Exercise-training intervention studies in competitive swimming

Oxidative and O2 diffusive function in triceps brachii of recreational to world class swimmers

This study aimed to evaluate in vivo oxidative capacity and relative resistance to O2 diffusion using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in the m. triceps brachii of recreational to world class swimmers and evaluate their relationships with swimming performance. Twenty-eight swimmers were enrolled and assigned into three subgroups according to their level: 'recreational/trained' (Tier 1/2; n = 8), 'national' (Tier 3; n = 12) and 'international/world class' (Tier 4/5; n = 8). Performance was evaluated by 100 m freestyle trials. Training volume was measured by self-reported distance (km/week). Them V ̇ O 2 ${\mathrm{m}}{{\dot{V}}_{{{{\mathrm{O}}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ recovery k of m. triceps brachii was non-invasively estimated by NIRS through repeated intermittent occlusions under two conditions: well-oxygenated (kHIGH) and low O2 availability (kLOW). The difference between kHIGH and kLOW (Δk) was calculated as an index of relative resistance to O2 diffusion. FINA points and 100 m performance differed among all groups. Training volume was greater in Tier 4/5 (34.0 ± 5.5 km week-1) and Tier 3 (35.5 ± 11.6 km week-1) than in Tier 1/2 (6.4 ± 1.8 km week-1). kHIGH was greater in Tier 4/5 and Tier 3 (3.18 ± 0.41 and 2.79 ± 0.40 min-1) versus Tier 1/2 (2.10 ± 0.36 min-1; all P < 0.002). kHIGH correlated with FINA points, 100 m performance and training volume. ∆k was not different among tiers and was not associated with training volume or performance. M. triceps brachii oxidative capacity (kHIGH) was positively associated with performance and training volume in swimmers. ∆k, which reflects relative resistance to O2 diffusion, was not different among athletes. These data suggest that m. triceps brachii oxidative capacity is associated with swimming performance and that muscle O2 diffusing capacity exerts a similar relative resistance to O2 diffusive flow across swimmers.

Factors Relating to Sprint Swimming Performance: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Swimming performance depends on a wide variety of factors; however, the interaction between these factors and their importance varies between events. In sprint events, the characterized pacing underlines its specific development, as swimmers must achieve the highest possible speed while sustaining it to the greatest extent possible.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review was to identify the key factors underlying sprint swimming performance and to provide in-depth and practical evidence-based information to optimize performance.

METHODS

The review protocol was not registered. PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched up to October 31, 2023. Studies involving competitive swimmers and investigating sprint swimming performance were included, while studies conducted with young or masters' swimmers, triathletes or waterpolo players or not investigating sprint swimming performance were excluded. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was performed on the included articles to assess the methodological quality.

RESULTS

After applying the PICOS framework, 39 of the 1330 articles initially identified were included according to the PRISMA guidelines. The included records focused mainly on dry-land strength and in-water forces of both upper and lower limbs. A wide range of kinematic variables were also examined, together with the importance of anthropometric and various physiological parameters.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the importance of developing muscular strength and effectively transferring it to performance in the water. The evidence suggests that muscular development should prioritize enhancing velocity and effective displacement, rather than merely increasing force and performance in loaded tests. However, further research is needed to confirm this. While in-water forces have been well studied, there is a notable lack of analysis regarding drag. The optimal balance between stroke rate and stroke length should be determined individually, with a primary focus on achieving a high stroke length from a high stroke rate. Although anthropometry may play an important role in performance, the interaction of these traits appears to be complex, suggesting that other factors may be more important in determining performance outcomes. From a physiological perspective, the results indicate that the lactate peak and rate of accumulation should be thoroughly developed. Notwithstanding, this review shows the lack of a solid body of knowledge on the importance of anaerobic and especially aerobic factors. Finally, the absence of a list of potential confounders, together with the lack of high-quality studies involving elite swimmers (level 1 and 2), complicates the interpretation of the results.

