recommend that scientists identify and use pedagogy that is inclusive; language framed around dialogic communication methods; aims and motivations centered on engagement; cultural funds of knowledge of place (i.e., disciplinary, personal, or experiential knowledge); and evaluation of engagement based on meaningful metrics. Two case studies are presented to illustrate how the PLACE framework components, when addressed, can lead to robust, successful partnerships between scientists and schools.

Spatial capture-recapture and LiDAR-derived vegetation metrics reveal high densities of ocelots on Texas ranchlands

Reliable estimates of population density and size are crucial to wildlife conservation, particularly in the context of the Endangered Species Act. In the United States, ocelots (Leopardus pardalis pardalis) were listed as endangered in 1982, and to date, only one population density estimate has been reported in Texas. In this study, we integrated vegetation metrics derived from LiDAR and spatial capture-recapture models to discern factors of ocelot encounter rates and estimated localized population estimates on private ranchlands in coastal southern Texas. From September 2020 to May 2021, we conducted a camera trap study across 42 camera stations on the East Foundation’s El Sauz Ranch, which was positioned within a larger region of highly suitable woody and herbaceous cover for ocelots. We observed a high density of ocelots (17.6 ocelots/100 km2) and a population size of 36.3 ocelots (95% CI: 26.1–58.6) with the 206.25 km2 state space area of habitat. The encounter probability of ocelots increased with greater canopy cover at 1-2 m height and decreasing proximity to woody cover. These results suggest that the incorporation of LiDAR-derived vegetative canopy metrics allowed us to understand where ocelots are likely to be detected, which may aid in current and future population monitoring efforts. These population estimates reflect the first spatially explicit and most recent estimates in a portion of the northernmost population of ocelots in southern Texas. This study further demonstrates the importance of private working lands for the recovery of ocelots in Texas.

Predictors of Mammalian Diversity in the New York Metropolitan Area

Urbanization can have profound consequences for mammalian biodiversity and is thought to contribute to patterns of species richness and community composition. Large cities can be particularly challenging environments for mammals because these habitats are often impacted by anthropogenic perturbations, including high human population density, fragmented habitats, and extensive human development. In this study, we investigated mammalian species richness, Shannon–Wiener diversity, and evenness in the most densely populated region in the United States: the New York metropolitan area. Specifically, we deployed camera traps from 2015 to 2019 to investigate six drivers of mammalian diversity across 31 greenspaces: (1) human population density, (2) patch size, (3) habitat type, (4) surrounding land cover, (5) geographical barriers to dispersal, and (6) habitat heterogeneity. We found that mammal community composition is largely influenced by a multitude of anthropogenic factors. Specifically, mammal species richness was higher in greenspaces with larger patch sizes and lower in greenspaces surrounded by more development. Moreover, Shannon–Wiener diversity and evenness were higher in urban natural landscapes than human-altered landscapes. In a subset of data that only included carnivores, we found that carnivore Shannon–Wiener diversity was higher in urban natural habitats and in sites with lower human population densities. Finally, we found that geographical barriers to dispersal contributed to both patterns of mammalian diversity and patterns of carnivore diversity: mammal taxa richness, Shannon–Wiener diversity, and evenness were all significantly higher on the continent (Bronx/Westchester) than on Long Island. These results suggest that preserving urban greenspaces is important for maintaining both mammalian and carnivore biodiversity and that management of mammals in cities should concentrate on maintaining large, connected, natural greenspaces.

