Albumin-bound formulation of paclitaxel (Abraxane ABI-007) in the treatment of breast cancer

Development of Human Serum Albumin Fluorescent Probes in Detection, Imaging, and Disease Therapy

Human serum albumin (HSA) acts as a repository and transporter of substances in the blood. An abnormal concentration may indicate the occurrence of liver- and kidney-related diseases, which has attracted people to investigate the precise quantification of HSA in body fluids. Fluorescent probes can combine with HSA covalently or noncovalently to quantify HSA in urine and plasma. Moreover, probes combined with HSA can improve its photophysical properties; probe-HSA has been applied in real-time monitoring and photothermal and photodynamic therapy in vivo. This Review will introduce fluorescent probes for quantitative HSA according to the three reaction mechanisms of spatial structure, enzymatic reaction, and self-assembly and systematically introduce the application of probes combined with HSA in disease imaging and phototherapy. It will help develop multifunctional applications for HSA probes and provide assistance in the early diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

Moving beyond traditional therapies: the role of nanomedicines in lung cancer

Amidst a global rise in lung cancer occurrences, conventional therapies continue to pose substantial side effects and possess notable toxicities while lacking specificity. Counteracting this, the incorporation of nanomedicines can notably enhance drug delivery at tumor sites, extend a drug's half-life and mitigate inadvertent toxic and adverse impacts on healthy tissues, substantially influencing lung cancer's early detection and targeted therapy. Numerous studies signal that while the nano-characteristics of lung cancer nanomedicines play a pivotal role, further interplay with immune, photothermal, and genetic factors exist. This review posits that the progression towards multimodal combination therapies could potentially establish an efficacious platform for multimodal targeted lung cancer treatments. Current nanomedicines split into active and passive targeting. Active therapies focus on a single target, often with unsatisfactory results. Yet, developing combination systems targeting multiple sites could chart new paths in lung cancer therapy. Conversely, low drug delivery rates limit passive therapies. Utilizing the EPR effect to bind specific ligands on nanoparticles to tumor cell receptors might create a new regime combining active-passive targeting, potentially elevating the nanomedicines' concentration at target sites. This review collates recent advancements through the lens of nanomedicine's attributes for lung cancer therapeutics, the novel carrier classifications, targeted therapeutic modalities and their mechanisms, proposing that the emergence of multi-target nanocomposite therapeutics, combined active-passive targeting therapies and multimodal combined treatments will pioneer novel approaches and tools for future lung cancer clinical therapies.

Nanotechnology-based delivery systems to overcome drug resistance in cancer

Cancer nanomedicine is defined as the application of nanotechnology and nanomaterials for the formulation of cancer therapeutics that can overcome the impediments and restrictions of traditional chemotherapeutics. Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells can be defined as a decrease or abrogation in the efficacy of anticancer drugs that have different molecular structures and mechanisms of action and is one of the primary causes of therapeutic failure. There have been successes in the development of cancer nanomedicine to overcome MDR; however, relatively few of these formulations have been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of cancer. This is primarily due to the paucity of knowledge about nanotechnology and the fundamental biology of cancer cells. Here, we discuss the advances, types of nanomedicines, and the challenges regarding the translation of in vitro to in vivo results and their relevance to effective therapies.

Preclinical Activity of Two Paclitaxel Nanoparticle Formulations After Intraperitoneal Administration in Ovarian Cancer Murine Xenografts

Background

Epithelial ovarian cancer is associated with high mortality due to diagnosis at later stages associated with peritoneal involvement. Several trials have evaluated the effect of intraperitoneal treatment. In this preclinical study, we report the efficacy, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intraperitoneal treatment with two approved nanomolecular formulations of paclitaxel (nab-PTX and mic-PTX) in a murine ovarian cancer xenograft model.

Methods

IC50 was determined in vitro on three ovarian cancer cell lines (OVCAR-3, SK-OV-3 and SK-OV-3-Luc IP1). EOC xenografts were achieved using a modified subperitoneal implantation technique. Drug treatment was initiated 2 weeks after engraftment, and tumor volume and survival were assessed. Pharmacokinetics and drug distribution effects were assessed using UHPLC-MS/MS and MALDI imaging mass spectrometry, respectively. Pharmacodynamic effects were analyzed using immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy using standard protocols.

Results

We demonstrated sub-micromolar IC50 concentrations for both formulations on three EOC cancer cell lines in vitro. Furthermore, IP administration of nab-PTX or mic-PTX lead to more than 2-fold longer survival compared to a control treatment of IP saline administration (30 days in controls, 66 days in nab-PTX treated animals, and 76 days in mic-PTX animals, respectively). We observed higher tissue uptake of drug following nab-PTX administration when compared to mic-PTX, with highest uptake after 4 hours post-treatment, and confirmed this lower uptake of mic-PTX using HPLC on digested tumor samples. Furthermore, apoptosis was not increased in tumor implants up to 24h post-treatment.

Conclusion

Intraperitoneal administration of both nab-PTX and mic-PTX results in a significant anticancer efficacy and survival benefit in a mouse OC xenograft model.

Recent advances in nano/micro systems for improved circulation stability, enhanced tumor targeting, penetration, and intracellular drug delivery: a review

In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have been extensively developed as drug carriers to overcome the limitations of cancer therapeutics. However, there are several biological barriers to nanomedicines, which include the lack of stability in circulation, limited target specificity, low penetration into tumors and insufficient cellular uptake, restricting the active targeting toward tumors of nanomedicines. To address these challenges, a variety of promising strategies were developed recently, as they can be designed to improve NP accumulation and penetration in tumor tissues, circulation stability, tumor targeting, and intracellular uptake. In this Review, we summarized nanomaterials developed in recent three years that could be utilized to improve drug delivery for cancer treatments.

Protein-Based Nanocarriers and Nanotherapeutics for Infection and Inflammation

Infectious and inflammatory diseases are one of the leading causes of death globally. The status quo has become more prominent with the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. To combat these potential crises, proteins have been proven as highly efficacious drugs, drug targets, and biomarkers. On the other hand, advancements in nanotechnology have aided efficient and sustained drug delivery due to their nano-dimension-acquired advantages. Combining both strategies together, the protein nanoplatforms are equipped with the advantageous intrinsic properties of proteins as well as nanoformulations, eloquently changing the field of nanomedicine. Proteins can act as carriers, therapeutics, diagnostics, and theranostics in their nanoform as fusion proteins or as composites with other organic/inorganic materials. Protein-based nanoplatforms have been extensively explored to target the major infectious and inflammatory diseases of clinical concern. The current review comprehensively deliberated proteins as nanocarriers for drugs and nanotherapeutics for inflammatory and infectious agents, with special emphasis on cancer and viral diseases. A plethora of proteins from diverse organisms have aided in the synthesis of protein-based nanoformulations. The current study specifically presented the proteins of human and pathogenic origin to dwell upon the field of protein nanotechnology, emphasizing their pharmacological advantages. Further, the successful clinical translation and current bottlenecks of the protein-based nanoformulations associated with the infection-inflammation paradigm have also been discussed comprehensively. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review discusses the plethora of promising protein-based nanocarriers and nanotherapeutics explored for infectious and inflammatory ailments, with particular emphasis on protein nanoparticles of human and pathogenic origin with reference to the advantages, ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion parameters), and current bottlenecks in development of protein-based nanotherapeutic interventions.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymer-Based Nanosystems for Cancer Theranostics

