Contribution of the photo-Fenton reaction to hydroxyl radical formation rates in river and rain water samples

Probing the Photochemical Formation of Hydroxyl Radical from Dissolved Organic Matter: Insights into the H2O2-Dependent Pathway

This study quantifies the contribution of the H2O2-dependent pathway to hydroxyl radical (•OH) production from the photolysis of dissolved organic matter (DOM). •OH formation rates were cross-validated using benzoate and terephthalate as probe compounds for diverse DOM sources (reference isolates and whole waters). Catalase addition revealed that the H2O2-dependent pathway accounts for 10-20% of the total •OH production in DOM isolate materials, but no significant correlation was observed between ambient iron (Fe) concentrations and H2O2-dependent •OH formation. This lack of correlation was likely due to lower total Fe levels in isolated materials, thus limiting the concentration of photochemically produced Fe(II) available for reaction with H2O2. Notably, the H2O2-dependent pathway contributed 11 ± 3% to •OH formation from Pony Lake fulvic acid, which had the lowest Fe content, implicating additional H2O2-driven formation mechanisms independent of Fe. Experiments with the DOM model compounds acetophenone and p-benzoquinone indicated no •OH production from triplet DOM reactions with H2O2. However, •OH formation rate increased 6-fold when H2O2 was reduced by ketyl radicals formed from the reaction between excited triplet acetophenone and 2,4,6-trimethylphenol. This study advances the knowledge of •OH production mechanisms from DOM photolysis, providing insight into the role of H2O2 in aquatic photochemical processes.

Optical properties of dissolved organic matter in Japanese rivers and contributions to photoformation of reactive oxygen species

The optical properties of dissolved organic matter (DOM) from five rivers (Kokubu, Kurose, Ohta, Yamato, and Yodo) in Japan were investigated and contributions of DOM to photoformation of three reactive oxygen species (ROS) (hydroxyl radicals (OH), nitric oxide radicals (NO), and singlet oxygen (¹O₂)) were assessed. The lowest and highest mean dissolved organic carbon concentrations were for the Ohta River (0.95 (mg C) L^-1) and Yamato River (2.85 (mg C) L^-1), respectively, and the concentrations correlated with some optical parameters. Absorption ratios (e.g., the E₂:E₃ and A₂₈₀/A₃₅₀ ratios) and the spectral slope S_275-295 indicated that DOM from the Yodo and Kokubu rivers had the lowest and highest molecular weights, respectively. PARAFAC models and DOM excitation-emission matrices were used to assess the sources and fates of DOM in the rivers. The PARAFAC model indicated that the main types of fluorescent DOM in the rivers were terrestrial humic-like (TH-L) and tryptophan-like (TP-L) substances. The Kokubu River contained other compounds such as fluorescent whitening agents, autochthonous humic-like substances, and extracellular polymeric substances. Statistically significant relationships between the dissolved organic carbon and TH-L, TP-L, and extracellular polymeric substance concentrations suggested that TH-L, TP-L, and extracellular polymeric substances are important contributors to total DOM in the rivers. TH-L and TP-L substances strongly contribute to ROS photoformation, but TH-L substances play roles in both ROS generation and scavenging. Comprehensive models for estimating the photoformation rates of different ROS (in M s^-1) were established by integrating the contributions of the relevant major and minor sources. Examples are R_OH (10^-12) = 21.0 [NO₂^-]__μM + 0.460 [TH-L]__QSU + 10.9, R_NO (10^-12) = 67.9 [NO₂^-]__μM + 35.2 [a₃₀₀]__m^-1 - 2.51 [TH-L]__QSU - 0.765 [TP-L]__QSU - 8.14, and R_1O2 (10^-9) = 3.81 [a₃₀₀]__m^-1 - 0.101 [TP-L]__QSU + 11.1.