“I Did, I Did Taw a Puddy Tat!” Pumas in Urban Ecosystems of Latin America: A Review of the Mediatic Information

The concentration of people living in small areas has increased in the last decade, with more than half of the world's population living in cities. This is particularly true for Latin America, a region with no particular high contribution to the world total population, but hosts several large cities. The increase in urbanization causes several threats to wildlife that face the loss of their habitat and novel environmental pressures. As the number of wildlife entering cities seems to have increased in the last year, we characterize the temporal and geographical events of a widely distributed carnivore, the puma, Puma concolor. We performed an exhaustive search for media news regarding the sighting, capture, and/or killing of pumas within human settlement areas, and tried to relate them with potential explanatory variables. We found a total of 162 events in Latin America in a period of the last 10 years, particularly concentrated in the year 2020. Most records came from Brazil, followed by Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. Of the total, 41% were only sightings, 58% were captures, and a minor percentage were considered as mascotism. Almost the same number of records came from highly populated areas (cities) than from low populated areas (rural) but with important differences between countries. The countries with more records in urban areas (Brazil and Mexico) showed a larger surface occupied by cities. The countries with most records in rural areas (Argentina and Chile) present the opposite pattern of occupied surface. This might indicate that different percentages of areas dedicated to cities or urban spaces might explain the differences among countries. The most important variable related to puma events in the populated areas was sky brightness, while human density and cattle density explained minor parts. The “anthropause” due to the COVID-19 pandemic might explain the larger number of records from 2020, while the absence of high-quality habitats due to fragmentation and high cattle density, might force the pumas to enter populated areas searching for food. Minor values of night lights could be related to a facilitation of efficiency of foraging behavior. Although some bias might exist in the data, the results should be taken into account as general statements for all analyzed countries.

Puma concolor potential distribution and connectivity in the Colombian Llanos

Understanding species distribution to target biodiversity conservation actions in countries with high biodiversity, scarce data availability and low study sites accessibility is very challenging. These issues limit management and conservation actions even on charismatic and potentially conflictive species like large carnivores. We developed a geographic assessment of the potential distribution, core patches and connectivity areas for Puma concolor in the Colombian Llanos (Orinoco region). To create this geographic representation, we used methodological approaches that work with scarce information and still provide a spatially-explicit distribution that could be used by stakeholders. Our results show the importance that the Llanos region has for the conservation of the species and the potential role that can have to ensure a resident long-term population. Based on our approach, more than 50,000 km2 (near to 30% of the study area) can be still considered as core habitats for the species, and most of them are still connected, with spatial gaps lower than the estimated dispersal distance of the species and several remaining steppingstones. Further research is required to validate our analysis and we expect our results can target research and conservation priorities within the region.

Hunting alters viral transmission and evolution in a large carnivore

Hunting can fundamentally alter wildlife population dynamics but the consequences of hunting on pathogen transmission and evolution remain poorly understood. Here, we present a study that leverages a unique landscape-scale quasi-experiment coupled with pathogen-transmission tracing, network simulation and phylodynamics to provide insights into how hunting shapes feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) dynamics in puma (Puma concolor). We show that removing hunting pressure enhances the role of males in transmission, increases the viral population growth rate and increases the role of evolutionary forces on the pathogen compared to when hunting was reinstated. Changes in transmission observed with the removal of hunting could be linked to short-term social changes while the male puma population increased. These findings are supported through comparison with a region with stable hunting management over the same time period. This study shows that routine wildlife management can have impacts on pathogen transmission and evolution not previously considered.

Ocelot density and habitat use in Tamaulipan thornshrub and tropical deciduous forests in Northeastern México

Northeastern México is one of the most diverse regions in the country with high mammal richness. This region also sits on the northern periphery of the geographic distribution of ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), which are listed as endangered in México. Ocelot ecology in northeastern México is poorly known at local and landscape levels, especially in the ecologically rich temperate sierras, a perceived stronghold for ocelots. We used an occupancy approach to estimate ocelot-habitat use in Tamaulipan thornshrub and tropical deciduous forests and a spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) framework to estimate density of ocelots in the northern edge of the Sierra Tamaulipas, México. From May to December 2009, we conducted two camera trap surveys (summer: 20 camera stations; fall: 58 camera stations) on Rancho Caracol and Rancho Camotal, north of the Rio Soto de La Marina. We found ocelot detections were higher in areas with increasing patch density of tropical deciduous forest and habitat use was greater in Tamaulipan thornshrub and tropical deciduous forests with lower edge densities. Ocelot densities varied by sex, with females achieving greater densities (7.88 ocelots/100 km2 [95% CI: 4.85–12.81]) than males (3.81 ocelots/100 km2 [95% CI: 1.96–7.43]). Ocelots were averse to areas with high densities of edge cover in each woody community, supporting the notion of a forest patch interior species. Despite the study occurring 11 years ago, population densities were also among the highest reported in México using spatially explicit capture–recapture methods, The high ecological integrity of the habitat within the Sierra de Tamaulipas, recent protection as a Biosphere Reserve, and remote rugged terrain suggest long-term security of the ocelot population in this region.