Stimuli-responsive polymers can respond to internal stimuli, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione (GSH), and pH, biological stimuli, such as enzymes, and external stimuli, such as lasers and ultrasound, etc., by changing their hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, degradability, ionizability, etc., and thus have been widely used in biomedical applications. Due to the characteristics of the tumor microenvironment (TME), stimuli-responsive polymers that cater specifically to the TME have been extensively used to prepare smart nanovehicles for the targeted delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents to tumor tissues. Compared to conventional drug delivery nanosystems, TME-responsive nanosystems have many advantages, such as high sensitivity, broad applicability among different tumors, functional versatility, and improved biosafety. In recent years, a great deal of research has been devoted to engineering efficient stimuli-responsive polymeric nanosystems, and significant improvement has been made to both cancer diagnosis and therapy. In this review, we summarize some recent research advances involving the use of stimuli-responsive polymer nanocarriers in drug delivery, tumor imaging, therapy, and theranostics. Various chemical stimuli will be described in the context of stimuli-responsive nanosystems. Accordingly, the functional chemical groups responsible for the responsiveness and the strategies to incorporate these groups into the polymer will be discussed in detail. With the research on this topic expending at a fast pace, some innovative concepts, such as sequential and cascade drug release, NIR-II imaging, and multifunctional formulations, have emerged as popular strategies for enhanced performance, which will also be included here with up-to-date illustrations. We hope that this review will offer valuable insights for the selection and optimization of stimuli-responsive polymers to help accelerate their future applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Phytochemical-Based Nanomedicine for Targeting Tumor Microenvironment and Inhibiting Cancer Chemoresistance: Recent Advances and Pharmacological Insights

Cancer remains the leading cause of death and rapidly evolving disease worldwide. The understanding of disease pathophysiology has improved through advanced research investigation, and several therapeutic strategies are being used for better cancer treatment. However, the increase in cancer relapse and metastatic-related deaths indicate that available therapies and clinically approved chemotherapy drugs are not sufficient to combat cancer. Further, the constant crosstalk between tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME) is crucial for the development, progression, metastasis, and therapeutic response to tumors. In this regard, phytochemicals with multimodal targeting abilities can be used as an alternative to current cancer therapy by inhibiting cancer survival pathways or modulating TME. However, due to their poor pharmacokinetics and low bioavailability, the success of phytochemicals in clinical trials is limited. Therefore, developing phytochemical-based nanomedicine or phytonanomedicine can improve the pharmacokinetic profile of these phytochemicals. Herein, the molecular characteristics and pharmacological insights of the proposed phytonanomedicine in cancer therapy targeting tumor tissue and altering the characteristics of cancer stem cells, chemoresistance, TME, and cancer immunity are well discussed. Further, we have highlighted the clinical perspective and challenges of phytonanomedicine in filling the gap in potential cancer therapeutics using various nanoplatforms. Overall, we have discussed how clinical success and pharmacological insights could make it more beneficial to boost the concept of nanomedicine in the academic and pharmaceutical fields to counter cancer metastases and drug resistance.

Glucose-conjugated glutenin nanoparticles for selective targeting and delivery of camptothecin into breast cancer cells

Receptor-mediated drug delivery systems are a promising tool for targeting malignant cells to suppress/inhibit the malignancy without disturbing healthy cells. Protein-based nanocarrier systems possess numerous advantages for the delivery of variety of chemotherapeutics, including therapeutic peptides and genes. In the present work, glucose-conjugated camptothecin-loaded glutenin nanoparticles (Glu-CPT-glutenin NPs) were fabricated to deliver camptothecin to MCF-7 cells via GLUT-1 transporter protein. Initially, Glu-conjugated glutenin polymer was successfully synthesized through reductive amination reaction, and this was confirmed by FTIR and 13C-NMR. Then, camptothecin (CPT) was loaded into Glu-conjugated glutenin polymer forming Glu-CPT-glutenin NPs. The nanoparticles were studied for their drug releasing capacity, morphological shape, size, physical nature, and zeta potential. The fabricated Glu-CPT-glutenin NPs were found to be spherical in shape and amorphous in nature with 200-nm size range and a zeta potential of - 30 mV. Furthermore, MTT assay using Glu-CPT-glutenin NPs confirmed concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells after 24-h treatment, and IC50 was found to be 18.23 μg mL-1. In vitro cellular uptake study demonstrated that the Glu-CPT-glutenin NPs had enhanced endocytosis and delivered CPT in MCF-7 cells. A typical apoptotic morphological change of condensed nuclei and distorted membrane bodies was found after treatment with IC50 concentration of NPs. The released CPT from NPs also targeted mitochondria of MCF-7 cells, significantly increasing the level of reactive oxygen species and causing the damage of mitochondrial membrane integrity. These outcomes confirmed that the wheat glutenin can positively serve as a significant delivery vehicle and enhance the anticancer potential of this drug.

Cancer Cell Membrane-Enveloped Dexamethasone Normalizes the Tumor Microenvironment and Enhances Gynecologic Cancer Chemotherapy

The aberrant tumor microenvironment (TME), especially immature and leaky vessels, prevents the penetration and accumulation of chemotherapeutics and results in the failure of chemotherapy to treat gynecologic cancer. Herein, dexamethasone (Dex), a glucocorticoid steroid used to moderate tumor extracellular matrix and normalize vessels, was enclosed within a biocompatible material known as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and the obtained Dex@PLGA was further coated with a mouse cervical cancer cell membrane (CM). The formulated Dex@PLGA-CM nanoparticles showed efficient extravascular diffusion within the tumor owing to the homologous targeting abilities inherited from the source cancer cells. The Dex@PLGA-CM nanoparticles greatly reshaped the TME, enhancing the penetration of Doxil and thus markedly improving the therapeutic effect of this drug against cervical cancers. Excitingly, the Dex@PLGA-CM nanoparticles coated with mouse ovarian cancer cell membranes also promoted Doxil-mediated chemotherapy effects in metastatic ovarian cancer when administered intraperitoneally. This work presents an effective nanomedicine for the efficient modification of the TME to enhance the effects of gynecologic cancer chemotherapy.

Rheological, Physical, and Spectroscopical Characterization of Gamma-Irradiated Albumin Nanoparticles Loaded with Anthocyanin

Anthocyanins are the main active compounds in blueberry. However, they have poor oxidation stability. If anthocyanins are encapsulated in protein nanoparticles, their oxidation resistance could be increased as a result of the slowing down of the oxidation process. This work describes the advantages of using a γ-irradiated bovine serum albumin nanoparticle bound to anthocyanins. The interaction was characterized biophysically, mainly by rheology. By computational calculation and simulation based on model nanoparticles, we estimated the number of molecules forming the albumin nanoparticles, which allowed us to infer the ratio of anthocyanin/nanoparticles. Measurements by UV-vis spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), ζ potential, electron transmission microscopy, and rheology at room (25 °C) and physiological (37 °C) temperatures were performed. The spectroscopy measurements allowed identifying additional hydrophobic sites created during the irradiation process of the nanoparticle. On the basis of the rheological studies, it was observed that the BSA-NP trend is a Newtonian flow behavior type for all the temperatures selected, and there is a direct correlation between dynamic viscosity and temperature values. Furthermore, when anthocyanins are added, the system increases its resistance to the flow as reflected in the morphological changes observed by TEM, thus confirming the relationship between viscosity values and aggregate formation.

Encapsulation of Pioglitazone into Polymer-Nanoparticles for Potential Treatment of Atherosclerotic Diseases

Atherosclerosis is one of the most urgent global health subjects, causes millions of deaths worldwide, and is associated with enormous healthcare costs. Macrophages are the root cause for inflammatory onset and progression of the disease but are not addressed by conventional therapy. Therefore, we used pioglitazone, which is a drug initially used for diabetes therapies, but at the same time has great potential regarding the mitigation of inflammation. As yet, this potential of pioglitazone cannot be exploited, as drug concentrations at the target site in vivo are not sufficient. To overcome this shortcoming, we established PEG-PLA/PLGA-based nanoparticles loaded with pioglitazone and tested them in vitro. Encapsulation of the drug was analyzed by HPLC and revealed an outstanding encapsulation efficiency of 59% into the nanoparticles, which were 85 nm in size and had a PDI of 0.17. Further, uptake of our loaded nanoparticles in THP-1 macrophages was comparable to the uptake of unloaded nanoparticles. On the mRNA level, pioglitazone-loaded nanoparticles were superior to the free drug by 32% in increasing the expression of the targeted receptor PPAR-γ. Thereby the inflammatory response in macrophages was ameliorated. In this study, we take the first step toward an anti-inflammatory, causal antiatherosclerotic therapy, using the potential of the already established drug pioglitazone, and enable it to enrich at the target site by using nanoparticles. An additional crucial feature of our nanoparticle platform is the versatile modifiability of ligands and ligand density, to achieve an optimal active targeting effect in the future.

