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Varillas-Delgado D. Association of iron supplementation, HFE and AMPD1 polymorphisms and biochemical iron metabolism parameters in the performance of a men's World Tour cycling team: A pilot study. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2024; 84:127470. [PMID: 38744035 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2024.127470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nutritional strategies with iron supplementation have been shown to be effective in preventing the decline of blood biochemical parameters and sports performance. The aim of the study was to describe biochemical iron metabolism parameters in association with iron supplementation and HFE and AMPD1 polymorphisms in a Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) World Tour cycling team to evaluate performance during a whole season METHODS: Twenty-eight professional men cyclists took part in this longitudinal observational pilot study. AMPD1 c.34 C>T (rs17602729) and HFE c.187 C>G (rs1799945) polymorphisms were genotyped using Single Nucleotide Primer Extension (SNPE). All the professional cyclists took oral iron supplementation throughout the season. Four complete blood analyses were carried out corresponding to UCI controls in January (1st), April (2nd), June (3rd) and October (4th). Data on participation in three-week Grand Tours, kms of competition and wins were analyzed. RESULTS In performance, especially in wins, there was a significant effect in HFE on biochemical hemoglobin (F = 4.255; p = 0.021) and biochemical hematocrit (F = 5.335; p = 0.009) and a hematocrit biochemical × genotype interaction (F = 3.418; p = 0.041), with higher values in professional cyclist with GC genotype. In AMPD1 there were significant effects in the biochemical iron x genotype interaction in three-week Grand Tours (F = 3.874; p = 0.029) and wins (F = 3.930; p = 0.028) CONCLUSIONS: Blood biochemical iron metabolism parameters could be related to performance in the season due to increasing hemoglobin and hematocrit concentration under iron supplementation, associated with winning in the professional cyclists with GC genotype of the HFE polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Varillas-Delgado
- Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Faculty of Health Sciences, Research Unit, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain; SPORTNOMICS S.L., Madrid, Spain.
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Gallo G, Mateo-March M, Fuk A, Faelli E, Ruggeri P, Codella R, Filipas L. The Day-by-Day Periodization Strategies of a Giro d'Italia Podium Finisher. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024:1-5. [PMID: 38335950 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to describe the day-by-day training and racing characteristics in preparation for the Giro d'Italia of 1 world-class road cyclist who achieved a place on the podium in the final general classification of the Giro d'Italia. METHODS Day-by-day power meter training and racing data of 1 study subject (road cyclist; age 25 y; relative maximum oxygen consumption 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; relative 20-min record power output 6.6 W·kg-1) covering the 152 days leading up to the podium in the Giro d'Italia final general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Daily load, daily volume, and intensity distribution were considered. RESULTS During training a pattern alternating "hard days" versus "easy days" was observed, as significant amounts of medium or high intensity, or load, were not performed for more than 2 consecutive days This pattern was achieved combining high volume (>4 h) with a significant amount of medium and high intensity within the same training sessions. During training, when training load and intensity increased, the density of "easy days" augmented. In 1-week stage races and the Giro d'Italia, 3 to 8 consecutive days with significant amounts of medium and high intensity were performed. A high number of training sessions with small amounts of medium- and high-intensity volume was observed: 38 days accumulating 3 to 10 minutes at medium intensity and 29 days spending 1 to 9 minutes at high intensity. CONCLUSION These data provide novel insights about the day-by-day periodization strategies leading to a top 3 in the Giro d'Italia general classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Gallo
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Manuel Mateo-March
- Sport Science Department, Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Madrid, Spain
- Spanish Cycling Federation, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrea Fuk
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuela Faelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Piero Ruggeri
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Roberto Codella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Filipas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
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García-Durán J, González-Jurado JA, Sánchez-Oliver AJ. Analysis of Sports Supplement Consumption in 1688 Federated Road Cyclists. Nutrients 2023; 16:123. [PMID: 38201954 PMCID: PMC10780486 DOI: 10.3390/nu16010123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The widespread use of sports supplements (SS) to enhance athletic performance extends to cyclists, although little research has been conducted on this subject within this sport. This descriptive and cross-sectional study involved 1688 federated road cyclists, aiming to analyse the pattern of SS consumption concerning the degree of scientific evidence and different categories. This study categorised SS based on the groups and subgroups established by the Australian Sport Institute (AIS, 2023) based on the level of evidence. Our results showed that 62.5% of the sample cyclists used SS, with an average of 12.2 ± 8.6 supplements consumed per participant. Health status (78.2%), pharmacies (62.5%), and medical doctors (45.7%) were the main reasons, purchase sites, and sources of information for SS consumption, respectively. The most prevalent SS consumed were Sports Gels (94%), Sports Bars (89.3%), and Sports Drinks (73.8%). Notably, 80% of the top ten most consumed SS belonged to the group with the highest level of evidence according to the AIS, with an average of 6.9 ± 3.2 supplements per participant. However, 23.3% of the total SS consumers used prohibited substances. In conclusion, while the prevalence of SS consumption among road cyclists is considerable and the primary sources for purchasing SS and obtaining advice are reliable, there is a notable prevalence of prohibited substance use within the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús García-Durán
- Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad Pablo de Olavide de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
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Gallo G, Mateo-March M, Gotti D, Maunder E, Codella R, Ruggeri P, Faelli E, Filipas L. The Weekly Periodization of Top 5 Tour de France General Classification Finishers: A Multiple Case Study. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1313-1320. [PMID: 37709277 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to describe individual training characteristics, racing strategies, and periodization in preparation for the Tour de France in 2 world-class road cyclists finishing in the top 5 of the general classification. METHODS Week-by-week power meter training and racing data of 2 (A and B) road cyclists (age: 29 and 23 y; maximum oxygen consumption: 83 and 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; and relative 20-min record power output: 6.9 and 6.5 W·kg-1) in the preparation phase (December-July/August) leading up to the Tour de France were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution in power zones were considered. RESULTS Cyclists A and B completed 46 and 19 races, 22.5 (6.3) and 18.2 (5.1) h·wk-1, with a pyramidal intensity distribution of 81.0%-13.3%-5.7%, and 88.8%-7.9%-3.3% in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3. Cyclist B spent 14 days at altitude. Increased high-intensity volume and polarization index occurred during race weeks. During periods without racing, training intensity progressively increased. Strength training was performed during November and December but not during the following months. During tapering, total exercise volume and time at high intensity decreased. CONCLUSION These data provide novel insights into the periodization of world-class road cyclists in advance of a top 5 placing in the Tour de France general classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Gallo
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Manuel Mateo-March
- Sport Science Department, Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, European University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Gotti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Roberto Codella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Piero Ruggeri
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Emanuela Faelli
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Luca Filipas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
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Sendra-Perez C, Oficial-Casado F, Encarnación-Martínez A, Priego-Quesada JI. Duration Effects on Wingate and Functional Power Threshold Test Outputs in Female Cyclists. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:830-838. [PMID: 36470302 DOI: 10.1055/a-1993-2545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The response of female cyclists depending on the functional test duration has not been studied. This study aims to analyse the effect of modification of the duration of two different functional tests: Wingate (WAnT) and Functional Power Threshold (FTP) in female cyclists. Fourteen cyclists (27±8 years, 1,66±0,08 m, and 60,6±7,2 kg) performed 2 test days with a 24-hour break between days, varying the test duration (WAnT 20- or 30-sec, and FTP 8- or 10-min). Relative power output, cadence, heart rate, local oxygen saturation, lactate, and rating of perceived exertion were measured in each test. Time duration did not affect the power output outcomes in both tests (p>0,05). However, WAnT of 20 sec, compared with the test of 30 sec, resulted in a lower cadence decrease in the last 5 sec (p<0,01, ES=1,3), lower heart rate variables (peak, average and variation; p<0,01, ES>0,5), and higher execution inclination of local oxygen saturation (p<0,05 and ES=1,0). In conclusion, the time variations assessed do not alters power outcomes in female cyclists. However, higher acute fatigue can be observed in the WAnT of 30 sec, which suggests the use of the test of 20 sec to allow continue training afterwards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Sendra-Perez
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Fran Oficial-Casado
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Encarnación-Martínez
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
- Red Española de Investigación del Rendimiento Deportivo en Ciclismo y Mujer (REDICYM), Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jose Ignacio Priego-Quesada
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
- Red Española de Investigación del Rendimiento Deportivo en Ciclismo y Mujer (REDICYM), Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