Disturbance type and species life history predict mammal responses to humans

Human activity and land use change impact every landscape on Earth, driving declines in many animal species while benefiting others. Species ecological and life history traits may predict success in human-dominated landscapes such that only species with "winning" combinations of traits will persist in disturbed environments. However, this link between species traits and successful coexistence with humans remains obscured by the complexity of anthropogenic disturbances and variability among study systems. We compiled detection data for 24 mammal species from 61 populations across North America to quantify the effects of (1) the direct presence of people and (2) the human footprint (landscape modification) on mammal occurrence and activity levels. Thirty-three percent of mammal species exhibited a net negative response (i.e., reduced occurrence or activity) to increasing human presence and/or footprint across populations, whereas 58% of species were positively associated with increasing disturbance. However, apparent benefits of human presence and footprint tended to decrease or disappear at higher disturbance levels, indicative of thresholds in mammal species' capacity to tolerate disturbance or exploit human-dominated landscapes. Species ecological and life history traits were strong predictors of their responses to human footprint, with increasing footprint favoring smaller, less carnivorous, faster-reproducing species. The positive and negative effects of human presence were distributed more randomly with respect to species trait values, with apparent winners and losers across a range of body sizes and dietary guilds. Differential responses by some species to human presence and human footprint highlight the importance of considering these two forms of human disturbance separately when estimating anthropogenic impacts on wildlife. Our approach provides insights into the complex mechanisms through which human activities shape mammal communities globally, revealing the drivers of the loss of larger predators in human-modified landscapes.

The Contribution of Wildlife Hosts to the Rise of Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in North America

Wildlife vertebrate hosts are integral to enzootic cycles of tick-borne pathogens, and in some cases have played key roles in the recent rise of ticks and tick-borne diseases in North America. In this forum article, we highlight roles that wildlife hosts play in the maintenance and transmission of zoonotic, companion animal, livestock, and wildlife tick-borne pathogens. We begin by illustrating how wildlife contribute directly and indirectly to the increase and geographic expansion of ticks and their associated pathogens. Wildlife provide blood meals for tick growth and reproduction; serve as pathogen reservoirs; and can disperse ticks and pathogens-either through natural movement (e.g., avian migration) or through human-facilitated movement (e.g., wildlife translocations and trade). We then discuss opportunities to manage tick-borne disease through actions directed at wildlife hosts. To conclude, we highlight key gaps in our understanding of the ecology of tick-host interactions, emphasizing that wildlife host communities are themselves a very dynamic component of tick-pathogen-host systems and therefore complicate management of tick-borne diseases, and should be taken into account when considering host-targeted approaches. Effective management of wildlife to reduce tick-borne disease risk further requires consideration of the 'human dimensions' of wildlife management. This includes understanding the public's diverse views and values about wildlife and wildlife impacts-including the perceived role of wildlife in fostering tick-borne diseases. Public health agencies should capitalize on the expertise of wildlife agencies when developing strategies to reduce tick-borne disease risks.