Self-Assembly of Precisely Fluorinated Albumin for Dual Imaging-Guided Synergistic Chemo-Photothermal-Photodynamic Cancer Therapy

Although albumin has been extensively used in nanomedicine, it is still challenging to fluorinate albumin into fluorine-19 magnetic resonance imaging (¹⁹F MRI)-traceable theranostics because existing strategies lead to severe ¹⁹F signal splitting, line broadening, and low ¹⁹F MRI sensitivity. To this end, 34-cysteine-selectively fluorinated bovine serum albumins (BSAs) with a sharp singlet ¹⁹F peak have been developed as ¹⁹F MRI-sensitive and self-assembled frameworks for cancer theranostics. It was found that fluorinated albumin with a non-binding fluorocarbon and a long linker is crucial for avoiding ¹⁹F signal splitting and line broadening. With the fluorinated BSAs, paclitaxel (PTX) and IR-780 were self-assembled into stable, monodisperse, and multifunctional nanoparticles in a framework-promoted self-emulsion way. The high tumor accumulation, efficient cancer cell uptake, and laser-triggered PTX sharp release of the BSA nanoparticles enabled ¹⁹F MRI-near infrared fluorescence imaging (NIR FLI)-guided synergistic chemotherapy (Chemo), photothermal and photodynamic therapy of xenograft MCF-7 cancer with a high therapeutical index in mice. This study developed a rational synthesis of ¹⁹F MRI-sensitive albumin and a framework-promoted self-emulsion of multifunctional BSA nanoparticles, which would promote the development of protein-based high-performance biomaterials for imaging, diagnosis, therapy, and beyond.

Nanoparticles and convergence of artificial intelligence for targeted drug delivery for cancer therapy: Current progress and challenges

Cancer is a life-threatening disease, resulting in nearly 10 million deaths worldwide. There are various causes of cancer, and the prognostic information varies in each patient because of unique molecular signatures in the human body. However, genetic heterogeneity occurs due to different cancer types and changes in the neoplasms, which complicates the diagnosis and treatment. Targeted drug delivery is considered a pivotal contributor to precision medicine for cancer treatments as this method helps deliver medication to patients by systematically increasing the drug concentration on the targeted body parts. In such cases, nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery and the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) can help bridge the gap and enhance localized drug delivery systems capable of biomarker sensing. Diagnostic assays using nanoparticles (NPs) enable biomarker identification by accumulating in the specific cancer sites and ensuring accurate drug delivery planning. Integrating NPs for cancer targeting and AI can help devise sophisticated systems that further classify cancer types and understand complex disease patterns. Advanced AI algorithms can also help in biomarker detection, predicting different NP interactions of the targeted drug, and evaluating drug efficacy. Considering the advantages of the convergence of NPs and AI for targeted drug delivery, there has been significantly limited research focusing on the specific research theme, with most of the research being proposed on AI and drug discovery. Thus, the study's primary objective is to highlight the recent advances in drug delivery using NPs, and their impact on personalized treatment plans for cancer patients. In addition, a focal point of the study is also to highlight how integrating AI, and NPs can help address some of the existing challenges in drug delivery by conducting a collective survey.

The development of highly dense highly protected surfactant ionizable lipid RNA loaded nanoparticles

The long quest for efficient drug administration has been looking for a universal carrier that can precisely transport traditional drugs, new genomic and proteic therapeutic agents. Today, researchers have found conditions to overcome the two main drug delivery dilemmas. On the one side, the versatility of the vehicle to efficiently load, protect and transport the drug and then release it at the target place. On the other hand, the questions related to the degree of PEGylation which are needed to avoid nanoparticle (NP) aggregation and opsonization while preventing cellular uptake. The development of different kinds of lipidic drug delivery vehicles and particles has resulted in the development of ionizable lipid nanoparticles (iLNPs), which can overcome most of the typical drug delivery problems. Proof of their success is the late approval and massive administration as the prophylactic vaccine for SARS-CoV-2. These ILNPs are built by electrostatic aggregation of surfactants, the therapeutic agent, and lipids that self-segregate from an aqueous solution, forming nanoparticles stabilized with lipid polymers, such as PEG. These vehicles overcome previous limitations such as low loading and high toxicity, likely thanks to low charge at the working pH and reduced size, and their entry into the cells via endocytosis rather than membrane perforation or fusion, always associated with higher toxicity. We herein revise their primary features, synthetic methods to prepare and characterize them, pharmacokinetic (administration, distribution, metabolization and excretion) aspects, and biodistribution and fate. Owing to their advantages, iLNPs are potential drug delivery systems to improve the management of various diseases and widely available for clinical use.

Smart Multistage "Trojan Horse"-Inspired Bovine Serum Albumin-Coated Liposomes for Enhancing Tumor Penetration and Antitumor Efficacy

Poor antitumor drug penetration into tumor tissues is a global challenge in clinical cancer treatment. Here, we reported a smart multistage "Trojan Horse"-inspired bovine serum albumin (BSA)-coated liposome (HBM), including the mimics of capsid and secondary BSA-coated polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) for enhancing tumor penetration and antitumor efficacy. These drug-loaded polymeric NPs possess a capsid-like component, a well-distributed nanostructure (size: 190.1 ± 4.98 nm, PDI: 0.259), and an excellent drug loading content (15.85 ± 1.36%). Meaningfully, after the smart multistage BSA-coated liposome targeted the tumor tissue, the mimics of capsid were "taken off" under the condition of tumor-specific enzymes, releasing "Heart" BSA-modified secondary NPs to increase the ability to penetrate tumor cells for enhancing antitumor efficacy. As expected, the HBM efficiently achieves high drug penetration into PAN02 tumor cells. Moreover, compared to free DOX and HM (HBM without BSA) NPs, DOX/HBM NPs exhibited the strongest tumor penetration and the highest cytotoxicity against PAN02 tumor cells both in vitro (IC50 = 0.141 μg/mL) and in vivo. This smart multistage "Trojan Horse"-inspired BSA-coated liposome should provide a new hathpace for further development of polymeric NPs in clinical treatment.

D. Medeiros H, Bates M, Roshanzadeh A, Thing Teoh S, P. Ogrodzinski M, Borhan B, Lunt RR, Lunt SY. Counterion Tuning of Near-Infrared Organic Salts Dictates Phototoxicity to Inhibit Tumor Growth

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has the potential to improve cancer treatment by providing dual selectivity through the use of both photoactive agent and light, with the goal of minimal harmful effects from either the agent or light alone. However, current PDT is limited by insufficient photosensitizers (PSs) that can suffer from low tissue penetration, insufficient phototoxicity (toxicity with light irradiation), or undesirable cytotoxicity (toxicity without light irradiation). Recently, we reported a platform for decoupling optical and electronic properties with counterions that modulate frontier molecular orbital levels of a photoactive ion. Here, we demonstrate the utility of this platform in vivo by pairing near-infrared (NIR) photoactive heptamethine cyanine cation (Cy⁺), which has enhanced optical properties for deep tissue penetration, with counterions that make it cytotoxic, phototoxic, or nontoxic in a mouse model of breast cancer. We find that pairing Cy⁺ with weakly coordinating anion FPhB^- results in a selectively phototoxic PS (CyFPhB) that stops tumor growth in vivo with minimal side effects. This work provides proof of concept that our counterion pairing platform can be used to generate improved cancer PSs that are selectively phototoxic to tumors and nontoxic to normal healthy tissues.