Atmospheric methane removal: a research agenda

Atmospheric methane removal (e.g. in situ methane oxidation to carbon dioxide) may be needed to offset continued methane release and limit the global warming contribution of this potent greenhouse gas. Because mitigating most anthropogenic emissions of methane is uncertain this century, and sudden methane releases from the Arctic or elsewhere cannot be excluded, technologies for methane removal or oxidation may be required. Carbon dioxide removal has an increasingly well-established research agenda and technological foundation. No similar framework exists for methane removal. We believe that a research agenda for negative methane emissions-'removal' or atmospheric methane oxidation-is needed. We outline some considerations for such an agenda here, including a proposed Methane Removal Model Intercomparison Project (MR-MIP). This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Rising methane: is warming feeding warming? (part 1)'.

Heterogeneity and potential aquatic toxicity of hydrogen peroxide concentrations in selected rivers across Japan

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a reactive oxygen species formed in natural water. It is reportedly toxic to aquatic organisms with a predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of about 380 nM. In this study, a countrywide investigation of H₂O₂ concentrations in selected rivers across Japan was conducted to identify rivers that pose toxicity concerns. Twelve rivers with a total catchment area of 13,646 km² were selected from different prefectures. Spatial and temporal variation studies showed that the H₂O₂ concentrations (avg. 320 nM, n = 111) varied by two orders of magnitude (range 21-2929 nM) across the rivers. The Yamato River in Osaka and Nara prefectures and the Kokubu River in Chiba Prefecture had the highest concentrations at 276-669 nM and 236-2929 nM, respectively. >75% of the data from the two rivers were either close to or exceeded the PNEC. Most of the results for the other rivers were less than the PNEC. There was a clear seasonal variation in the H₂O₂ concentrations, with the highest values obtained in summer because of high solar irradiation. The H₂O₂ concentration had the highest positive correlation (r = 0.61, p < 0.01, n = 111) with the product of dissolved organic carbon and solar radiation intensity, which suggests that these two factors in combination are important in determining the H₂O₂ concentrations in river water. It was also observed that bigger rivers had lower H₂O₂ concentration and vice-versa. This shows that the size of a river may influence its H₂O₂ concentration. This study is the first countrywide survey of H₂O₂ concentrations in different rivers and evaluation of their relationship with the PNEC. The data provide insight on the factors influencing the concentrations of H₂O₂ in river water.

Photo-Fenton process at natural conditions of pH, iron, ions, and humic acids for degradation of diuron and amoxicillin

Effect of ferric ions at concentrations typically found in natural waters (0.05 to 1.06 mg L^-1) and low H₂O₂ concentrations (between 0.5 and 17.9 mg L^-1) on simulated sunlight-induced (300 W m^-2) photo-Fenton degradation at initial neutral pH (7.0) of amoxicillin and diuron in Milli-Q water was studied using an rotatable central composite experimental design 2² with a central and two axial points. H₂O₂ concentration was the parameter playing the key role on the degradation of both pollutants. Despite that initial pH was 7.0 in Milli-Q water, this latter decreased rapidly in the first minutes, reaching values of 3.5 and 5.0 for diuron and amoxicillin respectively after 15 min of simulated sunlight irradiation. In contrast, in presence of bicarbonate/carbonate (HCO₃^-/CO₃⁼), fluoride (F^-), and humic acids (HAs) at concentrations found often in surface and well waters with ferric ion and H₂O₂ concentrations of 0.3 and 9.7 and 15.2 mg L^-1 respectively, both pollutants exhibited a strong degradation keeping the circumneutral pH. Amoxicillin and diuron degradation byproducts found by HPLC/MS were compatible with HO^• and/or CO₃^-• radical attack. Several photo-induced processes such as photo-Fenton (by dissolved ferric-HA complexes), heterogeneous photocatalysis (by colloidal iron), UV-B H₂O₂ photolysis, irradiated-dissolved organic matter, and their reactions with pollutants would be the main oxidative route responsible of degradations. These findings demonstrated that it could be possible using iron concentrations often found in natural waters to oxidize via photo-Fenton processes among other events, organic pollutants at natural pH conditions.