Will Rural Collective-Owned Commercial Construction Land Marketization Impact Local Governments’ Interest Distribution? Evidence from Mainland China

To promote the harmonious human-land relationships and increased urban-rural interaction, rural collective-owned commercial construction land (RCOCCL) marketization reform in some pilot areas was a new attempt by the Chinese Central Government in 2015. In this areas, a novel interest distribution system was established with the land right adjustment and the corresponding local governments were likely to benefit through taxation and land appreciation adjustment fund. This study proposed the hypothesis that the RCOCCL marketization reform would improve local government revenue, and explored the actual effect based on panel census data of county-level administrative units from 2010 to 2018. We applied the difference-in-difference (DID) method to analyze the causal effect of this reform on fiscal revenue with 29 pilot areas selected as the treatment group and 1602 county-level units as the control group. The empirical results of the optimized DID robustness test models and the Heckman two-step method showed that the RCOCCL marketization reform does not have a significant impact because of lower land circulation efficiency, the transfer of land transaction costs, and the policy implementation deviations. Thus, weakening the administrative intervention of local governments in the RCOCCL marketization is essential to the land market development in China.

Host relatedness and landscape connectivity shape pathogen spread in the puma, a large secretive carnivore

Urban expansion can fundamentally alter wildlife movement and gene flow, but how urbanization alters pathogen spread is poorly understood. Here, we combine high resolution host and viral genomic data with landscape variables to examine the context of viral spread in puma (Puma concolor) from two contrasting regions: one bounded by the wildland urban interface (WUI) and one unbounded with minimal anthropogenic development (UB). We found landscape variables and host gene flow explained significant amounts of variation of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) spread in the WUI, but not in the unbounded region. The most important predictors of viral spread also differed; host spatial proximity, host relatedness, and mountain ranges played a role in FIV spread in the WUI, whereas roads might have facilitated viral spread in the unbounded region. Our research demonstrates how anthropogenic landscapes can alter pathogen spread, providing a more nuanced understanding of host-pathogen relationships to inform disease ecology in free-ranging species.

Effect of urban habitat use on parasitism in mammals: a meta-analysis

Rates of urbanization are increasing globally, with consequences for the dynamics of parasites and their wildlife hosts. A small subset of mammal species have the dietary and behavioural flexibility to survive in urban settings. The changes that characterize urban ecology—including landscape transformation, modified diets and shifts in community composition—can either increase or decrease susceptibility and exposure to parasites. We used a meta-analytic approach to systematically assess differences in endoparasitism between mammals in urban and non-urban habitats. Parasite prevalence estimates in matched urban and non-urban mammal populations from 33 species were compiled from 46 published studies, and an overall effect of urban habitation on parasitism was derived after controlling for study and parasite genus. Parasite life cycle type and host order were investigated as moderators of the effect sizes. We found that parasites with complex life cycles were less prevalent in urban carnivore and primate populations than in non-urban populations. However, we found no difference in urban and non-urban prevalence for parasites in rodent and marsupial hosts, or differences in prevalence for parasites with simple life cycles in any host taxa. Our findings therefore suggest the disruption of some parasite transmission cycles in the urban ecological community.

Quantifying imperfect camera-trap detection probabilities: implications for density modelling

Abstract ContextData obtained from camera traps are increasingly used to inform various population-level models. Although acknowledged, imperfect detection probabilities within camera-trap detection zones are rarely taken into account when modelling animal densities. AimsWe aimed to identify parameters influencing camera-trap detection probabilities, and quantify their relative impacts, as well as explore the downstream implications of imperfect detection probabilities on population-density modelling. MethodsWe modelled the relationships between the detection probabilities of a standard camera-trap model (n=35) on a remotely operated animal-shaped soft toy and a series of parameters likely to influence it. These included the distance of animals from camera traps, animal speed, camera-trap deployment height, ambient temperature (as a proxy for background surface temperatures) and animal surface temperature. We then used this detection-probability model to quantify the likely influence of imperfect detection rates on subsequent population-level models, being, in this case, estimates from random encounter density models on a known density simulation. Key resultsDetection probabilities mostly varied predictably in relation to measured parameters, and decreased with an increasing distance from the camera traps and speeds of movement, as well as heights of camera-trap deployments. Increased differences between ambient temperature and animal surface temperature were associated with increased detection probabilities. Importantly, our results showed substantial inter-camera (of the same model) variability in detection probabilities. Resulting model outputs suggested consistent and systematic underestimation of true population densities when not taking imperfect detection probabilities into account. ConclusionsImperfect, and individually variable, detection probabilities inside the detection zones of camera traps can compromise resulting population-density estimates. ImplicationsWe propose a simple calibration approach for individual camera traps before field deployment and encourage researchers to actively estimate individual camera-trap detection performance for inclusion in subsequent modelling approaches.