The tumor EPR effect for cancer drug delivery: Current status, limitations, and alternatives

Over the past three decades, the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect has been considered the basis of tumor-targeted drug delivery. Various cancer nanomedicines, including macromolecular drugs, have been designed to utilize this mechanism for preferential extravasation and accumulation in solid tumors. However, such nanomedicines have not yet achieved convincing therapeutic benefits in clinics. Increasing evidence suggests that the EPR effect is over-represented in human tumors, especially in metastatic tumors. This review covers the evolution of the concept, the heterogeneity and limitation of the EPR effect in clinical realities, and prospects for alternative strategies independent of the EPR effect.

A Structural Analysis of Proteinaceous Nanotube Cavities and Their Applications in Nanotechnology

Protein nanotubes offer unique properties to the materials science field that allow them to fulfill various functions in drug delivery, biosensors and energy storage. Protein nanotubes are chemically diverse, modular, biodegradable and nontoxic. Furthermore, although the initial design or repurposing of such nanotubes is highly complex, the field has matured to understand underlying chemical and physical properties to a point where applications are successfully being developed. An important feature of a nanotube is its ability to bind ligands via its internal cavities. As ligands of interest vary in size, shape and chemical properties, cavities have to be able to accommodate very specific features. As such, understanding cavities on a structural level is essential for their effective application. The objective of this review is to present the chemical and physical diversity of protein nanotube cavities and highlight their potential applications in materials science, specifically in biotechnology.

Films, Gels and Electrospun Fibers from Serum Albumin Globular Protein for Medical Device Coating, Biomolecule Delivery and Regenerative Engineering

Albumin is a natural biomaterial that is abundantly available in blood and body fluids. It is clinically used as a plasma expander, thereby increasing the plasma thiol concentration due to its cysteine residues. Albumin is a regulator of intervascular oncotic pressure, serves as an anti-inflammatory modulator, and it has a buffering role due to its histidine imidazole residues. Because of its unique biological and physical properties, albumin has also emerged as a suitable biomaterial for coating implantable devices, for cell and drug delivery, and as a scaffold for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. As a biomaterial, albumin can be used as surface-modifying film or processed either as cross-linked protein gels or as electrospun fibers. Herein we have discussed how albumin protein can be utilized in regenerative medicine as a hydrogel and as a fibrous mat for a diverse role in successfully delivering drugs, genes, and cells to targeted tissues and organs. The review of prior studies indicated that albumin is a tunable biomaterial from which different types of scaffolds with mechanical properties adjustable for various biomedical applications can be fabricated. Based on the progress made to date, we concluded that albumin-based device coatings, delivery of drugs, genes, and cells are promising strategies in regenerative and personalized medicine.

The emerging role of cancer nanotechnology in the panorama of sarcoma

In the field of nanomedicine a multitude of nanovectors have been developed for cancer application. In this regard, a less exploited target is represented by connective tissue. Sarcoma lesions encompass a wide range of rare entities of mesenchymal origin affecting connective tissues. The extraordinary diversity and rarity of these mesenchymal tumors is reflected in their classification, grading and management which are still challenging. Although they include more than 70 histologic subtypes, the first line-treatment for advanced and metastatic sarcoma has remained unchanged in the last fifty years, excluding specific histotypes in which targeted therapy has emerged. The role of chemotherapy has not been completely elucidated and the outcomes are still very limited. At the beginning of the century, nano-sized particles clinically approved for other solid lesions were tested in these neoplasms but the results were anecdotal and the clinical benefit was not substantial. Recently, a new nanosystem formulation NBTXR3 for the treatment of sarcoma has landed in a phase 2-3 trial. The preliminary results are encouraging and could open new avenues for research in nanotechnology. This review provides an update on the recent advancements in the field of nanomedicine for sarcoma. In this regard, preclinical evidence especially focusing on the development of smart materials and drug delivery systems will be summarized. Moreover, the sarcoma patient management exploiting nanotechnology products will be summed up. Finally, an overlook on future perspectives will be provided.

Current trends in the use of human serum albumin for drug delivery in cancer

INTRODUCTION

Human serum albumin is the most abundant transport protein in plasma, which has recently been extensively utilized to form nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer. The primary reason for selecting albumin protein as drug delivery cargo is its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity. Moreover, the albumin structure containing three homologous domains constituted of a single polypeptide (585 amino acid) incorporates various hydrophobic drugs by non-covalent interactions. Albumin shows active tumor targeting via their interaction with gp60 and SPARC proteins abundant in the tumor-associated endothelial cells and the tumor microenvironment.

AREAS COVERED

The review discusses the importance of albumin as a drug-carrier system, general procedures to prepare albumin NPs, and the current trends in using albumin-based nanomedicines to deliver various chemotherapeutic agents. The various applications of albumin in the nanomedicines, such as NPs surface modifier and fabrication of hybrid/active-tumor targeted NPs, are delineated based on current trends.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicines have the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment. However, clinical translation is limited majorly due to the lack of suitable nanomaterials offering systemic stability, optimum drug encapsulation, tumor-targeted delivery, sustained drug release, and biocompatibility. The potential of albumin could be explored in nanomedicines fabrication for superior treatment outcomes in cancer.

Catechin-Albumin Conjugates: Enhanced Antioxidant Capacity and Anticancer Effects

(+)-Catechin conjugated with human serum albumin (CT–HSA) was prepared and evaluated as a drug carrier bearing anticancer effects. It was found that 2.4 mol of CT was conjugate to 1 mol HSA. The CT–HSA has an antioxidant capacity of about 3.3 times the amount of CT in the conjugate. Intracellular incorporation of the CT–HSA was analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) measurements using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled CT–HSA. The results indicated that the FITC-labelled CT–HSA was incorporated into HeLa cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The CT–HSA enhanced the binding of anticancer drugs (5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) and mitomycin C (MMC)) comparing with HSA, and the CT–HSA mixed with 5-Fu or MMC decreased significantly the HeLa cell viability as compared with the same concentration of each drug. In addition, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging by the CT–HSA is likely to affect the anticancer effects. Thus, the CT–HSA enhanced anticancer drug efficacy in relation to controlling ROS-scavenging ability.

Ultrasound-Responsive Nanocarriers for Breast Cancer Chemotherapy

Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer and it is treated with surgical intervention, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these regimens. Despite chemotherapy's ample use, it has limitations such as bioavailability, adverse side effects, high-dose requirements, low therapeutic indices, multiple drug resistance development, and non-specific targeting. Drug delivery vehicles or carriers, of which nanocarriers are prominent, have been introduced to overcome chemotherapy limitations. Nanocarriers have been preferentially used in breast cancer chemotherapy because of their role in protecting therapeutic agents from degradation, enabling efficient drug concentration in target cells or tissues, overcoming drug resistance, and their relatively small size. However, nanocarriers are affected by physiological barriers, bioavailability of transported drugs, and other factors. To resolve these issues, the use of external stimuli has been introduced, such as ultrasound, infrared light, thermal stimulation, microwaves, and X-rays. Recently, ultrasound-responsive nanocarriers have become popular because they are cost-effective, non-invasive, specific, tissue-penetrating, and deliver high drug concentrations to their target. In this paper, we review recent developments in ultrasound-guided nanocarriers for breast cancer chemotherapy, discuss the relevant challenges, and provide insights into future directions.