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Sánchez-Muñoz C, Mateo-March M, Muros JJ, Javaloyes A, Zabala M. Anthropometric characteristics according to the role performed by World Tour road cyclists for their team. Eur J Sport Sci 2023; 23:1821-1828. [PMID: 36205499 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2132879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Certain anthropometric characteristics are required for athletes to successfully perform in elite endurance sports. The present study aims to analyse the anthropometric characteristics of professional cyclists according to their specialty. Anthropometric measurements were conducted of the body composition of 76 male professional road cyclists in line with International Society for Advancement of Kinanthropometry protocol. Fat mass did not differ (p > 0.05) between climbers, all-rounders and flat specialists, although the following anthropometric variables did differ according to the role played within the team (p < 0.05): Body mass (climbers: 63.8 ± 3.6, all-rounders: 68.8 ± 5.3, flat specialists: 74.5 ± 5.6 kg) skeletal body mass (climbers: 29.7 ± 1.6, all-rounders: 31.4 ± 1.9, flat specialists: 33.5 ± 2.4 kg); body surface area (climbers: 1.78 ± 0.07, all-rounders: 1.89 ± 0.10, flat specialists: 1.96 ± 0.1 m2); frontal area (climbers: 0.33 ± 0.01, all-rounders: 0.35 ± 0.02, flat specialists: 0.36 ± 0.02 m2). Anthropometric characteristics differ between world-class cyclists depending on their specialty. These differences could influence performance in relation to different types of road cycling competitions. The present study identified characteristics that could be used by coaches to evaluate their athletes in the context of elite or professional road cycling.HighlightsNormative reference values of a large sample of professional cyclists of the highest category are presented.Anthropometric characteristics differ between world-class cyclists depending on their specialty.Body mass, BMI, height and skeletal muscle mass are determining factors to determine the role of the cyclist.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sánchez-Muñoz
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | - J J Muros
- Department of Didactics of Corporal Expression, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - A Javaloyes
- Sport Science Department, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Spain
| | - M Zabala
- Department of Physical Activity and Sport, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Noriega-González D, Caballero-García A, Roche E, Álvarez-Mon M, Córdova A. Inflammatory Process on Knee Osteoarthritis in Cyclists. J Clin Med 2023; 12:jcm12113703. [PMID: 37297897 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12113703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is a disorder affecting the joints and is characterized by cellular stress and degradation of the extracellular matrix cartilage. It begins with the presence of micro- and macro-lesions that fail to repair properly, which can be initiated by multiple factors: genetic, developmental, metabolic, and traumatic. In the case of the knee, osteoarthritis affects the tissues of the diarthrodial joint, manifested by morphological, biochemical, and biomechanical modifications of the cells and the extracellular matrix. All this leads to remodeling, fissuring, ulceration, and loss of articular cartilage, as well as sclerosis of the subchondral bone with the production of osteophytes and subchondral cysts. The symptomatology appears at different time points and is accompanied by pain, deformation, disability, and varying degrees of local inflammation. Repetitive concentric movements, such as while cycling, can produce the microtrauma that leads to osteoarthritis. Aggravation of the gradual lesion in the cartilage matrix can evolve to an irreversible injury. The objective of the present review is to explain the evolution of knee osteoarthritis in cyclists, to show the scarce research performed in this particular field and extract recommendations to propose future therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Noriega-González
- Department of Surgery, Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, HVUV, 47003 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Alberto Caballero-García
- Department of Anatomy and Radiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, GIR Physical Exercise and Aging, University of Valladolid, Campus Los Pajaritos, 42004 Soria, Spain
| | - Enrique Roche
- Department of Applied Biology-Nutrition and Institute of Bioengineering, Miguel Hernández University (UMH), 03202 Elche, Spain
- Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Melchor Álvarez-Mon
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Alcalá de Henares, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Alfredo Córdova
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, GIR Physical Exercise and Aging, University of Valladolid, Campus Duques de Soria, 42004 Soria, Spain
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Hovorka M, Simon D, Leo P, Prinz B, Nimmerichter A. Alterations in aerobic fitness and muscle deoxygenation during ramp incremental exercise in trained youth cyclists: a ~3-year longitudinal study. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:121-131. [PMID: 37037676 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2200565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Alterations of aerobic fitness and muscle deoxygenation during a ramp incremental exercise test (GXT) were assessed on two occasions within a time-frame of 2.9 ± 0.1y in competitive youth cyclists. Nine cyclists (age, 14.5 ± 1.1y; peak oxygen uptake (V˙O2peak), 62.6 ± 4.2 mL.min-1.kg-1) participated in this investigation. V˙O2peak, the gas exchange threshold (GET) and the respiratory compensation point (RCP), as well as the muscle deoxygenation response pattern were determined during a GXT using open circuit spirometry and near-infrared spectroscopy, respectively. T-tests and Pearson's correlations were used to assess effects of time on the dependent variables and relationships between changes of parameter estimates of aerobic fitness and the muscle deoxygenation response, respectively. Workrate and metabolic rate at GET (33 ± 20 and 42 ± 23%) and RCP (36 ± 20 and 40 ± 22%), and V˙O2peak (30 ± 18%) significantly increased throughout the study (P < 0.05). The muscle deoxygenation response showed a significant rightward shift from occasion one to two (P < 0.05). Alterations in the workrate/metabolic rate at RCP, and V˙O2peak, were correlated with alterations of the muscle deoxygenation response (R = 0.71-0.89, P < 0.05). Together, this is thought to indicate a superior muscle perfusion within the tissue of interrogation at the same metabolic rate on occasion two vs. one, which partially contributed to the improved aerobic fitness in the cyclists herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Hovorka
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
- Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dieter Simon
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Peter Leo
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
- Department of Sports Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Prinz
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Alfred Nimmerichter
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
- Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Périard JD, Wilson MG, Tebeck ST, Gilmore JB, Stanley J, Girard O. Influence of the Thermal Environment on Work Rate and Physiological Strain during a UCI World Tour Multistage Cycling Race. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:32-45. [PMID: 35975926 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to characterize the thermal and cardiovascular strain of professional cyclists during the 2019 Tour Down Under and determine the associations between thermal indices and power output, and physiological strain. METHODS Gastrointestinal temperature ( Tgi ), heart rate (HR), and power output were recorded during the six stages (129-151.5 km) of the Tour Down Under in ≤22 male participants. Thermal indices included dry-bulb, black-globe, wet-bulb, and wet-bulb-globe (WBGT) temperature; relative humidity (RH), Heat Index; Humidex; and universal thermal climate index. The heat stress index (HSI), which reflects human heat strain, was also calculated. RESULTS Dry-bulb temperature was 23°C-37°C, and RH was 18%-72% (WBGT: 21°C-29°C). Mean Tgi was 38.2°C-38.5°C, and mean peak Tgi was 38.9°C-39.4°C, both highest values recorded during stage 3 (WBGT: 27°C). Peak individual Tgi was ≥40.0°C in three stages and ≥39.5°C in 14%-33% of cyclists in five stages. Mean HR was 131-147 bpm (68%-77% of peak), with the highest mean recorded in stage 3 ( P ≤ 0.005). Mean power output was 180-249 W, with the highest mean recorded during stage 4 ( P < 0.001; 21°C WBGT). The thermal indices most strongly correlated with power output were black-globe temperature ( r = -0.778), RH ( r = 0.768), universal thermal climate index ( r = -0.762), and WBGT ( r = -0.745; all P < 0.001). Mean Tgi was correlated with wet-bulb temperature ( r = 0.495), HSI ( r = 0.464), and Humidex ( r = 0.314; all P < 0.05), whereas mean HR was most strongly correlated with HSI ( r = 0.720), along with Tgi ( r = 0.599) and power output ( r = 0.539; all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Peak Tgi reached 40.0°C in some cyclists, although most remained <39.5°C with an HR of ~73% of peak. Power output was correlated with several thermal indices, primarily influenced by temperature, whereas Tgi and HR were associated with the HSI, which has potential for sport-specific heat policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien D Périard
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, AUSTRALIA
| | | | | | | | | | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, AUSTRALIA
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10
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Leo P, Spragg J, Wakefield J, Swart J. Predictors of cycling performance success: Traditional approaches and a novel method to assess performance capacity in U23 road cyclists. J Sci Med Sport 2023; 26:52-57. [PMID: 36513568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate predictors of cycling performance in U23 cyclists by comparing traditional approaches to a novel method - the compound score. Thirty male U23 cyclists (N = 30, age 20.1 ± 1.1 yrs, body mass 69.0 ± 6.9 kg, height 182.6 ± 6.2 cm, V̇O2max 73.8 ± 2.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. DESIGN Power output information was derived from laboratory and field-testing during pre-season and mean maximal power outputs (MMP) from racing season. Absolute and relative 5-min MMP, 5-min MMP after 2000 kJ (MMP2000 kJ), allometric scaling and the compound score were compared to the race score and podium (top 3) performance during a competitive season. METHODS Positive and negative predictive values were calculated for all significant performance variables for the likelihood of a podium performance. RESULTS The absolute 5-min MMP of the field test revealed the highest negative predictive capacity (82.4%, p = 0.012) for a podium performance. The compound score of the 5-min MMP2000 kJ demonstrated the highest positive and average predictive capacity (83.3%, 78.0%, p = 0.007 - respectively). The multi-linear regression analysis revealed a significant predictive capacity between performance variables and the race score (R2 = 0.55, p = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS Collectively the results of the present study reveal that the compound score, alongside absolute power, was able to predict the highest positive and average likelihood for a podium performance. These findings can help to better understand performance capacity from field data to predict future cycling success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- University Innsbruck, Department Sport Science, Austria.