Changes in Race Performance During the Underwater Phases of a 200 m Bi-Fins Race Simulation After Application of Respiratory Muscle Training-A Case Study in the Current World Record Holder

Maximal athletic performance can be limited by various factors, including restricted respiratory function. These limitations can be mitigated through targeted respiratory muscle training, as supported by numerous studies. However, the full potential of respiratory training in competitive finswimming has not been fully investigated. This case study aims to evaluate the effects of eight-week respiratory muscle training (RMT) on performance variability during the underwater phases of a 200 m bi-fins race simulation in an elite finswimmer (current world record holder and multiple world championship medalist). Performance variability was assessed based on pre-test, inter-test, and post-test data. Each measurement included pulmonary function and swim performance evaluations. In this study, underwater performance parameters, such as distance, time, velocity, and number of kicks, were assessed using video analysis synchronized with race timing and evaluated using the Dartfish software. The swimmer followed a 28-day training program with an Airofit PRO™ respiratory trainer between tests, with daily sessions targeting both inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The training involved 6-10 min of targeted exercises per day. Significant improvements were observed in Wilcoxon's paired-sample test between the pre-test and post-test results in terms of underwater distance (p = 0.012; d = 1.26), underwater time (p = 0.012; d = 1.26), and number of underwater kicks (p = 0.043; d = 1.01), resulting in a 14.23% longer underwater distance, 14.08% longer underwater time, and 14.94% increase in underwater kicks. Despite the increased distance and time, underwater velocity remained stable, indicating improved underwater performance efficiency. Despite some improvements, it is not possible to conclude that respiratory muscle training (RMT) can contribute to improved finswimming performance during the underwater phases of a 200 m bi-fins race simulation in this particular athlete's case. Further research with a larger sample size is necessary to fully understand the impact of RMT on finswimming performance.

Sprinting to the top: comparing quality of distance variety and specialization between swimmers and runners

Objectives

To compare performance progression and variety in race distances of comparable lengths (timewise) between pool swimming and track running. Quality of within-sport variety was determined as the performance differences between individual athletes' main and secondary race distances across (top-) elite and (highly-) trained swimmers and runners.

Methods

A total of 3,827,947 race times were used to calculate performance points (race times relative to the world record) for freestyle swimmers (n = 12,588 males and n = 7,561 females) and track runners (n = 9,230 males and n = 5,841 females). Athletes were ranked based on their personal best at peak performance age, then annual best times were retrospectively traced throughout adolescence.

Results

Performance of world-class swimmers differentiates at an earlier age from their lower ranked peers (15-16 vs. 17-20 year age categories, P < 0.05), but also plateaus earlier towards senior age compared to runners (19-20 vs. 23 + year age category, P < 0.05), respectively. Performance development of swimmers shows a logarithmic pattern, while runners develop linearly. While swimmers compete in more secondary race distances (larger within-sport variety), runners specialize in either sprint, middle- or long-distance early in their career and compete in only 2, 4 or 3 other race distances, respectively. In both sports, sprinters specialize the most (P < 0.05). Distance-variety of middle-distance swimmers covers more longer rather than sprint race distances. Therefore, at peak performance age, (top-) elite female 200 m swimmers show significantly slower sprint performances, i.e., 50 m (P < 0.001) and 100 m (P < 0.001), but not long-distance performances, i.e., 800 m (P = 0.99) and 1,500 m (P = 0.99). In contrast, (top-) elite female 800 m middle-distance runners show significantly slower performances in all their secondary race distances (P < 0.001). (Top-) elite female athletes specialize more than (highly-) trained athletes in both sports (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The comparison to track running and lower ranked swimmers, the early performance plateau towards senior age, and the maintenance of a large within-sport distance variety indicates that (top-) elite sprint swimmers benefit from greater within-sport specialization.

Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on performance and perceptive outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of repeated use of cold-water immersion (CWI) during a training week on performance and perceptive outcomes in competitive adolescent swimmers.

METHODS

This randomized-crossover study included 20 athletes, who received each intervention [CWI (14 ± 1 °C), thermoneutral water immersion (TWI) (27 ± 1 °C) as placebo, and passive recovery (PAS)] three times a week between the land-based resistance training and swim training. The interventions were performed in a randomized order with a 1-week wash-out period. We tested athletes before and after each intervention week regarding swim (100 m freestyle sprints) and functional performance (flexibility, upper and lower body power, and shoulder proprioception). We monitored athlete's perceptions (well-being, heaviness, tiredness, discomfort and pain) during testing sessions using a 5-item questionnaire. Athlete preferences regarding the interventions were assessed at the end of the study. We used generalized linear mixed models and generalized estimating equations for continuous and categorical variables, respectively (intervention x time).