Insights on Development Aspects of Polymeric Nanocarriers: The Translation from Bench to Clinic

Scientists are focusing immense attention on polymeric nanocarriers as a prominent delivery vehicle for several biomedical applications including diagnosis of diseases, delivery of therapeutic agents, peptides, proteins, genes, siRNA, and vaccines due to their exciting physicochemical characteristics which circumvent degradation of unstable drugs, reduce toxic side effects through controlled release, and improve bioavailability. Polymers-based nanocarriers offer numerous benefits for in vivo drug delivery such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-immunogenicity, active drug targeting via surface modification, and controlled release due to their pH—and thermosensitive characteristics. Despite their potential for medicinal use, regulatory approval has been achieved for just a few. In this review, we discuss the historical development of polymers starting from their initial design to their evolution as nanocarriers for therapeutic delivery of drugs, peptides, and genes. The review article also expresses the applications of polymeric nanocarriers in the pharmaceutical and medical industry with a special emphasis on oral, ocular, parenteral, and topical application of drugs, peptides, and genes over the last two decades. The review further examines the practical, regulatory, and clinical considerations of the polymeric nanocarriers, their safety issues, and directinos for future research.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Based Co-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Cancer therapies have advanced tremendously throughout the last decade, yet multiple factors still hinder the success of the different cancer therapeutics. The traditional therapeutic approach has been proven insufficient and lacking in the suppression of tumor growth. The simultaneous delivery of multiple small-molecule chemotherapeutic drugs and genes improves the effectiveness of each treatment, thus optimizing efficacy and improving synergistic effects. Nanomedicines integrating inorganic, lipid, and polymeric-based nanoparticles have been designed to regulate the spatiotemporal release of the encapsulated drugs. Multidrug-loaded nanocarriers are a potential strategy to fight cancer and the incorporation of co-delivery systems as a feasible treatment method has projected synergistic benefits and limited undesirable effects. Moreover, the development of co-delivery systems for maximum therapeutic impact necessitates better knowledge of the appropriate therapeutic agent ratio as well as the inherent heterogeneity of the cancer cells. Co-delivery systems can simplify clinical processes and increase patient quality of life, even though such systems are more difficult to prepare than single drug delivery systems. This review highlights the progress attained in the development and design of nano carrier-based co-delivery systems and discusses the limitations, challenges, and future perspectives in the design and fabrication of co-delivery systems.

Combination Therapy Comprising Paclitaxel and 5-Fluorouracil by Using Folic Acid Functionalized Bovine Milk Exosomes Improves the Therapeutic Efficacy against Breast Cancer

Paclitaxel (PAC) has been approved by FDA for clinical use (Taxol^®), yet dose-dependent severe toxicity due to the adjuvant Cremophor EL^® in combination with ethanol is a major drawback. The drawbacks of the current therapy can be overcome by (i) finding a suitable vehicle that cannot only bypass the above adjuvant but also be used to deliver drugs orally and (ii) combining the PAC with some other chemotherapeutics to have the enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In the current work, we have used folic acid (FA) functionalized bovine milk-derived exosomes for oral delivery of PAC in combination with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Exosomes before and after the drug loading were found to have a particle size in the range of 80–100 nm, polydispersity index (PDI ~0.20), zeta potential (~−25 mV), entrapment efficiency (~82%), practical drug loading (~28%) and sustained drug release for 48 h. Significant decreases in IC₅₀ were observed in the case of exosomes loaded drugs which further improved following the FA functionalization. FA functionalized coumarin-6-loaded exosomes showed remarkably higher cellular uptake in comparison with free coumarin-6. Moreover, FA-functionalized drug-loaded exosomes showed a higher apoptotic index with better control over cell migration. Collectively, data suggested the enhanced efficacy of the combination following its loading to the folic acid functionalized exosomes against breast cancer.

Thermosensitive Hydrogels Loaded with Resveratrol Nanoemulsion: Formulation Optimization by Central Composite Design and Evaluation in MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cell Lines

The second most common cause of mortality among women is breast cancer. A variety of natural compounds have been demonstrated to be beneficial in the management of various malignancies. Resveratrol is a promising anticancer polyphenolic compound found in grapes, berries, etc. Nevertheless, its low solubility, and hence its low bioavailability, restrict its therapeutic potential. Therefore, in our study, we developed a thermosensitive hydrogel formulation loaded with resveratrol nanoemulsion to enhance its bioavailability. Initially, resveratrol nanoemulsions were formulated and optimized utilizing a central composite-face-centered design. The independent variables for optimization were surfactant level, homogenization speed, and time, while the size and zeta potential were the dependent variables. The optimized nanoemulsion formulation was converted into a sensitive hydrogel using poloxamer 407. Rheological studies proved the formation of gel consistency at physiological temperature. Drug loading efficiency and in vitro drug release from gels were also analyzed. The drug release mechanisms from the gels were assessed using various mathematical models. The effect of the optimized thermosensitive resveratrol nanoemulsion hydrogel on the viability of human breast cancer cells was tested using MCF-7 cancer cell lines. The globule size of the selected formulation was 111.54 ± 4.16 nm, with a zeta potential of 40.96 ± 3.1 mV. Within 6 h, the in vitro release profile demonstrated a release rate of 80%. According to cell line studies, the produced hydrogel of resveratrol nanoemulsion was cytotoxic to breast cancer cells. Overall, the results proved the developed nanoemulsion-loaded thermosensitive hydrogel is a promising platform for the effective delivery of resveratrol for the management of breast cancer.

Design and Evaluation of pH Sensitive PEG-Protamine Nanocomplex of Doxorubicin for Treatment of Breast Cancer

Cancer is the most common cause of mortality worldwide. There is dire need of modern strategies—such as surface modification of nanocarriers—to combat this global illness. Incorporation of active targeting ligands has arisen as a novel platform for specific tumor targeting. The aim of the current study was to formulate PEG-protamine complex (PPC) of doxorubicin (DOX) for treatment of breast cancer (BC). DOX coupling with PEG can enhance cell-penetrating ability: combating resistance in MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cells. Ionic gelation method was adopted to fabricate a pH sensitive nanocomplex. The optimized nanoformulation was characterized for its particle diameter, zeta potential, surface morphology, entrapment efficiency, crystallinity, and molecular interaction. In vitro assay was executed to gauge the release potential of nanoformulation. The mean particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI) of the optimized nanoparticles were observed to be 212 nm, 15.2 mV, and 0.264, respectively. Crystallinity studies and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed no molecular interaction and confirmed the amorphous nature of drug within nanoparticles. The in vitro release data indicate sustained drug release at pH 4.8, which is intracellular pH of breast cancer cells, as compared to the drug solution. PPC loaded with doxorubicin can be utilized as an alternative and effective approach for specific targeting of breast cancer.

Clickable Albumin Nanoparticles for Pretargeted Drug Delivery toward PD-L1 Overexpressing Tumors in Combination Immunotherapy

We present a simple methodology to design a pretargeted drug delivery system, based on clickable anti-programmed death ligand 1 (anti-PD-L1) antibodies (Abs) and clickable bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles (NPs). Pretargeted drug delivery is based on the decoupling of a targeting moiety and a drug-delivering vector which can then react in vivo after separate injections. This may be key to achieve active targeting of drug-delivering NPs toward cancerous tissue. In pretargeted approaches, drug-delivering NPs were observed to accumulate in a higher amount in the targeted tissue due to shielding-related enhanced blood circulation and size-related enhanced tissue penetration. In this work, BSA NPs were produced using the solvent precipitation methodology that renders colloidally stable NPs, which were subsequently functionalized with a clickable moiety based on chlorosydnone (Cl-Syd). Those reactive groups are able to specifically react with dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO) groups in a click-type fashion, reaching second-order reaction rate constants as high as 1.9 M^-1·s^-1, which makes this reaction highly suitable for in vivo applications. The presence of reactive Cl-Syd was demonstrated by reacting the functionalized NPs with a DBCO-modified sulfo-cyanine-5 dye. With this reaction, it was possible to infer the number of reactive moieties per NPs. Finally, and with the aim of demonstrating the suitability of this system to be used in pretargeted strategies, functionalized fluorescent NPs were used to label H358 cells with a clickable anti-PD-L1 Ab, applying the reaction between Cl-Syd and DBCO as corresponding clickable groups. The results of these experiments demonstrate the bio-orthogonality of the system to perform the reaction in vitro, in a period as short as 15 min.