| | - James Spragg
- University of Cape Town HPALS Research Center, South Africa
| | - John Wakefield
- UAE Team Emirates, United Arab Emirates; Science to Sport, South Africa
| | - Jeroen Swart
- University of Cape Town HPALS Research Center, South Africa; UAE Team Emirates, United Arab Emirates; Science to Sport, South Africa
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11
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Cesanelli L, Kamandulis S, Volungevičius G, Satkunskiene D. Relationships between muscle quality, subcutaneous adipose tissue, and sprint performance markers of competitive cyclists. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2023; 63:104-110. [PMID: 35333030 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.22.13613-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many variables are considered to be determinants of cycling sprint performance. Among them, the importance of skeletal muscle properties in relation to cycling performance has been consistently underlined. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF) and vastus medialis (VM), echo intensity (EI) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) content in a group of competitive cyclists and to identify whether these are related to sprint performance. METHODS Muscle echo intensity was evaluated by ultrasound in 16 highly trained competitive cyclists. The cyclists performed a maximal-intensity sprint session comprising four 15 s maximal sprints on a Wingate bike with 2 min of recovery between each. Pearson correlational analysis with linear regression was used to identify significant relationships between the criteria EI and SAT content and the sprint performance variables. RESULTS Muscle EI correlated strongly with sprint performance markers (r=from 0.54 to 0.62; P<0.05), while SAT content and body fat percentage correlated trivially to moderately with sprint performance (r=from 0.07 to 0.40; P>0.05). CONCLUSIONS Overall, muscle quality of knee extensors was positively related to sprint performance markers, but SAT content was not. Although additional studies are needed, muscle quality may represent a valid body composition indicator and may be helpful for supporting sprint performance optimization procedures in competitive cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Cesanelli
- Department of Health Promotion and Rehabilitation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania -
| | - Sigitas Kamandulis
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | | | - Danguole Satkunskiene
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
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12
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Gallo G, Mateo‐March M, Gotti D, Faelli E, Ruggeri P, Codella R, Filipas L. How do world class top 5 Giro d'Italia finishers train? A qualitative multiple case study. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2022; 32:1738-1746. [PMID: 35686390 PMCID: PMC9796663 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to describe individual training strategies in preparation to Giro d'Italia of three world class road cyclists who achieved a top 5 in the general classification. Day-to-day power meter training and racing data of three road cyclists (age: 26, 27, 25 years; relative maximum oxygen consumption: 81, 82, 80 ml·min-1 ·kg-1 ; relative 20-min record power output: 6.6, 6.6, 6.4 W kg-1 ) of the 22 weeks (December-May) leading up to the top 5 in Giro d'Italia general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution were considered. Cyclists completed 17, 22, 29 races, trained averagely for 19.7 (7.9), 16.2 (7.0), 14.7 (6.2) hours per week, with a training intensity distribution of 91.3-6.5-2.2, 83.6-10.6-5.8, 86.7-8.9-4.4 in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3 before the Giro d'Italia. Two cyclists spent 55 and 39 days at altitude, one did not attend any altitude camp. Cyclists adopted an overall pyramidal intensity distribution with a relevant increase in high-intensity volume and polarization index in races weeks. Tapering phases seem to be dictated by race schedule instead of literature prescription, with no strength training performed by the three cyclists throughout the entire periodization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Gallo
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child HealthUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly,Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze MotorieUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly
| | - Manuel Mateo‐March
- Sport Science DepartmentMiguel Hernández University of ElcheMadridSpain,Faculty of Sport SciencesEuropean University of MadridMadridSpain
| | - Daniel Gotti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for HealthUniversità degli Studi di MilanoMilanItaly
| | - Emanuela Faelli
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze MotorieUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly,Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly
| | - Piero Ruggeri
- Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze MotorieUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly,Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of GenoaGenoaItaly
| | - Roberto Codella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for HealthUniversità degli Studi di MilanoMilanItaly,Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedicaMilanItaly
| | - Luca Filipas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for HealthUniversità degli Studi di MilanoMilanItaly,Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedicaMilanItaly
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13
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Leo P, Simon D, Hovorka M, Lawley J, Mujika I. Elite versus non-elite cyclist - Stepping up to the international/elite ranks from U23 cycling. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1874-1884. [PMID: 36040014 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2117394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the physiological, performance and training characteristics of U23 cyclists and assessed the requirements of stepping up to the elite/international ranks. Twenty highly trained U23 cyclists (age, 22.1 ± 0.8 years; body mass, 69.1 ± 6.8 kg; VO2max, 76.1 ± 3.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. The cyclists were a posteriori divided into two groups based on whether or not they stepped up to elite/international level cycling (U23ELITE vs. U23NON-ELITE). Physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics were determined and compared between groups. U23ELITE demonstrated higher absolute peak power output (p = .016), 2 min (p = .026) 5 min (p = .042) and 12 min (p ≤ .001) power output as well as higher absolute critical power (p = .002). Further, U23ELITE recorded more accumulated hours (p ≤ .001), covered distance (p ≤ .001), climbing metres (p ≤ .001), total sessions (p ≤ .001), total work (p ≤ .001) and scored more UCI points (p ≤ .001). These findings indicate that U23ELITE substantially differed from U23NON-ELITE regarding physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics derived from laboratory and field. These variables should be considered by practitioners supporting young cyclists throughout their development towards the elite/international ranks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department Sports Science, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dieter Simon
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Matthias Hovorka
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria.,Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, Austria.,Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Justin Lawley
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department Sports Science, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain.,Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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14
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Hebisz R, Borkowski J, Hebisz P. Creatine Kinase and Myoglobin Plasma Levels in Mountain Bike and Road Cyclists 1 h after the Race. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19159456. [PMID: 35954814 PMCID: PMC9367889 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19159456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine if 1 h after a cycling race, changes in plasma creatine kinase activity (CK) and myoglobin concentrations (MB) differ between mountain bike and road cyclists and if these changes show any correlation with race performance. Male mountain bike cyclists (n = 11) under 23 years old and male road cyclists (n = 14), also under 23 years old, were studied following one of their respective races. The cyclists had blood drawn 2 h before and 1 h after the race to assess CK and MB, then the change in pre- and post-race difference was calculated (ΔCK and ΔMB). Each cyclist’s performance time was recorded and the time difference from the winner was calculated (TD). The cyclists’ aerobic capacity was assessed during the incremental test, which determines maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic power. It was observed that 1 h after the cycling race, CK (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.40, F = 15.6) and MB (p = 0.000, η2 = 0.43, F = 17.2) increased, compared to pre-race values. Post-race CK increased only in road cyclists, while post-race MB increased only in mountain bike cyclists. Smaller TD were found for lower ΔMB in road cyclists but for higher ΔCK in mountain bike cyclists.
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15
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Impact of prior accumulated work and intensity on power output in elite/international level road cyclists—a pilot study. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-022-00818-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
This study aimed to investigate the impact of the intensity of prior accumulated work on the decline in power output in elite/international level road cyclists, comparing the effects of prior continuous moderate intensity versus intermittent high intensity cycling.
Methods
Nine elite/international level road cyclists (age 26.2 ± 4.0 years; body mass: 66.6 ± 5.5 kg; height: 176 ± 0.4 cm) conducted a 12-min field test (12 minfresh) during two consecutive training camps. Participants then performed both a 150-min moderate intensity continuous (MIC) work bout or a 150-min high intensity intermittent (HII) race simulation in randomized order, cross-over design. After each condition a 12-min field test (12 minfatigue) was completed.
Results
Absolute and relative 12 minfresh power output were not significantly different between training camps (p > 0.05). The 12 minfatigue power after HII was significantly lower than 12 minfatigue after MIC (∆ = 14 W; p = 0.014). Participants recorded more percentage time (%Time) in heart rate (HR) zone 3 (∆ = 9.2%; p = 0.003) and power output band between 5.0–7.9 W $$\cdot$$
∙
kg−1 (∆ = 8.9%; p = 0.002) as well as higher total work (∆ = 237 kJ; p ≤ 0.001) during HII.
Conclusion
These findings reveal that the decline in power output is higher after HII compared to MIC cycling work bouts. This suggests that the quantification of total work and intensity should be used in conjunction to predict a distinctive decline in power output. Future research is required to better understand the mechanisms of endurance “durability” in elite/international level road cyclists.
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16
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The Record Power Profile of Male Professional Cyclists: Normative Values Obtained From a Large Database. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:701-710. [PMID: 35193109 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To present normative data for the record power profile of male professional cyclists attending to team categories and riding typologies. METHODS Power output data registered from 4 professional teams during 8 years (N = 144 cyclists, 129,262 files, and 1062 total seasons [7 (5) per cyclist] corresponding to both training and competition sessions) were analyzed. Cyclists were categorized as ProTeam (n = 46) or WorldTour (n = 98) and as all-rounders (n = 65), time trialists (n = 11), climbers (n = 50), sprinters (n = 11), or general classification contenders (n = 7). The record power profile was computed as the highest maximum mean power (MMP) value attained for different durations (1 s to 240 min) in both relative (W·kg-1) and absolute units (W). RESULTS Significant differences between ProTeam and WorldTour were found for both relative (P = .002) and absolute MMP values (P = .006), with WT showing lower relative, but not absolute, MMP values at shorter durations (30-60 s). However, higher relative and absolute MMP values were recorded for very short- (1 s) and long-duration efforts (60 and 240 min for relative MMP values and ≥5 min for absolute ones). Differences were also found regarding cyclists' typologies for both relative and absolute MMP values (P < .001 for both), with sprinters presenting the highest relative and absolute MMP values for short-duration efforts (5-30 s) and general classification contenders presenting the highest relative MMP values for longer efforts (1-240 min). CONCLUSIONS The present results--obtained from the largest cohort of professional cyclists assessed to date-could be used to assess cyclists' capabilities and indicate that the record power profile can differ between cyclists' categories and typologies.
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17
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Grzebisz-Zatońska N, Poprzęcki S, Stanula A, Sadowska-Krępa E, Gerasimuk D. Physiological and Somatic Principal Components Determining VO2max in the Annual Training Cycle of Endurance Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19073951. [PMID: 35409636 PMCID: PMC8997756 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19073951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to assess the impact of training on the physiological variables achieved during the test effort in the macrocycle of road cyclists and their use in the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) prediction at individual training stages in the VO2max test. Nine well-trained male cyclists (age 25.6 ± 5.2 years and body weight 72.4 ± 7.35 kg) participated in the study and each phase of the macrocycle was followed by a time to exhaustion test (TTE) on the bicycle ergometer. The research showed that training loads significantly influence the maximum power (PPO), ventilation (VE) in the preparatory period (T1), time of the test (TTmax) at the start of the competition period (T2), percentage of body fat in total body weight (%FAT) and skeletal muscle mass (MMS) during the competition period (T3). Of the 16 variables taken for the analysis of the principal components (PC), the regression model determined one principal variable responsible for VO2max in the training macrocycle of cyclists, the relative value of maximum power (PPORV) and the accompanying variables in individual periods: breathing frequency (BF), delta blood lactate concentration (ΔLA), body fat (FAT) and MMS. Determining PC influencing the exercise capacity can be crucial in achieving the intended goals by athletes. Monitoring these indicators can help protect the health of professional athletes and provide guidelines in the training process, stimulate the body properly while protecting against overtraining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Grzebisz-Zatońska
- Faculty of Cosmetology, Warsaw College of Engineering and Health, Bitwy Warszawskiej 1920 Street 18, 02-366 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence:
| | - Stanisław Poprzęcki
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Mikołowska Street 72a, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (S.P.); (A.S.); (E.S.-K.); (D.G.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Mikołowska Street 72a, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (S.P.); (A.S.); (E.S.-K.); (D.G.)
| | - Ewa Sadowska-Krępa
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Mikołowska Street 72a, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (S.P.); (A.S.); (E.S.-K.); (D.G.)
| | - Dagmara Gerasimuk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Mikołowska Street 72a, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (S.P.); (A.S.); (E.S.-K.); (D.G.)