RESULTS

We found a time effect for swim performance (p = .01) in which, regardless the intervention, all athletes improved sprint time at post-intervention compared to baseline. There was an intervention effect for pain (p = .04) and tiredness (p = .04), but with no significant post-hoc comparisons. We found no significant effects for other outcomes. All athletes reported a preference for CWI or TWI in relation to PAS.

CONCLUSION

The repeated use of CWI throughout a training week did not impact functional or swim performance outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers. Perceptive outcomes were also similar across interventions; however, athletes indicated a preference for both CWI and TWI.

The methodology of resistance training is crucial for improving short-medium distance front crawl performance in competitive swimmers: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Resistance training is often a part of the routine training regimen for competitive swimmers. However, due to the variety of resistance training methodology, the results can be inconsistent and sometimes unsatisfactory. Clear recommendations are still lacking at present.

Aims

1) Quantify the impact of resistance training on swimmers' upper limb maximum strength, front crawl performance and key technical parameters; 2) Find out the key technical parameters for improving front crawl performance-stroke rate or length; 3) Through subgroup analysis determine the best methodology of resistance training to enhance the front crawl.

Methods

Systematic search in the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. Meta-analyses using the inverse-variance are performed to compare swimmers' upper limb maximum strength, front crawl performance and key technical parameters in resistance training and habitual aquatic training. A subgroup analysis was performed to examine whether the results were affected by the methodology of resistance training.

Results

Thirteen studies (267 competitive swimmers) met the inclusion criteria. The results of meta-analysis showed that resistance training significantly improved upper limbs maximum muscle strength, and 25, 50, 100, and 200 m front crawl performance in competitive swimmers. And improvements in swimming performance may simply resulted from resistance training increasing stroke rate rather than stroke length. In addition, the results of subgroup analysis showed that only concurrent resistance training (CRT) and power training (PT) ultimately improved swimming performance by increasing the maximum muscle strength of the upper limbs.

Conclusion

Resistance training significantly enhances competitive swimmers' upper limb strength and front crawl performance across various distances. The improvement in performance is likely attributed to an increased stroke rate rather than stroke length. In addition, CRT and PT are particularly effective, indicating the importance of selecting the appropriate methodology of resistance training for optimal swimming performance enhancement.

Systematic review registration

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/3JEGW.

Postural Control and Neuromuscular Activation in 11-13-Year-Old Athletic Boy Swimmers

OBJECTIVE

This study compared postural control and neuromuscular activation in athletic swimmers (A-S) and non-athletic swimmers (N-A-S) in older children.

METHODS

Ten A-S and ten N-A-S underwent assessments of center of pressure (CoP) parameters under static and dynamic surfaces in two directions (dynamic mediolateral (DML) and dynamic anteroposterior (DAP)) in eyes-open (EO) and eyes-closed (EC) conditions, and electromyography (EMG) parameters under DAP and DML directions in EO and EC conditions.

RESULTS

Results showed that A-S demonstrated significantly superior postural control (p < 0.05), with smaller CoP area and lower CoP mean velocity compared with N-A-S, particularly in static with EC, DAP with EO and EC, and DML with EO conditions. A-S exhibited significantly larger neuromuscular activation amplitudes (p < 0.05), especially in the AP direction.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggested that athletic swimming training may enhance postural control and neuromuscular activation in 11-13-year-old children, emphasizing the potential benefits of incorporating swimming exercises in these children.

Hydrogen-rich water supplementation promotes muscle recovery after two strenuous training sessions performed on the same day in elite fin swimmers: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial

Purpose: Molecular hydrogen has been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, ergogenic, and recovery-enhancing effects. This study aimed to assess the effect of molecular hydrogen administration on muscle performance, damage, and perception of soreness up to 24 h of recovery after two strenuous training sessions performed on the same day in elite fin swimmers. Methods: Eight females (mean ± SD; age 21.5 ± 5.0 years, maximal oxygen consumption 45.0 ± 2.5 mL.kg-1.min-1) and four males (age 18.9 ± 1.3 years, maximal oxygen consumption 52.2 ± 1.7 mL.kg-1.min-1) performed 12 × 50 m sprints in the morning session and a 400 m competitive performance in the afternoon session. Participants consumed hydrogen-rich water (HRW) or placebo 3 days before the sessions (1,260 mL/day) and 2,520 mL on the experimental day. Muscle performance (countermovement jump), muscle damage (creatine kinase), and muscle soreness (100 mm visual analogue scale) were measured during the experimental day and at 12 and 24 h after the afternoon session. Results: HRW compared to placebo reduced blood activity of creatine kinase (156 ± 63 vs. 190 ± 64 U.L-1, p = 0.043), muscle soreness perception (34 ± 12 vs. 42 ± 12 mm, p = 0.045), and improved countermovement jump height (30.7 ± 5.5 cm vs. 29.8 ± 5.8 cm, p = 0.014) at 12 h after the afternoon session. Conclusion: Four days of HRW supplementation is a promising hydration strategy for promoting muscle recovery after two strenuous training sessions performed on the same day in elite fin swimmers. Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT05799911.