Protein adsorption onto nanomaterials engineered for theranostic applications

The key role of biomolecule adsorption onto engineered nanomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes has been well recognized by the nanobiotechnology community, and our mechanistic understanding of nano-bio interactions has greatly advanced over the past decades. Attention has recently shifted to gaining active control of nano-bio interactions, so as to enhance the efficacy of nanomaterials in biomedical applications. In this review, we summarize progress in this field and outline directions for future development. First, we briefly review fundamental knowledge about the intricate interactions between proteins and nanomaterials, as unraveled by a large number of mechanistic studies. Then, we give a systematic overview of the ways that protein-nanomaterial interactions have been exploited in biomedical applications, including the control of protein adsorption for enhancing the targeting efficiency of nanomedicines, the design of specific protein adsorption layers on the surfaces of nanomaterials for use as drug carriers, and the development of novel nanoparticle array-based sensors based on nano-bio interactions. We will focus on particularly relevant and recent examples within these areas. Finally, we conclude this topical review with an outlook on future developments in this fascinating research field.

PI3K/AKT Signaling Tips the Balance of Cytoskeletal Forces for Cancer Progression

The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway plays essential roles in multiple cellular processes, which include cell growth, survival, metabolism, and motility. In response to internal and external stimuli, the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway co-opts other signaling pathways, cellular components, and cytoskeletal proteins to reshape individual cells. The cytoskeletal network comprises three main components, which are namely the microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Collectively, they are essential for many fundamental structures and cellular processes. In cancer, aberrant activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling cascade and alteration of cytoskeletal structures have been observed to be highly prevalent, and eventually contribute to many cancer hallmarks. Due to their critical roles in tumor progression, pharmacological agents targeting PI3K/AKT, along with cytoskeletal components, have been developed for better intervention strategies against cancer. In our review, we first discuss existing evidence in-depth and then build on recent advances to propose new directions for therapeutic intervention.

Promoting antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis for effective macrophage-based cancer immunotherapy

Macrophages are essential in eliciting antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP) of cancer cells. However, a satisfactory anticancer efficacy of ADCP is contingent on early antibody administration, and resistance develops along with cancer progression. Here, we investigate the mechanisms underlying ADCP and demonstrate an effective combinatorial strategy to potentiate its efficacy. We identified paclitaxel as a universal adjuvant that efficiently potentiated ADCP by a variety of anticancer antibodies in multiple cancers. Rather than eliciting cytotoxicity on cancer cells, paclitaxel polarized macrophages toward a state with enhanced phagocytic ability. Paclitaxel-treated macrophages down-regulated cell surface CSF1R whose expression was negatively correlated with patient survival in multiple malignancies. The suppression of CSF1R in macrophages enhanced ADCP of cancer cells, suggesting a role of CSF1R in regulating macrophage phagocytic ability. Together, these findings define a potent strategy for using conventional anticancer drugs to stimulate macrophage phagocytosis and promote the therapeutic efficacy of clinical anticancer antibodies.

Laurus nobilis L. Essential Oil-Loaded PLGA as a Nanoformulation Candidate for Cancer Treatment

The aim of this study was to obtain essential oil (LNEO) from the Laurus nobilis L. plant, and to prepare LNEO-loaded poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) as an approach in cancer treatment. The components of the obtained LNEO were analyzed using GC-MS. The LNEO-NPs were synthesized by the single-emulsion method. The LNEO-NPs were characterized using UV-Vis spectrometry, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and a DNA binding assay, which was performed via the UV-Vis titration method. According to the results, the LNEO-NPs had a 211.4 ± 4.031 nm average particle size, 0.068 ± 0.016 PdI, and −7.87 ± 1.15 mV zeta potential. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity were calculated as 59.25% and 25.65%, respectively, and the in vitro drug release study showed an LNEO release of 93.97 ± 3.78% over the 72 h period. Moreover, the LNEO was intercalatively bound to CT-DNA. In addition, the mechanism of action of LNEO on a dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor was predicted, and its antiproliferative activity and mechanism were determined using molecular docking analysis. It was concluded that LNEO-loaded PLGA NPs may be used for cancer treatment as a novel phytotherapeutic agent-based controlled-release system.

Design and Characterization of Paclitaxel-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles Decorated With Trastuzumab for the Effective Treatment of Breast Cancer

The aim of the study was to design and formulate an antibody-mediated targeted, biodegradable polymeric drug delivery system releasing drug in a controlled manner to achieve a therapeutic goal for the effective treatment of breast cancer. Antibody-mediated paclitaxel-loaded PLGA polymeric nanoformulations were prepared by the solvent evaporation method using different experimental parameters and compatibility studies. The optimized formulations were selected for in vitro and in vivo evaluation and cytotoxicity studies. The in vitro drug release studies show a biphasic release pattern for the paclitaxel-loaded PLGA nanoparticles showing a burst release for 24 h followed by an extended release for 14 days; however, a more controlled and sustained release was observed for antibody-conjugated polymeric nanoparticles. The cytotoxicity of reference drug and paclitaxel-loaded PLGA nanoparticles with and without antibody was determined by performing MTT assay against MCF-7 cells. Rabbits were used as experimental animals for the assessment of various in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters of selected formulations. The pharmacokinetic parameters such as C_max (1.18–1.33 folds), AUC_0-t (39.38–46.55 folds), MRT (10.04–12.79 folds), t_1/2 (3.06–4.6 folds), and V_d (6.96–8.38 folds) have been increased significantly while clearance (4.34–4.61 folds) has been decreased significantly for the selected nanoformulations as compared to commercially available paclitaxel formulation (Paclixil^®). The surface conjugation of nanoparticles with trastuzumab resulted in an increase in in vitro cytotoxicity as compared to plain nanoformulations and commercially available conventional brand (Paclixil^®). The developed PLGA-paclitaxel nanoformulations conjugated with trastuzumab have the desired physiochemical characteristics, surface morphology, sustained release kinetics, and enhanced targeting.

Synthesis and Characterization of Biodegradable Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) for Drug Delivery Applications

Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBCA) is a biodegradable and biocompatible homopolymer which is used as a carrier matrix for drug delivery systems in the pharmaceutical industry. Typically, polymerization is carried out under aqueous conditions and results in molecular weights are mostly lower than 3000 g/mol due to the instability of the high molecular weight PBCA. However, the stability of polymer excipients is a major prerequisite for drug product development in the pharmaceutical industry. In this work, a reliable polymer synthesis strategy for PBCA was designed to control the molecular weight in a nonaqueous polymerization environment. The anionic polymerization process and the impact of key synthesis parameters were investigated. The results confirmed that the previously postulated depolymerization–repolymerization process (DPRP) in the literature can be used to tailor the molecular weight of PBCA. The amount of sodium methoxide present during the polymerization proved to be the key parameter to control the DPRP and the molecular weight as desired. In addition, it was discovered that end-capping the PBCA chain suppressed the DPRP and prevented monomer release by depriving the PBCA of its living character. Thus, neat PBCA polymer with varying molecular weights determined by Advanced Polymer Chromatography™ as well as end-capped PBCA were synthesized, and the improvement of the chemical and shelf-life stability were confirmed using NMR.