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18
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Rebelo A, Valamatos M, Tavares F. Anthropometric characteristics and physical qualities of artistic roller and figure skaters: A narrative review. Sci Sports 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scispo.2021.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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19
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Cross-Sectional Differences in Race Demands Between Junior, Under 23, and Professional Road Cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:450-457. [PMID: 34996033 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare the race demands of junior (JUN), under 23 (U23), and professional (PRO) road cyclists. METHODS Thirty male cyclists, divided into 3 age-related categories (JUN, n = 10; U23, n = 10; and PRO, n = 10), participated in this study. Race data collected during the 2019 competitive season were retrospectively analyzed for race characteristics, external, and internal competition load. RESULTS Higher annual and per race duration, distance, elevation gain, Edward's training impulse, total work, and work per hour were observed in PRO versus U23 and JUN, and U23 versus JUN (P < .01). PRO and U23 recorded higher mean maximal power (RPOs) between 5 and 180 minutes compared with JUN (P < .01). Edward's training impulse per hour was higher in JUN than PRO and U23 (P < .01). Accordingly, JUN spent a higher percentage of racing time in high internal intensity zones compared with U23 and PRO, while these 2 categories spent more time at low internal intensity zones (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS JUN races were shorter and included less elevation gain per distance unit compared to U23 and PRO races, but more internally demanding. JUN produced less power output in the moderate-, heavy-, and severe-intensity exercise domains compared with U23 and PRO (RPOs: 5-180 min). U23 and PRO races presented similar work demands per hour and RPOs, but PRO races were longer than U23.
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20
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Brooke NK, Cosio-Lima L. Nutrition in Cycling. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2021; 33:159-172. [PMID: 34798997 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmr.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cycling is predominantly an endurance sport in which fuel utilization for energy production relies on the availability and delivery of oxygen to exercising muscle. Nutrition and training interventions to improve endurance performance are continually evolving, but ultimately, prescription should aim to generate improvements in cycling power and velocity while prioritizing athlete health and well-being. The wide range of cycling events and the different environments in which events take place pose a variety of nutrition-related challenges for cyclists. This review addresses some of these challenges and highlights recent advancements in nutrition for cycling performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namrita Kumar Brooke
- Department of Movement Sciences and Health, University of West Florida, 11000 University Parkway Building 782/220, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA.
| | - Ludmila Cosio-Lima
- Department of Movement Sciences and Health, University of West Florida, 11000 University Parkway Building 782/220, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
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21
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Rauter S, Simenko J. Morphological Asymmetries Profile and the Difference between Low- and High-Performing Road Cyclists Using 3D Scanning. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:1199. [PMID: 34827192 PMCID: PMC8615123 DOI: 10.3390/biology10111199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study are: (1) to identify morphological asymmetries in road cycling by using a novel 3D scanning method and electrical bioimpedance, (2) to investigate possible asymmetries in road cyclists of low (LPG) and high (HPG) performance group, (3) to compare the number of morphological asymmetries between HPG and LPG of cyclists, and (4) to explore correlations between asymmetry scores and competition performance. Body composition and 3D anthropometric measurements were conducted on 48 top-level male road cyclists (178.98 ± 5.39 cm; 68.37 ± 5.31 kg) divided into high (n = 22) and low (n = 26) performance groups. Competition performance (CP) is represented through racing points gathered at the end of the competition season. The latter was used to divide road cyclists into low- and high-performing groups. One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between groups, while paired-samples T-test and Absolute Asymmetry index (AA) were calculated (p ≤ 0.05) for paired variables inside the groups, and the Spearman correlation coefficient was used to explore correlations between AA and CP. Results showed statistically significant differences between the left and right side of different body segments (16 paired variables) among low-performing road cyclists in five paired variables of the upper body: elbow girth (4.35, p = 0.000), forearm girth (6.31, p = 0.000), arm surface area (2.54, p = 0.018), and arm volume (2.71, p = 0.012); and six paired variables of the lower body: leg lean mass (5.85, p = 0.000), leg length (3.04, p = 0.005), knee girth (4.93, p = 0.000), calf girth (5.25, p = 0.000), leg surface area (4.03, p = 0.000), and leg volume (5.3, p = 0.000). Altogether, the high-performing group of road cyclists statistically differed only in 2 out of 16 paired variables of the upper body: elbow girth (4.93, p = 0.000) and in forearm girth (5.12, p = 0.000). Low- and high-performing groups were statistically significantly different in the asymmetry of leg lean mass F(1,46) = 6.25, p = 0.016 and asymmetry of the calf girth F(1,46) = 7.44, p = 0.009. AA of calf girth on the total sample (n = 48) showed a significant correlation with CP (r = -0.461; p = 0.001). In conclusion, the study's main finding was that high-performance road cyclists are more symmetrical than the low-performance group, for which it is significant to have a higher amount of morphological asymmetries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samo Rauter
- Faculty for Sport, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Jozef Simenko
- Essex Pathways Department, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
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22
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Leo P, Spragg J, Podlogar T, Lawley JS, Mujika I. Power profiling and the power-duration relationship in cycling: a narrative review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 122:301-316. [PMID: 34708276 PMCID: PMC8783871 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04833-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Emerging trends in technological innovations, data analysis and practical applications have facilitated the measurement of cycling power output in the field, leading to improvements in training prescription, performance testing and race analysis. This review aimed to critically reflect on power profiling strategies in association with the power-duration relationship in cycling, to provide an updated view for applied researchers and practitioners. The authors elaborate on measuring power output followed by an outline of the methodological approaches to power profiling. Moreover, the deriving a power-duration relationship section presents existing concepts of power-duration models alongside exercise intensity domains. Combining laboratory and field testing discusses how traditional laboratory and field testing can be combined to inform and individualize the power profiling approach. Deriving the parameters of power-duration modelling suggests how these measures can be obtained from laboratory and field testing, including criteria for ensuring a high ecological validity (e.g. rider specialization, race demands). It is recommended that field testing should always be conducted in accordance with pre-established guidelines from the existing literature (e.g. set number of prediction trials, inter-trial recovery, road gradient and data analysis). It is also recommended to avoid single effort prediction trials, such as functional threshold power. Power-duration parameter estimates can be derived from the 2 parameter linear or non-linear critical power model: P(t) = W′/t + CP (W′—work capacity above CP; t—time). Structured field testing should be included to obtain an accurate fingerprint of a cyclist’s power profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - James Spragg
- Health Physical Activity Lifestyle Sport Research Centre (HPALS), University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Tim Podlogar
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia
- Department of Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Justin S Lawley
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Basque Country, Spain
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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23
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Javaloyes A, Mateo-March M, Carpes FP, Moya-Ramon M, Lopez-Grueso R, Zabala M. Bilateral asymmetries in professional cyclists during a Grand Tour. ISOKINET EXERC SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.3233/ies-202234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Pedalling asymmetries are a topic of interest to cycling coaches and athletes due to a potential link with performance and injury prevention. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to describe the bilateral asymmetry of professional cyclists during two editions of a Grand Tour. METHODS: Here we set out to determine the power balance (power produced by each lower limb) between stronger and weaker leg (dominant vs. non-dominant) of 12 UCI professional cyclists competing at two Giro d’Italia editions. Power data were recorded during competition stages. Further analysis considered power data clustered into individual intensity zones (from Z1 to Z7). RESULTS: Higher intensity elicited better power balance (lower asymmetry) regardless of the stage profile. Intensity distribution analysed according to the role of the cyclist was lower for climbers in Z2 (p= 0.006) and Z7 (p= 0.002) and higher in Z5 (p= 0.023) compared to team helpers. Power balance ranged from 0 to 9 % across the different athletes. CONCLUSIONS: Increase in power output improves power balance, especially in team helpers, and the lower power balance at lower exercise intensities, which are most of the race time, may elicit significant cumulative loading on a given leg of the cyclists, which requires further attention regarding risks of overuse injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Javaloyes
- Sports Research Centre, Department of Sport Sciences, Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - Felipe P. Carpes
- Neuromechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Pampa, Uruguaiana, RS, Brazil
| | - Manuel Moya-Ramon
- Sports Research Centre, Department of Sport Sciences, Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Raúl Lopez-Grueso
- Sports Research Centre, Department of Sport Sciences, Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Mikel Zabala
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Spain
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24
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VAN Erp T, Sanders D, Lamberts RP. Maintaining Power Output with Accumulating Levels of Work Done Is a Key Determinant for Success in Professional Cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53:1903-1910. [PMID: 33731651 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study aimed to investigate if performance measures are related to success in professional cycling and to highlight the influence of prior work done on these performance measures and success. METHODS Power output data from 26 professional cyclists, in a total of 85 seasons, collected between 2012 and 2019, were analyzed. The cyclists were classified as "climber" or "sprinter" and into category 1 (CAT.1; ≥400 PCSpoints (successful)) and CAT.2 (<400 PCSpoints (less successful)), based on the number of procyclingstats-points (PCSpoints) collected for that particular season. Maximal mean power outputs (MMP) for 20 min, 5 min, 1 min, and 10 s relative to body weight for every season were determined. To investigate the influence of prior work done on these MMP values, six different levels of completed work done were determined, which are based on the amount of completed kilojoules per kilogram (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 kJ·kg-1). Subsequently, the decline in MMP for each duration (if any) after each level of completed work done was evaluated. RESULTS Mixed model revealed that prior work done affects the performance of climbers and sprinters negatively. However, CAT.1 climbers have a smaller decline in 20- and 5-min MMP after high amounts of work done compared with CAT.2 climbers. Similarly, CAT.1 sprinters have a smaller decline in 10-s and 1-min MMP after high amounts of work done compared with CAT.2 sprinters. CONCLUSIONS It seems that the ability to maintain high MMP (corresponding with the specialization of a cyclist) after high amounts of work done (i.e., fatigue) is an important parameter for success in professional cyclists. These findings suggest that assessing changes in MMP after different workloads might be highly relevant in professional cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teun VAN Erp
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, SOUTH AFRICA
| | - Dajo Sanders
- Department of Human Movement Science, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, THE NETHERLANDS
| | - Robert P Lamberts
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, SOUTH AFRICA
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25
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Early Specialization and Critical Periods in Acquiring Expertise: A Comparison of Traditional Versus Detection Talent Identification in Team GB Cycling at London 2012. JOURNAL OF MOTOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1123/jmld.2020-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare two methodologies employed by the British Cycling talent identification program. Specifically, the authors investigated cyclists selected to represent GB cycling team at the London 2012 Olympics using (a) a traditional talent identification methodology (British Cycling Olympic Development Program), where selection is based upon race results and (b) a detection talent identification methodology (U.K. Sport Talent Team Program), which is a multi-Olympic event initiative that identifies athletic potential from physical and skill-based tests. To facilitate this comparison, the authors calculated the speed with which expertise was acquired. A Mann–Whitney U test (U = 16.0, p = .031) indicated that the speed of acquiring expertise was quicker in detection talent identification (Mdn = 5.4) than traditional talent identification (Mdn = 7.2). Practice started later with detection talent identification than with traditional talent identification (14.12 years vs. 11.23 years, respectively), which affected the period to excellence. Thus, detection talent identification resulted in an absence of early specialization, which suggests a critical period for attaining cycling expertise. The authors hypothesize a genetic basis of talent and propose that critical periods are important in detection talent identification programs.