First evaluation of the effect of microorganisms on steady state hydroxyl radical concentrations in atmospheric waters

Clouds are complex multiphasic media where efficient chemical reactions take place and where microorganisms have been found to be metabolically active. Hydroxyl radical is the main oxidant in cloud water, and more generally in the atmosphere, during the day and drives the cloud oxidative capacity. However, only one measurement of the steady state hydroxyl radical concentrations in cloud water has been reported so far. Cloud chemistry models are used to estimate the hydroxyl radical concentrations with values ranging from 10^-12 to 10^-15 M that are surely overestimated due to a lack of knowledge about the speciation of the organic matter acting as a sink for hydroxyl radicals. The aim of this work is to quantify the concentration of hydroxyl radicals at steady state in rain and cloud waters and to measure the impact of native microflora on this concentration. First, the non-toxicity of terephthalic acid as probe is controlled before the analysis in real atmospheric water samples. Higher concentrations of hydroxyl radicals are found in cloud waters than in rain waters, with a mean value "1.6 ± 1.5" × 10^-16 M and "7.2 ± 5.0" × 10^-16 M for rain and cloud waters respectively and no real impact of microorganisms was observed. This method allows the measurement of steady state hydroxyl radical levels at very low concentrations (down to 10^-17 M) and it is biocompatible, fast and easy to handle. It is a useful tool, complementary to other methods, to give a better overview of atmospheric water oxidant capacity.

2,4-D abatement from groundwater samples by photo-Fenton processes at circumneutral pH using naturally iron present. Effect of inorganic ions

This study evaluated, at laboratory scale, if the using iron naturally present (0.3 mg L^-1) and adding 10 mg L^-1 of hydrogen peroxide was effective to remove 24.3 mgL^-1 of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) from groundwater samples by simulated solar irradiation (global intensity = 300 W m^-2). Under these conditions, the degradation of 2,4-D reached 75.2 % and the apparition of its main oxidation byproduct 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP) was observed. On the other hand, pH exhibited an increasing from 7.0 to 8.3 during the experiment. Experiments using Milli-Q water at pH 7.0, iron, and H₂O₂ concentrations of 0.3 and 10 mg L^-1, respectively, were carried out in order to study the effect of ions such as carbonate species, phosphate, and fluoride in typical concentrations often found in groundwater. Ion concentrations were combined by using a factorial experimental design 2³. Results showed that carbonates and fluoride did not produce a detrimental effect on the 2,4-D degradation, while phosphate inhibited the process. In this case, the pH increased also from 7.0 to 7.95 and 8.99. Effect of parameters such as pH, iron concentration, and hydrogen peroxide concentration on the 2,4-D degradation by the photo-Fenton process in groundwater was evaluated by using a factorial experimental design 2³. Results showed that the pH was the main parameter affecting the process. This study shows for the first time that using the photo-Fenton process at circumneutral pH and iron naturally present seems to be a promising process to remove pesticides from groundwater.

Simultaneous photoinduced generation of Fe(2+) and H2O2 in rivers: An indicator for photo-Fenton reaction

The photo-Fenton reaction is a key source of the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (HO) that is produced by the reaction of simultaneous photo-induced generation of Fe(2)(+)-dissolved organic matter (DOM) with H2O2 in sunlit surface waters as well as in the treatment of organic pollutants in the advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Concentrations of both H2O2 and Fe(2)(+)-DOM were dependent on time and total solar intensity flux, and their levels were highest in the diurnal samples collected at noon compared with the samples collected during the period before sunrise and after sunset. H2O2 and Fe(2)(+)-DOM concentrations during monthly readings were also found higher in comparison with the diurnal samples, shortly before sunrise or after sunset. A π-electron bonding system is formed between Fe and the functional groups in DOM (Fe-DOM), through electron donation from the functional groups of DOM to an empty d-orbital of Fe. The π-electron is loosely bound and is highly susceptible to a rapid excitation upon light exposure that will provide better understanding of the formation of aqueous electrons, superoxide radical anions, H2O2 and finally, photo-Fenton reactions, too. Our results imply that simultaneous generation of H2O2 and Fe(2)(+)-DOM upon sunlight exposure during the daytime is most likely to be the key photo-Fenton reaction pathway, taking place in surface waters.