In Situ Nanoparticle Self-Assembly for Combination Delivery of Therapeutics to Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Chemotherapy often experiences several challenges including severe systemic toxicity and adverse effects. The combination chemotherapy arose as an effective clinical practice aimed at reducing doses of drugs to achieve synergistic actions with low toxicity. Our recent efforts demonstrated a synergistic therapeutic benefit of gambogic acid (GA) and gemcitabine (Gem) against lung cancer. However, simultaneous delivery of these two drugs at the tumor site is highly challenging. Therefore, the development of an injectable formulation that can effectively deliver both hydrophobic (GA) and hydrophilic (Gem) drugs in one formulation is a clinically unmet need. Herein, this study reports an in situ human serum albumin (HSA)- and tannic acid (TA)-mediated complexed GA and Gem nanoparticles (G-G@HTA NPs). G-G@HTA NP formation was confirmed by the particle size, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and ¹H NMR spectroscopy. The superior therapeutic activity of G-G@HTA NPs was demonstrated by multiple in vitro functional assays. Additionally, G-G@HTA NPs revealed an obvious and precise targeting of tumors in vivo. The promoted and more synergistic anti-tumor efficacy of G-G@HTA NPs was attained than that of combined treatments and single drug treatments. These events have resulted in no apparent systemic and organ toxicities. Together, this study suggests that in situ HSA-TA-based combinatorial treatment strategy is a suitable approach for application in lung cancer treatment.

Zinc-Substituted Pheophorbide A Is a Safe and Efficient Antivascular Photodynamic Agent

The present study focuses on the photodynamic activity of zinc-substituted pheophorbide a against human endothelial cells. Previously, zinc pheophorbide a has been shown to be a very potent photosensitizer but also a strong albumin binder. Binding to albumin significantly reduces its availability to cancer cells, which may necessitate the use of relatively high doses. Here we show that zinc pheophorbide a is very effective against vascular endothelial cells, even in its albumin-complexed form. Albumin complexation increases the lysosomal accumulation of the drug, thus enhancing its efficiency. Zinc pheophorbide a at nanomolar concentrations induces endothelial cell death via apoptosis, which in many cases is considered a desirable cell death mode because of its anti-inflammatory effect. Additionally, we demonstrate that in comparison to tumor cells, endothelial cells are much more susceptible to photodynamic treatment with the use of the investigated compound. Our findings demonstrate that zinc pheophorbide a is a very promising photosensitizer for use in vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy against solid tumors, acting as a vascular shutdown inducer. It can also possibly find application in the treatment of a range of vascular disorders. Numerous properties of zinc pheophorbide a are comparable or even more favorable than those of the well-known photosensitizer of a similar structure, palladium bacteriopheophorbide (TOOKAD^®).

Paclitaxel Drug Delivery Systems: Focus on Nanocrystals' Surface Modifications

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a chemotherapeutic agent that belongs to the taxane family and which was approved to treat various kinds of cancers including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, advanced non-small-cell lung cancer, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. Several delivery systems for PTX have been developed to enhance its solubility and pharmacological properties involving liposomes, nanoparticles, microparticles, micelles, cosolvent methods, and the complexation with cyclodextrins and other materials that are summarized in this article. Specifically, this review discusses deeply the developed paclitaxel nanocrystal formulations. As PTX is a hydrophobic drug with inferior water solubility properties, which are improved a lot by nanocrystal formulation. Based on that, many studies employed nano-crystallization techniques not only to improve the oral delivery of PTX, but IV, intraperitoneal (IP), and local and intertumoral delivery systems were also developed. Additionally, superior and interesting properties of PTX NCs were achieved by performing additional modifications to the NCs, such as stabilization with surfactants and coating with polymers. This review summarizes these delivery systems by shedding light on their route of administration, the methods used in the preparation and modifications, the in vitro or in vivo models used, and the advantages obtained based on the developed formulations.

Progress of albumin-polymer conjugates as efficient drug carriers

Albumin is a protein that has garnered wide attention in nanoparticle-based drug delivery of cancer therapeutics due to its natural abundance and unique cancer-targeting ability. The propensity of albumin to naturally accumulate in tumours, further augmented by the incorporation of targeting ligands, has made the field of albumin-polymer conjugate development a much pursued one. Polymerization techniques such as RAFT and ATRP have paved the path to incorporate various polymers in the design of albumin-polymer hybrids, indicating the advancement of the field since the first instance of PEGylated albumin in 1977. The synergistic combination of albumin and polymer endows manifold features to these macromolecular hybrids to evolve as next generation therapeutics. The current review is successive to our previously published review on drug delivery vehicles based on albumin-polymer conjugates and aims to provide an update on the progress of albumin-polymer conjugates. This review also highlights the alternative of exploring albumin-polymer conjugates formed via supramolecular, non-covalent interactions. Albumin-based supramolecular polymer systems provide a versatile platform for functionalization, thereby, holding great potential in enhancing cytotoxicity and controlled delivery of therapeutic agents.

Engineering Cellular Membrane for Dual Mode Therapy Using NIR Responsive Photosensitizer and Reversible Topoisomerase Inhibition Activity

Extensive research over past few decades has highlighted the challenges of chemotherapy and prompted the need for multimodality therapy because chemotherapy alone cannot fully eradicate the tumor due to physiological barriers in its effective delivery and systemic side effects. It can be mitigated by adopting nanoparticles as more effective delivery method, but none of them completely prevents drug toxicities. Utilizing multiple therapeutic modes such as phototherapy that can act synergistically with chemotherapy in controlling tumor growth, while reducing the overall dosage, could become a preferred route for cancer management. Careful selection of nanoparticle system, which can simultaneously deliver both drug and photosensitizer, can significantly enhance the therapeutic outcome. Therefore, in this paper, we report development and potential of immune-compatible and long circulating nanoerythrosomes for enhancing the therapeutic potential of camptothecin and indocyanine green against murine cancer model. The RBCs membrane simultaneously loaded the nonpolar drug and amphiphilic photosensitizer in its lipid bilayer, which self-assembled to form stable nanoparticles. These nano constructs absorbed light in the near-infrared region and hence are suitable for targeting deep seated tissues. The dual chemo-phototherapy had great effect on cell viability and had therapeutic value.

Nanoparticles use for Delivering Ursolic Acid in Cancer Therapy: A Scoping Review

Ursolic acid is a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid that exerts a potent anticancer effect. Furthermore, it is classified as a BCS class IV compound possessing low permeability and water solubility, consequently demonstrating limited bioavailability in addition to low therapeutic effectiveness. Nanoparticles are developed to modify the physical characteristics of drug and can often be produced in the range of 30–200 nm, providing highly effective cancer therapy due to the Enhanced Permeation and Retention (EPR) Effect. This study aims to provide a review of the efficacy and safety of various types of Ursolic Acid-loading nanoparticles within the setting of preclinical and clinical anticancer studies. This literature study used scoping review method, where the extracted data must comply with the journal inclusion criteria of within years of 2010–2020. The identification stage produced 237 suitable articles. Duplicate screening was then conducted followed by the initial selection of 18 articles that had been reviewed and extracted for data analysis. Based on this review, the use of nanoparticles can be seen to increase the anticancer efficacy of Ursolic Acid in terms of several parameters including pharmacokinetic data, survival rates and inhibition rates, as well as the absence of serious toxicity in preclinical and clinical trials in terms of several parameters including body weight, blood clinical chemistry, and organ histipathology. Based on this review, the use of nanoparticles has been able to increase the anticancer efficacy of Ursolic Acid, as well as show the absence of serious toxicity in preclinical and clinical trials. Evenmore, the liposome carrier provides development data that has reached the clinical trial phase I. The use of nanoparticle provides high potential for Ursolic Acid delivery in cancer therapy.

Development of Pharmaceutical Nanomedicines: From the Bench to the Market

Nanotechnology plays a significant role in the field of medicine and in drug delivery, mainly due to the major limitations affecting the conventional pharmaceutical agents, and older formulations and delivery systems. The effect of nanotechnology on healthcare is already being felt, as various nanotechnology applications have been developed, and several nanotechnology-based medicines are now on the market. Across many parts of the world, nanotechnology draws increasing investment from public authorities and the private sector. Most conventional drug-delivery systems (CDDSs) have an immediate, high drug release after administration, leading to increased administration frequency. Thus, many studies have been carried out worldwide focusing on the development of pharmaceutical nanomedicines for translation into products manufactured by local pharmaceutical companies. Pharmaceutical nanomedicine products are projected to play a major role in the global pharmaceutical market and healthcare system. Our objectives were to examine the nanomedicines approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in the global market, to briefly cover the challenges faced during their development, and to look at future perspectives. Additionally, the importance of nanotechnology in developing pharmaceutical products, the ideal properties of nanocarriers, the reasons behind the failure of some nanomedicines, and the important considerations in the development of nanomedicines will be discussed in brief.