Urbanization impacts apex predator gene flow but not genetic diversity across an urban-rural divide

Apex predators are important indicators of intact natural ecosystems. They are also sensitive to urbanization because they require broad home ranges and extensive contiguous habitat to support their prey base. Pumas (Puma concolor) can persist near human developed areas, but urbanization may be detrimental to their movement ecology, population structure, and genetic diversity. To investigate potential effects of urbanization in population connectivity of pumas, we performed a landscape genomics study of 130 pumas on the rural Western Slope and more urbanized Front Range of Colorado, USA. Over 12,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped using double-digest, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). We investigated patterns of gene flow and genetic diversity, and tested for correlations between key landscape variables and genetic distance to assess the effects of urbanization and other landscape factors on gene flow. Levels of genetic diversity were similar for the Western Slope and Front Range, but effective population sizes were smaller, genetic distances were higher, and there was more admixture in the more urbanized Front Range. Forest cover was strongly positively associated with puma gene flow on the Western Slope, while impervious surfaces restricted gene flow and more open, natural habitats enhanced gene flow on the Front Range. Landscape genomic analyses revealed differences in puma movement and gene flow patterns in rural versus urban settings. Our results highlight the utility of dense, genome-scale markers to document subtle impacts of urbanization on a wide-ranging carnivore living near a large urban center.

Cougar (Puma concolor) Injury in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Human encounters with the cougar (Puma concolor) are rare in the United States but may be fatal.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of cougar attacks in the United States. We asked Fish and Wildlife Department officials from the 16 states in which cougars are known to live to identify all verified cougar attacks recorded in state history. Variables describing the human victim, cougar, and conditions surrounding the attack were recorded. The Fisher exact test was used for comparison.

RESULTS

Ten states reported 74 cougar attacks from 1924 to 2018. Persons less than 18 y of age were heavily represented among victims; 48% were <18 y old, and 35% were less than 10 y old. Attacks were more common in the summer and fall months. Most attacks occurred during daylight hours. The head, neck, and chest were the most common anatomic sites of injury. Sixteen (46%) victims were hospitalized after being attacked, among the 35 victims with these data available. Eleven (15%) attacks were fatal among 71 reports with this information. None of the hospitalized victims died (P=0.02). No victim variables were predictive of death.

CONCLUSIONS

Cougar attacks are uncommon but can be fatal. Attacks commonly affect children and young adults, although all age groups are at risk of attack and death. Most attacks occur during the daytime in the summer and fall. As development and recreational activities put humans in closer contact with cougars, establishing validated public health messaging is critical to minimize injurious encounters.

Transmission pathways and spillover of an erythrocytic bacterial pathogen from domestic cats to wild felids

Many pathogens infect multiple hosts, and spillover from domestic to wild species poses a significant risk of spread of diseases that threaten wildlife and humans. Documentation of cross-species transmission, and unraveling the mechanisms that drive it, remains a challenge. Focusing on co-occurring domestic and wild felids, we evaluate possible transmission mechanisms and evidence of spillover of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (CMhm), an erythrocytic bacterial parasite of cats. We examine transmission and possibility of spillover by analyzing CMhm prevalence, modeling possible transmission pathways, deducing genotypes of CMhm pathogens infecting felid hosts based on sequences of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene, and conducting phylogenetic analyses with ancestral state reconstruction to identify likely cross-species transmission events. Model selection analyses suggest both indirect (i.e., spread via vectors) and direct (i.e., via interspecific predation) pathways may play a role in CMhm transmission. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that transmission of CMhm appears to predominate within host species, with occasional spillover, at unknown frequency, between species. These analyses are consistent with transmission by predation of smaller cats by larger species, with subsequent within-species persistence after spillover. Our results implicate domestic cats as a source of global dispersal and spillover to wild felids via predation. We contribute to the emerging documentation of predation as a common means of pathogen spillover from domestic to wild cats, including pathogens of global conservation significance. These findings suggest risks for top predators as bioaccumulators of pathogens from subordinate species.