Sources of hydroxyl radical in headwater streams from nitrogen-saturated forest

Hydroxyl radical (HO) photoformation rate (RHO) was determined in headwater stream samples from nitrogen (N)-saturated forests, (1) to quantify the sources of HO in headwater streams and (2) to evaluate the nitrate NO3(-)-induced enhancement of HO formation in stream water caused by N saturation in forested watersheds. Stream water fulvic acid extracted from the forested watersheds was used to quantify the contribution of dissolved organic matter (DOM) to RHO. The results showed that almost all (97%; 81-109%) RHO sources in our headwater stream samples were quantitatively elucidated; the photolysis of NO3(-) (55%; 34-75%), nitrite [N(III)] (2%; 0.5-5.2%), and DOM-derived HO formation, from which photo-Fenton reactions (18%; 12-26%) and the direct photolysis of fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) (22%; 10-40%), was successfully separated. FDOM, which accounted for 53% (24-96%) of DOM in total organic carbon bases, was responsible for HO formation in our headwater streams. High NO3(-) leaching caused by N saturation in forested watersheds increased RHO in the headwaters, indicating that N-saturated forest could significantly change photoinduced and biogeochemical processes via enhanced HO formation in downstream water.

Indirect photochemistry in sunlit surface waters: photoinduced production of reactive transient species

This paper gives an overview of the main reactive transient species that are produced in surface waters by sunlight illumination of photoactive molecules (photosensitizers), such as nitrate, nitrite, and chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM). The main transients (˙OH, CO3(-˙) , (1)O2, and CDOM triplet states) are involved in the indirect phototransformation of a very wide range of persistent organic pollutants in surface waters.

Estimating hydroxyl radical photochemical formation rates in natural waters during long-term laboratory irradiation experiments

In this study it was observed that, during long-term irradiations (>1 day) of natural waters, the methods for measuring hydroxyl radical (˙OH) formation rates based upon sequentially determined cumulative concentrations of photoproducts from probes significantly underestimate actual ˙OH formation rates. Performing a correction using the photodegradation rates of the probe products improves the ˙OH estimation for short term irradiations (<1 day), but not long term irradiations. Only the 'instantaneous' formation rates, which were obtained by adding probes to aliquots at each time point and irradiating these sub-samples for a short time (≤2 h), were found appropriate for accurately estimating ˙OH photochemical formation rates during long-term laboratory irradiation experiments. Our results also showed that in iron- and dissolved organic matter (DOM)-rich water samples, ˙OH appears to be mainly produced from the Fenton reaction initially, but subsequently from other sources possibly from DOM photoreactions. Pathways of ˙OH formation in long-term irradiations in relation to H2O2 and iron concentrations are discussed.

The importance of charge-transfer interactions in determining chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) optical and photochemical properties

Absorption of sunlight by chromophoric dissolved natural organic matter (CDOM) is environmentally significant because it controls photic zone depth and causes photochemistry that affects elemental cycling and contaminant fate. Both the optics (absorbance and fluorescence) and photochemistry of CDOM display unusual properties that cannot easily be ascribed to a superposition of individual chromophores. These include (i) broad, unstructured absorbance that decreases monotonically well into the visible and near IR, (ii) fluorescence emission spectra that all fall into a single envelope regardless of the excitation wavelength, and (iii) photobleaching and photochemical quantum yields that decrease monotonically with increasing wavelength. In contrast to a simple superposition model, these phenomena and others can be reasonably well explained by a physical model in which charge-transfer interactions between electron donating and accepting chromophores within the CDOM control the optical and photophysical properties. This review summarizes current understanding of the processes underlying CDOM photophysics and photochemistry as well as their physical basis.

Evidence for dissolved organic matter as the primary source and sink of photochemically produced hydroxyl radical in arctic surface waters