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Leo P, Spragg J, Simon D, Lawley J, Mujika I. Climbing Performance in U23 and Professional Cyclists during a Multi-stage Race. Int J Sports Med 2021; 43:161-167. [PMID: 34265861 DOI: 10.1055/a-1524-2656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze climbing performance across two editions of a professional multistage race, and assess the influence of climb category, prior workload, and intensity measures on climbing performance in U23 and professional cyclists. Nine U23 cyclists (age 20.8±0.9 years) and 8 professional cyclists (28.1±3.2 years) participated in this study. Data were divided into four types: overall race performance, climb category, climbing performance metrics (power output, ascent velocity, speed), and workload and intensity measures. Differences in performance metrics and workload and intensity measures between groups were investigated. Power output, ascent velocity, speed were higher in professionals than U23 cyclists for Cat 1 and Cat 2 (p≤0.001-0.016). Workload and intensity measures (Worktotal, Worktotal∙km-1, Elevationgain, eTRIMP and eTRIMP∙km-1) were higher in U23 compared to professionals (p=0.002-0.014). Climbing performance metrics were significantly predicted by prior workload and intensity measures for Cat 1 and 2 (R2=0.27-0.89, p≤0.001-0.030) but not Cat 3. These findings reveal that climbing performance in professional road cycling is influenced by climb categorization as well as prior workload and intensity measures. Combined, these findings suggest that Cat 1 and 2 climbing performance could be predicted from workload and intensity measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Department of Sports Science, Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - James Spragg
- University of Cape Town, Health Physical Activity Lifestyle Sport Research Centre (HPALS), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dieter Simon
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Justin Lawley
- Department of Sports Science, Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Basque Country.,Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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Perim P, Gobbi N, Duarte B, Farias de Oliveira L, Costa LAR, Sale C, Gualano B, Dolan E, Saunders B. Beta-alanine did not improve high-intensity performance throughout simulated road cycling. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1240-1249. [PMID: 34092191 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1940304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of beta-alanine supplementation on short-duration sprints and final 4-km simulated uphill cycling time-trial performance during a comprehensive and novel exercise protocol representative of the demands of road-race cycling, and determined if changes were related to increases in muscle carnosine content. Seventeen cyclists (age 38 ± 9 y, height 1.76 ± 0.07 m, body mass 71.4 ± 8.8 kg, V̇O2max 52.4 ± 8.3 ml·kg-1·min-1) participated in this placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Cyclists undertook a prolonged intermittent cycling protocol lasting 125 min, with a 10-s sprint every 20 min, finishing with a 4-km time-trial at 5% simulated incline. Participants completed two familiarization sessions, and two main sessions, one pre-supplementation and one post-supplementation following 28 days of 6.4 g·day-1 of beta-alanine (N=11) or placebo (N=6; maltodextrin). Muscle biopsies obtained pre- and post-supplementation were analysed for muscle carnosine content. There were no main effects on sprint performance throughout the intermittent cycling test (all P>0.05). There was no group (P=0.69), time (P=0.50) or group x time interaction (P=0.26) on time-to-complete the 4-km time-trial. Time-to-completion did not change from pre- to post-supplementation for BA (-19.2 ± 45.6 s, P=0.43) or PL (+2.8 ± 31.6 s, P=0.99). Beta-alanine supplementation increased muscle carnosine content from pre- to post-supplementation (+9.4 ± 4.0 mmol·kg-1dm; P<0.0001) but was not related to performance changes (r=0.320, P=0.37). Chronic beta-alanine supplementation increased muscle carnosine content but did not improve short-duration sprint performance throughout simulated road race cycling, nor 4-km uphill time-trial performance conducted at the end of this cycling test.Highlights Performance during prolonged cycling events often depends on the ability to maintain an increased power output during higher intensity periods. Thus, cyclists are likely heavily dependent on their ability to resist fatigue during these periods of high-intensity activity.Meta-analytical data show beta-alanine to be an effective supplement to improve exercise outcomes, but little work exists on its efficacy during dynamic actions that are common during prolonged cycling.Beta-alanine supplementation increased muscle carnosine content but did not generate improvements in the performance of high-intensity cycling (10-s sprints or 4-km uphill time-trial) during a simulated road race cycling protocol.These data suggest that short duration sprints (≤10 s) and longer duration (>10 min) high-intensity activity throughout endurance cycling may not be improved with beta-alanine supplementation despite increases in muscle carnosine content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Perim
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nathan Gobbi
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Breno Duarte
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luana Farias de Oliveira
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Augusto Riani Costa
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Craig Sale
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Gualano
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil.,Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eimear Dolan
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bryan Saunders
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport; Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, Brazil.,Institute of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Faculty of Medicine FMUSP, University of São Paulo, Brazil
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Power Profiling, Workload Characteristics, and Race Performance of U23 and Professional Cyclists During the Multistage Race Tour of the Alps. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1089–1095. [PMID: 33789246 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to compare the power profile, internal and external workloads, and racing performance between U23 and professional cyclists and between varying rider types across 2 editions of a professional multistage race. METHODS Nine U23 cyclists from a Union Cycliste Internationale "Continental Team" (age 20.8 [0.9] y; body mass 71.2 [6.3] kg) and 8 professional cyclists (28.1 [3.2] y; 63.0 [4.6] kg) participated in this study. Rider types were defined as all-rounders, general classification (GC) riders, and domestiques. Data were collected during 2 editions of a 5-day professional multistage race and split into the following 4 categories: power profile, external and internal workloads, and race performance. RESULTS The professional group, including domestiques and GC riders, recorded higher relative power profile values after certain amounts of total work (1000-3000 kJ) than the U23 group or all-rounders (P ≤ .001-.049). No significant differences were found for external workload measures between U23 and professional cyclists, nor among rider types. Internal workloads were higher in U23 cyclists and all-rounders (P ≤ .001-.043) compared with professionals, domestiques, and GC riders, respectively. The power profile significantly predicted percentage general classification and Union Cycliste Internationale points (R2 = .90-.99), whereas external and internal workloads did not. CONCLUSION These findings reveal that the power profile represents a practical tool to discriminate between professionals and U23 cyclists as well as rider types. The power profile after 1000 to 3000 kJ of total work could be used by practitioners to evaluate the readiness of U23 cyclists to move into the professional ranks, as well as differentiate between rider types.