Self-assembled tocopherol-albumin nanoparticles with full biocompatibility for chemo-photothermal therapy against breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemotherapy has proven to be a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Various nanomaterials have shown great potential in combination therapy, including gold, graphene oxide, iron oxide, and other nanoparticles. However, their undefinable toxicity in vivo greatly slowed down their development for clinical applications.

OBJECTIVE

The present work aimed to develop a multifunctional nanoparticle for chemo-photothermal therapy composed of acknowledged biocompatible materials.

METHODS

A novel biocompatible nanoparticle (HIT-NPs) was self-assembled through the intrinsic interaction between D-α-tocopherol Succinate (TOS), human serum albumin (HSA) and indocyanine green (ICG). Doxorubicin (DOX) was then loaded due to the ion pairing between DOX and TOS. The feasibility of combined chemo-photothermal therapy induced by DOX-loaded HIT-NPs was carefully evaluated.

RESULTS

In vitro, HIT-NPs showed no cytotoxicity on human normal liver cells (HL-7702 cells) but obvious killing effects murine breast cancer cells (4T1 cells). The combined chemo-photothermal therapeutic effect on 4T1 cells was successfully obtained. DOX-loaded HIT-NPs could effectively accumulate in 4T1 subcutaneous tumors after intravenous injection, and the tumor temperature rapidly increased under laser exposure, indicating the feasibility of PTT in vivo.

CONCLUSION

The self-assembled HIT-NPs could provide a promising platform for combined chemo-photothermal cancer therapy with full biocompatibility.

Recent Advancements in Serum Albumin-Based Nanovehicles Toward Potential Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Recently, drug delivery vehicles based on nanotechnology have significantly attracted the attention of researchers in the field of nanomedicine since they can achieve ideal drug release and biodistribution. Among the various organic or inorganic materials that used to prepare drug delivery vehicles for effective cancer treatment, serum albumin-based nanovehicles have been widely developed and investigated due to their prominent superiorities, including good biocompatibility, high stability, nontoxicity, non-immunogenicity, easy preparation, and functionalization, allowing them to be promising candidates for cancer diagnosis and therapy. This article reviews the recent advances on the applications of serum albumin-based nanovehicles in cancer diagnosis and therapy. We first introduce the essential information of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and human serum albumin (HSA), and discuss their drug loading strategies. We then discuss the different types of serum albumin-based nanovehicles including albumin nanoparticles, surface-functionalized albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanocomplexes. Moreover, after briefly discussing the application of serum albumin-based nanovehicles used as the nanoprobes in cancer diagnosis, we also describe the serum albumin-based nanovehicle-assisted cancer theranostics, involving gas therapy, chemodynamic therapy (CDT), phototherapy (PTT/PDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and other therapies as well as cancer imaging. Numerous studies cited in our review show that serum albumin-based nanovehicles possess a great potential in cancer diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy: Current Progress and Challenges

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death and morbidity with a complex pathophysiology. Traditional cancer therapies include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. However, limitations such as lack of specificity, cytotoxicity, and multi-drug resistance pose a substantial challenge for favorable cancer treatment. The advent of nanotechnology has revolutionized the arena of cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanoparticles (1-100 nm) can be used to treat cancer due to their specific advantages such as biocompatibility, reduced toxicity, more excellent stability, enhanced permeability and retention effect, and precise targeting. Nanoparticles are classified into several main categories. The nanoparticle drug delivery system is particular and utilizes tumor and tumor environment characteristics. Nanoparticles not only solve the limitations of conventional cancer treatment but also overcome multidrug resistance. Additionally, as new multidrug resistance mechanisms are unraveled and studied, nanoparticles are being investigated more vigorously. Various therapeutic implications of nanoformulations have created brand new perspectives for cancer treatment. However, most of the research is limited to in vivo and in vitro studies, and the number of approved nanodrugs has not much amplified over the years. This review discusses numerous types of nanoparticles, targeting mechanisms, and approved nanotherapeutics for oncological implications in cancer treatment. Further, we also summarize the current perspective, advantages, and challenges in clinical translation.

Drug Delivery of Natural Products Through Nanocarriers for Effective Breast Cancer Therapy: A Comprehensive Review of Literature

Despite recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer (BC), it remains a global health issue affecting millions of women annually. Poor prognosis in BC patients is often linked to drug resistance as well as the lack of effective therapeutic options for metastatic and triple-negative BC. In response to these unmet needs, extensive research efforts have been devoted to exploring the anti-BC potentials of natural products owing to their multi-target mechanisms of action and good safety profiles. Various medicinal plant extracts/essential oils and natural bioactive compounds have demonstrated anti-cancer activities in preclinical BC models. Despite the promising preclinical results, however, the clinical translation of natural products has often been hindered by their poor stability, aqueous solubility and bioavailability. There have been attempts to overcome these limitations, particularly via the use of nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs). This review highlights the tumour targeting mechanisms of NDDSs, the advantages and disadvantages of the major classes of NDDSs and their current clinical status in BC treatment. Besides, it also discusses the proposed anti-BC mechanisms and nanoformulations of nine medicinal plants' extracts/essential oils and nine natural bioactive compounds; selected via the screening of various scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar, based on the following keywords: "Natural Product AND Nanoparticle AND Breast Cancer". Overall, these nanoformulations exhibit improved anti-cancer efficacy against preclinical BC models, with some demonstrating biocompatibility with normal cell lines and mouse models. Further clinical studies are, however, warranted to ascertain their efficacy and biocompatibility in humans.

Tumor microenvironment and nanotherapeutics: intruding the tumor fort

Over recent years, advancements in nanomedicine have allowed new approaches to diagnose and treat tumors. Nano drug delivery systems exploit the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and enter the tumor tissue's interstitial space. However, tumor barriers play a crucial role, and cause inefficient EPR or the homing effect. Mounting evidence supports the hypothesis that the components of the tumor microenvironment, such as the extracellular matrix, and cellular and physiological components collectively or cooperatively hinder entry and distribution of drugs, and therefore, limit the theragnostic applications of cancer nanomedicine. This abnormal tumor microenvironment plays a pivotal role in cancer nanomedicine and was recently recognized as a promising target for improving nano-drug delivery and their therapeutic outcomes. Strategies like passive or active targeting, stimuli-triggered nanocarriers, and the modulation of immune components have shown promising results in achieving anticancer efficacy. The present review focuses on the tumor microenvironment and nanoparticle-based strategies (polymeric, inorganic and organic nanoparticles) for intruding the tumor barrier and improving therapeutic effects.

Innovations in Disease State Responsive Soft Materials for Targeting Extracellular Stimuli Associated with Cancer, Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Beyond

Recent advances in polymer chemistry, materials sciences, and biotechnology have allowed the preclinical development of sophisticated programmable nanomedicines and materials that are able to precisely respond to specific disease-associated triggers and microenvironments. These stimuli, endogenous to the targeted diseases, include pH, redox-state, small molecules, and protein upregulation. Herein, recent advances and innovative approaches in programmable soft materials capable of sensing the aforementioned disease-associated stimuli and responding via a range of dynamic processes including morphological and size transitions, changes in mobility and retention, as well as disassembly are described. In this field generally, the majority of ongoing and past research effort has focused on oncology. Given this interest, examples of the latest innovative approaches to chemo- and immunotherapy treatment strategies for cancer are presented. Moreover, as the field broadens its attention, applications of programmable materials in other diseases are highlighted, with a special focus on cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus, where limited attention is paid by the field, but where many promising avenues exist with high potential impact.