Hydroxyl radical (˙OH) is an indiscriminate oxidant that reacts at near-diffusion-controlled rates with organic carbon. Thus, while ˙OH is expected to be an important oxidant of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and other recalcitrant compounds, the role of ˙OH in the oxidation of these compounds in aquatic ecosystems is not well known due to the poorly constrained sources and sinks of ˙OH, especially in pristine (unpolluted) natural waters. We measured the rates of ˙OH formation and quenching across a range of surface waters in the Arctic varying in concentrations of expected sources and sinks of ˙OH. Photochemical formation of ˙OH was observed in all waters tested, with rates of formation ranging from 2.6 ± 0.6 to 900 ± 100 × 10(-12) M s(-1). Steady-state concentrations ranged from 2 ± 1 to 290 ± 60 × 10(-17) M, and overlapped with previously reported values in surface waters. While iron-mediated photo-Fenton reactions likely contributed to the observed ˙OH production, several lines of evidence suggest that DOM was the primary source and sink of photochemically produced ˙OH in pristine arctic surface waters. DOM from first-order or headwater streams was more efficient in producing ˙OH than what has previously been reported for DOM, and ˙OH formation decreased with increasing residence time of DOM in sunlit surface waters. Despite the ubiquitous formation of ˙OH in arctic surface waters observed in this study, photochemical ˙OH formation was estimated to contribute ≤4% to the observed photo-oxidation of DOM; however, key uncertainties in this estimate must be addressed before ruling out the role of ˙OH in the oxidation of DOM in these waters.

Photochemical formation of hydroxyl radical from effluent organic matter: role of composition

The photochemical formation of hydroxyl radical (HO(•)) from effluent organic matter (EfOM) depends upon the chemical properties of this heterogeneous mixture. In this study, two EfOM samples collected from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP A and B) were fractionated by both hydrophobicity (bulk and non-humic) and apparent molecular weight (AMW). The apparent quantum yield for HO(•) formation (ΦHO(•)) and the maximum fluorescence quantum yield (ΦF) were subsequently measured for each subfraction. The formation rates of HO(•) (considering only the hydrogen-peroxide-independent pathways) for the bulk waters were 4.8 × 10(-10) and 9.6 × 10(-11) M s(-1) for WWTP A and B, respectively. For the AMW fractions, the values of ΦHO(•) increased as the AMW of the material decreased. For the WWTP A sample, the ΦHO(•) increased from 2.54 × 10(-4) (bulk water) to 6.29 × 10(-4) for the <1 kDa fraction, and for the WWTP B sample, the value of ΦHO(•) increased from 6.50 × 10(-5) for bulk water to 3.45 × 10(-4) for the <1 kDa fraction. In the case of fluorescence, the values of ΦF ranged from 2.37 × 10(-4) (bulk water) to 3.48 × 10(-4) (<1 kDa fraction) for WWTP A and 3.19 × 10(-4) (bulk water) to 5.75 × 10(-4) (<1 kDa fraction) for WWTP B. There was a linear correlation between ΦHO(•) and ΦF, suggesting that different photophysical processes occur in the chemical components of the fractions. Understanding the formation of HO(•) from EfOM is essential for understanding wastewater-impacted aquatic systems because these results influence the photochemical degradation and mineralization of trace organic contaminants.

Degradation of lidocaine, tramadol, venlafaxine and the metabolites O-desmethyltramadol and O-desmethylvenlafaxine in surface waters

The photodegradation and biotic transformation of the pharmaceuticals lidocaine (LDC), tramadol (TRA) and venlafaxine (VEN), and of the metabolites O-desmethyltramadol (ODT) and O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) in the aquatic environmental have been investigated. Photodegradation experiments were carried out using a medium pressure Hg lamp (laboratory experiments) and natural sunlight (field experiments). Degradation of the target compounds followed a first-order kinetic model. Rates of direct photodegradation (light absorption by the compounds itself) at pH 6.9 were very low for all of the target analytes (≤0.0059 h(-1) using a Hg lamp and ≤0.0027 h(-1) using natural sunlight), while rates of indirect photodegradation (degradation of the compounds through photosensitizers) in river water at pH 7.5 were approximately 59 (LDC), 5 (TRA), 8 (VEN), 15 (ODT) and 13 times (ODV) higher than the rates obtained from the experiments in ultrapure water. The accelerated photodegradation of the target compounds in natural water is attributed mainly to the formation of hydroxyl radicals through photochemical reactions. Biotic (microbial) degradation of the target compounds in surface water has been shown to occur at very low rates (≤0.00029 h(-1)). The half-life times determined from the field experiments were 31 (LDC), 73 (TRA), 51 (VEN), 21 (ODT) and 18h (ODV) considering all possible mechanisms of degradation for the target compounds in river water (direct photodegradation, indirect photodegradation and biotic degradation).