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Power Profiling in U23 Professional Cyclists During a Competitive Season. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:881-889. [PMID: 33607626 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate changes in the power profile of U23 professional cyclists during a competitive season based on maximal mean power output (MMP) and derived critical power (CP) and work capacity above CP (W') obtained during training and racing. METHODS A total of 13 highly trained U23 professional cyclists (age = 21.1 [1.2] y, maximum oxygen consumption = 73.8 [1.9] mL·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. The cycling season was split into pre-season and in-season. In-season was divided into early-, mid-, and late-season periods. During pre-season, a CP test was completed to derive CPtest and W'test. In addition, 2-, 5-, and 12-minute MMP during in-season were used to derive CPfield and W'field. RESULTS There were no significant differences in absolute 2-, 5-, and 12-minute MMP, CPfield, and W'field between in-season periods. Due to changes in body mass, relative 12-minute MMP was higher in late-season compared with early-season (P = .025), whereas relative CPfield was higher in mid- and late-season (P = .031 and P = .038, respectively) compared with early-season. There was a strong correlation (r = .77-.83) between CPtest and CPfield in early- and mid-season but not late-season. Bland-Altman plots and standard error of estimates showed good agreement between CPtest and in-season CPfield but not between W'test and W'field. CONCLUSION These findings reveal that the power profile remains unchanged throughout the in-season, except for relative 12-minute MMP and CPfield in late-season. One pre-season and one in-season CP test are recommended to evaluate in-season CPfield and W'field.
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Mostaert M, Vansteenkiste P, Pion J, Deconinck FJA, Lenoir M. The importance of performance in youth competitions as an indicator of future success in cycling. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:481-490. [PMID: 33446072 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1877359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In sports, outperforming your peers at young age does not guarantee a professional sports career as an adult. To gain more insight in how performance in youth cycling competitions can be an indicator for future success, the current study (a) examined differences in success rate between future achievers and future non-achievers, (b) investigated whether the relative age effect affects these career pathways and (c) explored to what extent youth competitive performance can predict success at adult age. The sample consisted of 307 male road cyclists who achieved at least one top 10 result during national and provincial youth competitions (U15, U17, U19). Thirty-two were classified as future achievers because they reached senior elite level; the remaining 275 were classed as future non-achievers. Non-parametric analyses of longitudinal data, Kruskal-Wallis and logistic regressions were applied. These analyses revealed that the future achievers started to outperform the future non-achievers from U17 onwards. While the relatively older cyclists have an advantage over other cyclists in U15, this effect was smaller in U17 and was absent in U19. Finally, the competitive success rate of U15 cyclists could not predict success at adult age. However, for U17 and U19 cyclists each additional top 10 result was associated with 3-5%, and 6% higher chance to reach elite level at adult age, respectively. Overall, these results demonstrate that estimating potential based on competition results is unpredictable in the U15 category, however, may provide a better indication of future success from U17 onwards.Highlights The competitive success rate of U15 cyclists could not predict success at adult ageFrom the U17 category onwards, future achievers had higher success rates, and success rate has some predictive value for performance at senior elite level.Competitive performance is influenced by relative age effect in the U15 category, however, this effect disappeared as the athlete progressed into older age categories.Future non-achievers experience a significant decrease in success rate when transitioning to a new competition category.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireille Mostaert
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Johan Pion
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Sport and Exercise Studies, HAN University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | | | - Matthieu Lenoir
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Demands of the Tour de France: A Case Study of a World-Class Sprinter (Part I). Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1363-1370. [PMID: 33547261 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe the intensity, load, and performance characteristics of a world-class sprinter competing in the Tour de France (TdF). METHOD Power output (PO) data were collected from 4 editions of the TdF (2013, 2014, 2016, and 2017) and analyzed. Load, intensity distribution in 5 PO zones, and the maximal mean PO for multiple durations were quantified. Stages were divided in accordance with the 4 different editions of the TdF, as well as the 4 different stage types, that is, flat (FLAT), semimountainous (SMT), mountain (MT), and (team) time trials. In addition, based on their location within the stage, mountain passes were further classified as BEGINNING, MIDDLE, or END of the stage. RESULTS No differences in load, intensity, and performance characteristics were found when the 4 editions of the TdF were compared. Time trials were associated with higher intensities but a lower load compared to the other stage types. MT showed higher load and intensity values compared to FLAT and SMT stages. FLAT stages were higher in short maximal mean PO (≤1 min), whereas MT stages showed higher longer endurance maximal mean PO values (≥20 min). In addition, mountain passes situated at the BEGINNING of the stage were completed with a higher PO, cadence, and speed compared with mountain passes situated at the END. CONCLUSIONS A world-class sprinter sustains a higher load and spends more time in the high-intensity zones when competing in the TdF than previously reported values suggested. To finish the MT stages as efficiently as possible, sprinters adopt a reverse pacing strategy.
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The Physical Demands and Power Profile of Professional Men's Cycling Races: An Updated Review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 16:3-12. [PMID: 33271501 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A variety of intensity, load, and performance measures (eg, "power profile") have been used to characterize the demands of professional cycling races with differing stage types. An increased understanding of the characteristics of these races could provide valuable insight for practitioners toward the design of training strategies to optimally prepare for these demands. However, current reviews within this area are outdated and do not include a recent influx of new articles describing the demands of professional cycling races. PURPOSE To provide an updated overview of the intensity and load demands and power profile of professional cycling races. Typically adopted measures are introduced and their results summarized. CONCLUSION There is a clear trend in the research that stage type significantly influences the intensity, load, and power profile of races with more elevation gain typically resulting in a higher intensity and load and longer-duration power outputs (ie, >10 min). Flat and semimountainous stages are characterized by higher maximal mean power outputs over shorter durations (ie, <2 min). Furthermore, single-day races tend to have a higher (daily) intensity and load compared with stages within multiday races. Nevertheless, while the presented mean (grouped) data provide some indications on the demands of these races and differences between varying competition elements, a limited amount of research is available describing the "race-winning efforts" in these races, and this is proposed as an important area for future research. Finally, practitioners should consider the limitations of each metric individually, and a multivariable approach to analyzing races is advocated.
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Santos PS, Felippe LC, Ferreira GA, Learsi SK, Couto PG, Bertuzzi R, Pereira G, Lima-Silva AE. Caffeine increases peripheral fatigue in low- but not in high-performing cyclists. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45:1208-1215. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The influence of cyclists’ performance levels on caffeine-induced increases in neuromuscular fatigue after a 4-km cycling time trial (TT) was investigated. Nineteen cyclists performed a 4-km cycling TT 1 h after ingesting caffeine (5 mg·kg−1) or placebo (cellulose). Changes from baseline to after exercise in voluntary activation (VA) and potentiated 1 Hz force twitch (Qtw,pot) were used as markers of central and peripheral fatigue, respectively. Participants were classified as “high performing” (HP, n = 8) or “low performing” (LP, n = 8) in accordance with their performance in a placebo trial. Compared with placebo, caffeine increased the power, anaerobic mechanical power, and anaerobic work, reducing the time to complete the trial in both groups (p < 0.05). There was a group versus supplement and a group versus supplement versus trial interaction for Qtw,pot, in which the postexercise reduction was greater after caffeine compared with placebo in the LP group (Qtw,pot = −34% ± 17% vs. −21% ± 11%, p = 0.02) but not in the HP group (Qtw,pot = −22% ± 8% vs. −23% ± 10%, p = 0.64). There was no effect of caffeine on VA, but there was a group versus trial interaction with lower postexercise values in the LP group than in the HP group (p = 0.03). Caffeine-induced improvement in 4-km cycling TT performance seems to come at the expense of greater locomotor muscle fatigue in LP but not in HP cyclists. Novelty Caffeine improves exercise performance at the expense of a greater end-exercise peripheral fatigue in low-performing athletes. Caffeine-induced improvement in exercise performance does not affect end-exercise peripheral fatigue in high-performing athletes. High-performing athletes seem to have augmented tolerance to central fatigue during a high-intensity time trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela S. Santos
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Leandro C. Felippe
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Guilherme A. Ferreira
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Sara K. Learsi
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Patrícia G. Couto
- Endurance Sports Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-030, Brazil
| | - Romulo Bertuzzi
- Endurance Sports Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-030, Brazil
| | - Gleber Pereira
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Adriano E. Lima-Silva
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
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Ripari P, Viciano J, Mazzia M, Pasquali M, Di Domizio G, Ruggieri S, D'Anastasio R. The anthropometric profile of Italian elite cyclists. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2020. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.19.04115-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Gandia Soriano A, Carpes FP, Rodríguez Fernández A, Priego-Quesada JI. Effect of cycling specialization on effort and physiological responses to uphill and flat cycling at similar intensity. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:854-860. [PMID: 32672508 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1785016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Power output is considered one of the best tools to control external loads in cycling, but the relationship between a target power output and the physiological responses may suffer from the effects of road gradient, which is also affected by cyclist specialization. The objective was to determine the effects of cyclist specialization on effort perception and physiological response (heart rate and lactate concentration) while sustaining efforts at similar power output but riding on two different road gradients. Nineteen male competitive road cyclists performed two randomized trials of 10 min at 0% (velodrome) and 10 min at 6% road gradient (field uphill), at an intensity of 10% ± 3% below the individual's functional threshold power. Cadence was kept between 75 and 80 rpm in both trials and posture remained unchanged during the tests. Heart rate, speed, cadence, power output, blood lactate, and rate of perceived effort were measured for each trial. K-means cluster analyses differentiate uphill (n = 10) and flat specialists (n = 9) according to lactate responses. Flat specialists presented lower heart rate (p < 0.001 and ES = 0.2), perceived exertion (p < 0.01 and ES = 0.7), and blood lactate concentration (p < 0.001 and ES = 0.7) riding on the flat than uphill. Uphill specialists presented lower perceived exertion (p < 0.01 and ES = 0.8) and blood lactate concentration (p < 0.01 and ES = 0.5) riding uphill than on the flat. In conclusion, the combination of cyclist specialization and road gradient affects physiological and effort perception parameters in response to a similar power output demand. These factors deserve attention in training schedules and monitoring performance using power output data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Gandia Soriano
- Biophysics and Medical Physics Group, Department of Physiology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Felipe P Carpes
- Applied Neuromechanics Group, Laboratory of Neuromechanics, Federal University of Pampa, Uruguaiana, Brazil
| | | | - Jose Ignacio Priego-Quesada
- Biophysics and Medical Physics Group, Department of Physiology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain.,Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Zignoli A, Biral F. Prediction of pacing and cornering strategies during cycling individual time trials with optimal control. SPORTS ENGINEERING 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12283-020-00326-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
Nowadays, the evaluation of physiological characteristics and training load quantification in road cycling is frequently performed through power meter data analyses, but the scientific evidence behind this tool is scarce and often contradictory. The aim of this paper is to review the literature related to power profiling, functional threshold testing, and performance assessment based on power meter data. A literature search was conducted following preferred reporting items for review statement (PRISMA) on the topic of {“cyclist” OR “cycling” AND “functional threshold” OR “power meter”}. The reviewed evidence provided important insights regarding power meter-based training: (a) functional threshold testing is closely related to laboratory markers of steady state; (b) the 20-min protocol represents the most researched option for functional threshold testing, although shorter durations may be used if verified on an individual basis; (c) power profiling obtained through the recovery of recorded power outputs allows the categorization and assessment of the cyclist’s fitness level; and (d) power meters represent an alternative to laboratory tests for the assessment of the relationship between power output and cadence. This review elucidates the increasing amount of studies related to power profiling, functional threshold testing, and performance assessment based on power meter data, highlighting the opportunity for the expanding knowledge that power meters have brought in the road cycling field.