Need for multiscale planning for conservation of urban bats

For over a century there have been continual efforts to incorporate nature into urban planning. These efforts (i.e., urban reconciliation) aim to manage and create habitats that support biodiversity within cities. Given that species select habitat at different spatial scales, understanding the scale at which urban species respond to their environment is critical to the success of urban reconciliation efforts. We assessed species-habitat relationships for common bat species at 50-m, 500-m, and 1 km spatial scales in the Chicago (U.S.A.) metropolitan area and predicted bat activity across the greater Chicago region. Habitat characteristics across all measured scales were important predictors of silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) and eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) activity, and big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) activity was significantly lower at urban sites relative to rural sites. Open vegetation had a negative effect on silver-haired bat activity at the 50-m scale but a positive effect at the 500-m scale, indicating potential shifts in the relative importance of some habitat characteristics at different scales. These results demonstrate that localized effects may be constrained by broader spatial patterns. Our findings highlight the importance of considering scale in urban reconciliation efforts and our landscape predictions provide information that can help prioritize urban conservation work.

Hunger mediates apex predator's risk avoidance response in wildland-urban interface

Conflicts between large mammalian predators and humans present a challenge to conservation efforts, as these events drive human attitudes and policies concerning predator species. Unfortunately, generalities portrayed in many empirical carnivore landscape selection studies do not provide an explanation for a predator's occasional use of residential development preceding a carnivore-human conflict event. In some cases, predators may perceive residential development as a risk-reward trade-off. We examine whether state-dependent mortality risk-sensitive foraging can explain an apex carnivore's (Puma concolor) occasional utilization of residential areas. We assess whether puma balance the risk and rewards in a system characterized by a gradient of housing densities ranging from wildland to suburban. Puma GPS location data, characterized as hunting and feeding locations, were used to assess landscape variables governing hunting success and hunting site selection. Hunting site selection behaviour was then analysed conditional on indicators of hunger state. Residential development provided a high energetic reward to puma based on increases in prey availability and hunting success rates associated with increased housing density. Despite a higher energetic reward, hunting site selection analysis indicated that pumas generally avoided residential development, a landscape type attributed with higher puma mortality risk. However, when a puma experienced periods of extended hunger, risk avoidance behaviour towards housing waned. This study demonstrates that an apex carnivore faces a trade-off between acquiring energetic rewards and avoiding risks associated with human housing. Periods of hunger can help explain an apex predator's occasional use of developed landscapes and thus the rare conflicts in the wildland-urban interface. Apex carnivore movement behaviours in relation to human conflicts are best understood as a three-player community-level interaction incorporating wild prey distribution.

The contribution of predators and scavengers to human well-being

Predators and scavengers are frequently persecuted for their negative effects on property, livestock and human life. Research has shown that these species play important regulatory roles in intact ecosystems including regulating herbivore and mesopredator populations that in turn affect floral, soil and hydrological systems. Yet predators and scavengers receive surprisingly little recognition for their benefits to humans in the landscapes they share. We review these benefits, highlighting the most recent studies that have documented their positive effects across a range of environments. Indeed, the benefits of predators and scavengers can be far reaching, affecting human health and well-being through disease mitigation, agricultural production and waste-disposal services. As many predators and scavengers are in a state of rapid decline, we argue that researchers must work in concert with the media, managers and policymakers to highlight benefits of these species and the need to ensure their long-term conservation. Furthermore, instead of assessing the costs of predators and scavengers only in economic terms, it is critical to recognize their beneficial contributions to human health and well-being. Given the ever-expanding human footprint, it is essential that we construct conservation solutions that allow a wide variety of species to persist in shared landscapes. Identifying, evaluating and communicating the benefits provided by species that are often considered problem animals is an important step for establishing tolerance in these shared spaces.