Hydroxyl radical formation upon oxidation of reduced humic acids by oxygen in the dark

Humic acids (HAs) accept and donate electrons in many biogeochemical redox reactions at oxic/anoxic interfaces. The products of oxidation of reduced HAs by O(2) are unknown but are expected to yield reactive oxygen species, potentially including hydroxyl radical (·OH). To quantify the formation of ·OH upon oxidation of reduced HAs by O(2), three HAs were reduced electrochemically to well-defined redox states and were subsequently oxidized by O(2) in the presence of the ·OH probe terephthalate. The formation of ·OH upon oxidation increased with increasing extent of HA reduction. The yield of ·OH ranged from 42 to 160 mmol per mole of electrons donated by the reduced HA. The intermediacy of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) in the formation of ·OH was supported by enhancement of ·OH formation upon addition of exogenous H(2)O(2) sources and by the suppression of ·OH formation upon addition of catalase as a quencher of endogenous H(2)O(2). The formation of ·OH in the dark during oxidation of reduced HA represents a previously unknown source of ·OH formation at oxic/anoxic interfaces and may affect the biogeochemical and pollutant redox dynamics at these interfaces.

Assessing the contribution of free hydroxyl radical in organic matter-sensitized photohydroxylation reactions

Photochemical formation of reactive oxygen species from dissolved organic matter (DOM) is incompletely understood, especially in the case of hydroxyl radical (•OH) production. Many studies have used various probes to detect photochemically produced •OH from DOM, but the fundamental reactions of these probes are not necessarily specific for free •OH and may also detect lower-energy hydroxylation agents. In this study, two tests were applied that have previously been used as a diagnostic for the presence of free •OH: methane quenching of •OH and hydroxybenzoic acid (hBZA) product yields. Upon application of these two tests to a set of five DOM isolates, it was found that methane quenching and the hBZA ratio results were not necessarily consistent. Overall, the results provide compelling evidence that all isolates studied photochemically produce free •OH. The hydroxylating acitivity of Elliot Soil Humic Acid and Pony Lake Fulvic Acid, however, also had a significant contribution from a photochemically generated hydroxylating agent that is lower in energy than free •OH. Catalase quenching experiments were conducted to assess whether hydrogen peroxide was the immediate precursor to hydroxyl in these systems. In all cases, catalase addition slowed photohydroxylation of terephthalate, but the contribution of hydrogen peroxide photolysis was determined to be less than 50%.

Photo-Fenton reaction at near neutral pH

The photo-Fenton reaction, oxidation of photoproduced ferrous iron by hydrogen peroxide, produces reactive oxidants that may be important to degradation of biologically and chemically recalcitrant organic compounds in surface waters at circum-neutral pH. Sufficient Fe(II) for the photo-Fenton reaction was produced in situ at two field sites (pH 6.1-7.1) and during irradiations of model systems at pH 7.0 with Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA). Amorphous iron oxyhydroxide preparations were much more easily photoreduced than ferrihydrite (Ferr-90). The rate of the photo-Fenton reaction was measured as the difference in the H2O2 accumulation rate in irradiations without and with iron in model systems. Use of benzene as a probe for hydroxyl radical (OH) and nitrate photolysis as the OH source indicated that the yield of phenol from the reaction of benzene with OH is reduced in the presence of iron and SRFA. Even when this reduction in yield was accounted for, the rate of OH production from the Fenton reaction in the model systems was much smaller than the rate of the photo-Fenton reaction. These results indicate that OH is not the only oxidant produced by the photo-Fenton reaction in circum-neutral natural waters; however the photo-Fenton reaction could still be significant for contaminant degradation.

Preliminary study of the photolysis of fluorene in rainwater

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of toxic pollutants in the environment. In this preliminary study, photolysis of fluorene, a three-ring PAH, in rainwater collected in Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan, was studied. The photolysis kinetic was observed to be of first order under our experimental conditions. It was found that the photolysis rate constant was approximately 0.091 min(-1) with a half-life of 8.0 min. The photolysis kinetic of fluorene in rainwater was found to be very much faster than for particulate atmospheric PAHs reported in the literature.