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Determinants of Cycling Performance: a Review of the Dimensions and Features Regulating Performance in Elite Cycling Competitions. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2020; 6:23. [PMID: 32495230 PMCID: PMC7271082 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-020-00252-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A key tenet of sports performance research is to provide coaches and athletes with information to inform better practice, yet the determinants of athletic performance in actual competition remain an under-examined and under-theorised field. In cycling, the effects of contextual factors, presence of and interaction with opponents, environmental conditions, competition structure and socio-cultural, economic and authoritarian mechanisms on the performance of cyclists are not well understood. OBJECTIVES To synthesise published findings on the determinants of cyclists' behaviours and chances of success in elite competition. METHODS Four academic databases were searched for peer-reviewed articles. A total of 44 original research articles and 12 reviews met the inclusion criteria. Key findings were grouped and used to shape a conceptual framework of the determinants of performance. RESULTS The determinants of cycling performance were grouped into four dimensions: features related to the individual cyclist, tactical features emerging from the inter-personal dynamics between cyclists, strategic features related to competition format and the race environment and global features related to societal and organisational constraints. Interactions between these features were also found to shape cyclists' behaviours and chances of success. CONCLUSION Team managers, coaches, and athletes seeking to improve performance should give attention to features related not only to the individual performer, but also to features of the interpersonal, strategic, global dimensions and their interactions.
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Petruolo A, Connolly DR, Bosio A, Induni M, Rampinini E. Physiological profile of elite Bicycle Motocross cyclists and physiological-perceptual demands of a Bicycle Motocross race simulation. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 60:1173-1184. [PMID: 32406391 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.10855-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to investigate the physiological profile of elite Bicycle Motocross (BMX) cyclists and assess the physiological and perceptual demands of a simulated BMX race. In addition, the neuromuscular fatigue induced by BMX race simulation was investigated. METHODS Twelve male elite BMX cyclists performed two testing sessions. On the first day, incremental submaximal and maximal cycling tests were performed, as well as baseline measurements of muscle contractile qualities, a vertical jump test, short sprint cycling test and Wingate test. Following a recovery period of 48 h, athletes race performance times, physiological intensity and fatigue were determined before and after each heat (4 in total) via muscular evaluations, blood samples and perceptual ratings. RESULTS During testing, cyclists attained a V̇O<inf>2max</inf> of 55.7±4.8 ml min<sup>-1</sup> kg<sup>-1</sup>; peak power output during a short cycling sprint of 1498±189 W and average during Wingate of 1344±158 W; counter movement jump peaks were 58.6±7.7 cm (height), 4625±768 W (power) and 64.3±7.5 N kg<sup>-1</sup> (force). During the BMX race simulation performance times improved slightly and perceived exertion increased, blood lactate and hydrogen ions concentrations significantly increased across heats while bicarbonate concentrations decreased (P<0.001). Similarly, significant decreases were observed for contractile properties (peak torque, P<0.001; maximal rate of torque development and relaxation, both P<0.001) at single and paired stimulations (10 and 100 Hz) across heats. CONCLUSIONS Elite BMX cyclists show high anaerobic characteristics (Wingate and sprint) and neuromuscular qualities (height and power jump), while the aerobic qualities are not comparable to those typical of road cyclists. BMX races appear to induce metabolic disturbance, peripheral fatigue and increase perceived exertion, however performance times across heats appears not to be affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petruolo
- Human Performance Laboratory, Mapei Sport Research Center, Olgiate Olona, Varese, Italy.,US Cremonese, Cremona, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Bosio
- Human Performance Laboratory, Mapei Sport Research Center, Olgiate Olona, Varese, Italy -
| | - Massimo Induni
- Human Performance Laboratory, Mapei Sport Research Center, Olgiate Olona, Varese, Italy
| | - Ermanno Rampinini
- Human Performance Laboratory, Mapei Sport Research Center, Olgiate Olona, Varese, Italy
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Lippi G, Mattiuzzi C. Relationship between Anthropometric Characteristics and Success in Different Cycling Terrains. J Lifestyle Med 2020; 10:61-63. [PMID: 32328450 PMCID: PMC7171064 DOI: 10.15280/jlm.2020.10.1.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Lippi
- Section of Clinical Biochemistry, University of Verona, Verona
| | - Camilla Mattiuzzi
- Service of Clinical Governance, Provincial Agency for Social and Sanitary Services, Trento, Italy
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Hebisz R, Hebisz P, Borkowski J, Wierzbicka-Damska I, Zatoń M. Relationship Between the Skin Surface Temperature Changes During Sprint Interval Testing Protocol and the Aerobic Capacity in Well-Trained Cyclists. Physiol Res 2019; 68:981-989. [PMID: 31647289 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.934114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The study investigated whether changes in body surface temperature in a sprint interval testing protocol (SITP) correlated with aerobic capacity in cyclists. The study involved 21 well-trained cyclists. Maximal aerobic power and maximal oxygen uptake relative to lean body mass (LBM-P(max) and LBM-VO(2max), respectively) were determined by incremental exercise testing on a cycle ergometer. SITP was administered 48 hours later and involved four 30-s maximal sprints interspersed with 90-s active recovery. Body surface temperature was recorded at the temple and arm and the delta difference between baseline temperature and temperature measured immediately after the first sprint (DeltaTt(1) and DeltaTa(1), respectively) and 80 seconds after the fourth sprint (DeltaTt(4) and DeltaTa(4)), respectively) was calculated. Significant correlations were found between DeltaTt4 and LBM-Pmax and LBM-VO(2max) (r=0.63 and r=0.75, respectively) with no significant change in DeltaTa(1) or DeltaTa(4). Body surface temperature, measured at the temple region, can be used to indirectly assess aerobic capacity during maximal sprint exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Hebisz
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland.
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VAN ERP TEUN, HOOZEMANS MARCO, FOSTER CARL, DE KONING JOSJ. Case Report: Load, Intensity, and Performance Characteristics in Multiple Grand Tours. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 52:868-875. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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van der Zwaard S, de Ruiter CJ, Jaspers RT, de Koning JJ. Anthropometric Clusters of Competitive Cyclists and Their Sprint and Endurance Performance. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1276. [PMID: 31649555 PMCID: PMC6794383 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Do athletes specialize toward sports disciplines that are well aligned with their anthropometry? Novel machine-learning algorithms now enable scientists to cluster athletes based on their individual anthropometry while integrating multiple anthropometric dimensions, which may provide new perspectives on anthropometry-dependent sports specialization. We aimed to identify clusters of competitive cyclists based on their individual anthropometry using multiple anthropometric measures, and to evaluate whether athletes with a similar anthropometry also competed in the same cycling discipline. Additionally, we assessed differences in sprint and endurance performance between the anthropometric clusters. Twenty-four nationally and internationally competitive male cyclists were included from sprint, pursuit, and road disciplines. Anthropometry was measured and k-means clustering was performed to divide cyclists into three anthropometric subgroups. Sprint performance (Wingate 1-s peak power, squat-jump mean power) and endurance performance (mean power during a 15 km time trial, V˙O2peak) were obtained. K-means clustering assigned sprinters to a mesomorphic cluster (endo-, meso-, and ectomorphy were 2.8, 5.0, and 2.4; n = 6). Pursuit and road cyclists were distributed over a short meso-ectomorphic cluster (1.6, 3.8, and 3.9; n = 9) and tall meso-ectomorphic cluster (1.5, 3.6, and 4.0; n = 9), the former consisting of significantly lighter, shorter, and smaller cyclists (p < 0.05). The mesomorphic cluster demonstrated higher sprint performance (p < 0.05), whereas the meso-ectomorphic clusters established higher endurance performance (p < 0.001). Overall, endurance performance was associated with lean ectomorph cyclists with small girths and small frontal area (p < 0.05), and sprint performance related to cyclists with larger skinfolds, larger girths, and low frontal area per body mass (p < 0.05). Clustering optimization revealed a mesomorphic cluster of sprinters with high sprint performance and short and tall meso-ectomorphic clusters of pursuit and road cyclists with high endurance performance. Anthropometry-dependent specialization was partially confirmed, as the clustering algorithm distinguished short and tall endurance-type cyclists (matching the anthropometry of all-terrain and flat-terrain road cyclists) rather than pursuit and road cyclists. Machine-learning algorithms therefore provide new insights in how athletes match their sports discipline with their individual anthropometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan van der Zwaard
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Cornelis J de Ruiter
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Richard T Jaspers
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Laboratory for Myology, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jos J de Koning
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
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Heikura IA, Quod M, Strobel N, Palfreeman R, Civil R, Burke LM. Alternate-Day Low Energy Availability During Spring Classics in Professional Cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:1233-1243. [PMID: 30860404 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess energy and carbohydrate (CHO) availability and changes in blood hormones in 6 professional male cyclists over multiple single-day races. METHODS The authors collected weighed-food records, power-meter data, and morning body mass measurements across 8 d. CHO intakes were compared with contemporary guidelines. Energy availability (EA) was calculated as energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure, relative to fat-free mass (FFM). Skinfold thickness and blood metabolic and reproductive hormones were measured prestudy and poststudy. Statistical significance was defined as P ≤ .05. RESULTS Body mass (P = .11) or skinfold thickness (P = .75) did not change across time, despite alternate-day low EA (14 [9] vs 57 [10] kcal·kg-1 FFM·d-1, race vs rest days, respectively; P < .001). Cyclists with extremely low EA on race days (<10 kcal·kg-1 FFM·d-1; n = 2) experienced a trend toward decreased testosterone (-14%) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (-25%), despite being high EA (>46 kcal·kg-1 FFM·d-1) on days between. CHO intakes were significantly higher on race versus rest days (10.7 [1.3] vs 6.4 [0.8] g·kg-1·d-1, respectively; P < .001). The cyclists reached contemporary prerace fueling targets (3.4 [0.7] g·kg-1·3 h-1 CHO; P = .24), while the execution of CHO guidelines during race (51 [9] g·h-1; P = .048) and within acute (1.6 [0.5] g·kg-1·3 h-1; P = .002) and prolonged (7.4 [1.0] g·kg-1·24 h-1; P = .002) postrace recovery was poor. CONCLUSIONS The authors are the first to report the day-by-day periodization of energy and CHO in a small sample of professional cyclists. They also examined the logistics of conducting a field study under stressful conditions in which major cooperation from the subjects and team management is needed. Their commentary around these challenges and possible solutions is a major novelty of the article.
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Heart Rate Responses and Exercise Intensity During A Prolonged 4-Hour Individual Cycling Race among Japanese Recreational Cyclists. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7050109. [PMID: 31075968 PMCID: PMC6572307 DOI: 10.3390/sports7050109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heart rate (HR) during different endurance cycling races and events are investigated for professional cyclist, however, enduro races to compete for total laps and distance covered within a fixed time using a circuit course has not yet been investigated. This study examined the heart rate (HR) and exercise intensity during an enduro cycling race. Ten male Japanese amateur cyclists performed cycling individually for at least 2 consecutive hours. HR was measured using an HR monitor during the race, and we estimated the energy expenditure (EE) during the race using the HR–VO2 relationship in advance. Exercise intensities were defined as percentages of HRmax based on ACSM exercise guideline as follows: moderate intensity, 64–76% HRmax; vigorous intensity, 77–95% HRmax. The HR during the race was 158.9 ± 10.6 bpm (86.4 ± 2.2% HRmax), and exercise intensity is categorized as vigorous intensity. The EE during the race using HR–VO2 relationship were 12.9 ± 1.2 kcal/kg/hr, which would require a large energy expenditure (EE) during the race. However, energy cost was 0.36 ± 0.04 kcal/kg/km regardless of total distance. The findings indicate that enduro cycling racing is categorized as vigorous intensity (>77% HRmax) for healthy male recreational cyclists though, cycling is an efficient form of transportation.
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The Influence of Pleasure and Attentional Focus on Performance and Pacing Strategies in Elite Individual Time Trials. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:451-457. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent psychophysiological models of endurance performance explained that pacing strategies and exercise-intensity regulation influence cyclists’ ability to produce high mean power output (PO) during time trials (TTs). However, the relationships between these pacing strategies and psychological parameters of the athletes remain unknown. Purpose: To determine the impact of pacing strategies on cyclists’ mean PO during an elite TT championship and to identify the relationships between these pacing strategies and psychological parameters. Methods: Mean PO, projected frontal area, attentional focus, and pleasure were recorded for 9 male cyclists during an official individual TT national championship. Pacing regulations were quantified from PO using the new exposure variation analysis, which determines times spent at adapted PO for optimal constant-pacing strategy (APO) and inaccurate PO for optimal constant-pacing strategy (IPO). Relationships between mean PO, times spent at APO and IPO, and psychological variables were analyzed. Results: Significant relationships were found between mean PO and exposure variation analysis pacing parameters (r2 .56–.86, P > .05). Time spent at IPO was negatively related to pleasure during the individual TT (r = −.746, P = .016). Conversely, time spent at APO was significantly related to cyclists’ attentional focus (r = .827, P = .006). Conclusions: Mean PO during elite individual TTs is directly related to athletes’ ability to optimally regulate pace throughout the event. This pacing regulation is influenced by attentional focus and pleasure, underlining that coaches and athletes should devote greater attention to these psychological parameters to improve their performances.
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Sanders D, Heijboer M. Physical demands and power profile of different stage types within a cycling grand tour. Eur J Sport Sci 2018; 19:736-744. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1554706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dajo Sanders
- Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Sport, Exercise and Health Research Centre, Newman University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Mathieu Heijboer
- Team LottoNL-Jumbo Professional Cycling Team, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Hebisz P, Hebisz R, Borkowski J, Zatoń M. Time of VO(2)max plateau and post-exercise oxygen consumption during incremental exercise testing in young mountain bike and road cyclists. Physiol Res 2018; 67:711-719. [PMID: 30044113 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.933744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare markers of glycolytic metabolism in response to the Wingate test and the incremental test in road and mountain bike cyclists, who not different performance level and aerobic capacity. All cyclists executed the Wingate test and incremental test on a cycle ergometer. Maximal power and average power were determined during the Wingate test. During the incremental test the load was increased by 50 W every 3 min, until volitional exhaustion and maximal aerobic power (APmax), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), and time of VO(2)max plateau (Tplateau) were determined. Post-exercise measures of oxygen uptake (VO(2)post), carbon dioxide excretion, (VCO(2)post), and the ratio between VCO(2)/VO(2) (RERpost) were collected for 3 min immediately after incremental test completion. Arterialized capillary blood was drawn to measure lactate (La-) and hydrogen (H+) ion concentrations in 3 min after each test. The data demonstrated significant differences between mountain bike and road cyclists for Tplateau, VO(2)post, VCO(2)post, La- which was higher-, and RERpost which was lower-, in mountain bike cyclists compare with road cyclists. No differences were observed between mountain bike and road cyclists for APmax, VO(2)max, H(+) and parameters measured in the Wingate test. Increased time of VO2max plateau concomitant to larger post-exercise La- and VO(2) values suggests greater anaerobic contribution during incremental testing efforts by mountain bike cyclists compared with road cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Hebisz
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland.
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Sanders D, Heijboer M. The anaerobic power reserve and its applicability in professional road cycling. J Sports Sci 2018; 37:621-629. [PMID: 30317920 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1522684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This study examined if short-duration record power outputs can be predicted with the Anaerobic Power Reserve (APR) model in professional cyclists using a field-based approach. Additionally, we evaluated if modified model parameters could improve predictive ability of the model. Twelve professional cyclists (V̇O2max 75 ± 6 ml∙kg-1∙min-1) participated in this investigation. Using the mean power output during the last stage of an incremental field test, sprint peak power output and an exponential constant describing the decrement in power output over time, a power-duration relationship was established for each participant. Record power outputs of different durations (5 to 180 s) were collected from training and competition data and compared to the predicted power output from the APR model. The originally proposed exponent (k = 0.026) predicted performance within an average of 43 W (Standard Error of Estimate (SEE) of 32 W) and 5.9%. Modified model parameters slightly improved predictive ability to a mean of 34-39 W (SEE of 29 - 35 W) and 4.1 - 5.3%. This study shows that a single exponent model generally fits well with the decrement in power output over time in professional cyclists. Modified model parameters may contribute to improving predictability of the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dajo Sanders
- a Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group , University of Stirling , Stirling , UK.,b Sport, Exercise and Health Research Centre , Newman University , Birmingham , UK
| | - Mathieu Heijboer
- c Team LottoNL-Jumbo professional cycling team , Amsterdam , Netherlands
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Research has shown that gross efficiency (GE) declines during high-intensity exercise, but the time course of recovery of GE after high-intensity exercise has not yet been investigated. PURPOSE To determine the time course of the recovery of GE after time trials (TTs) of different lengths. METHODS Nineteen trained male cyclists participated in this study. Before and after TTs of 2000 and 20,000 m, subjects performed submaximal exercise at 55% of the power output attained at maximal oxygen uptake (PVO2max). The postmeasurement continued until 30 min after the end of the TT, during which GE was determined over 3-min intervals. The magnitude-based-inferences approach was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS GE decreased substantially during the 2000-m and 20,000-m TTs (-11.8% [3.6%] and -6.2% [4.0%], respectively). A most likely and very likely recovery of GE was found during the first half of the submaximal exercise bout performed after the 2000-m, with only a possible increase in GE during the first part of the submaximal exercise bout performed after the 20,000-m. After both distances, GE did not fully recover to the initial pre-TT values, as the difference between the pre-TT value and average GE value of minutes 26-29 was still most likely negative for both the 2000- and 20,000-m (-6.1% [2.8%] and -7.0% [4.5%], respectively). CONCLUSIONS It is impossible to fully recover GE after TTs of 2000- or 20,000-m during 30 min of submaximal cycling exercise performed at an intensity of 55% PVO2max.
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