Association of Physical Activity and Exercise with Physical Performance and Muscle Mass in Older Adults: Results from the Longevity Check-Up (Lookup) 7+ Project

Regular engagement in physical activity (PA) or physical exercise (PE) is effective at improving physical performance and body composition in older adults. Less is known about the benefits that may be obtained through combining PA with PE and whether the effects of activity habits differ between men and women. This study cross-sectionally investigated the association of PA and/or PE with physical performance and anthropometric measures in a large and relatively unselected sample of older adults enrolled in the Longevity Check-up (Lookup) 7+ project. Participants were individuals 65 years and older living in the community who were recruited in unconventional settings across Italy. Adherence to PA or PE was operationalized as involvement in light walking or various types of exercise, respectively, at least twice weekly for a minimum of 30 min per session throughout the last 12 months. Physical performance measures included handgrip strength and five-time sit-to-stand (5STS) tests. Lower-limb muscle power and appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) were estimated through validated equations. We analyzed data of 4119 participants, of whom 2222 (53.4%) were women. The mean age was 72.8 ± 5.8 years in men and 72.1 ± 5.4 years in women. Regular engagement in PA + PE was reported by 139 (7.3%) men and 100 (4.5%) women. Results indicated that regular walking activity and/or PE were significantly associated with better physical performance and greater ASM with sex-specific patterns. Associations were also influenced by the type of activity, physical performance assessment tool, and anthropometric parameters. Men engaged in PA + PE performed better on the 5STS test and had greater handgrip strength, ASM, and relative and specific muscle power than those practicing either PA or PE. In women, the combination of PA and PE was associated with greater handgrip strength. The findings of this study indicate that older adults regularly practicing PA + PE had better physical performance than those who only engaged in either modality. In men, the combination of PA and PE was also associated with greater ASM.

The role of the biomechanics analyst in swimming training and competition analysis

Swimming analysts aid coaches and athletes in the decision-making by providing evidence-based recommendations. The aim of this narrative review was to report the best practices of swimming analysts that have been supporting high-performance athletes. It also aims to share how swimming analysts can translate applied research into practice. The role of the swimming analyst, as part of a holistic team supporting high-performance athletes, has been expanding and is needed to be distinguished from the job scope of a swimming researcher. As testing can be time-consuming, analysts must decide what to test and when to conduct the evaluation sessions. Swimming analysts engage in the modelling and forecast of the performance, that in short- and mid-term can help set races target-times, and in the long-term provide insights on talent and career development. Races can be analysed by manual, semi-automatic or fully automatic video analysis with single or multi-cameras set-ups. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of the swim strokes, start, turns, and finish are also part of the analyst job scope and associated with race performance goals. Land-based training is another task that can be assigned to analysts and aims to enhance the performance, prevent musculoskeletal injuries and monitor its risk factors.

Sex Differences in the Load-Velocity Profiles of Three Different Row Exercises

This study examined the force-velocity profile differences between men and women in three variations of row exercises. Twenty-eight participants (14 men and 14 women) underwent maximum dynamic strength assessments in the free prone bench row (PBR), bent-over barbell row (BBOR), and Smith machine bent-over row (SMBOR) in a randomized order. Subjects performed a progressive loading test from 30 to 100% of 1-RM (repetition maximum), and the mean propulsive velocity was measured in all attempts. Linear regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships between the different measures of bar velocity and % 1-RM. The ANOVAs applied to the mean velocity achieved in each % 1-RM tested revealed significantly higher velocity values for loads < 65% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to BBOR (p < 0.05) and higher velocities for loads < 90% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to PBR (p < 0.05) for both sexes. Furthermore, men provided significantly higher velocity values than women (PBR 55-100% 1-RM; BBOR and SMBOR < 85% 1-RM; p < 0.05) and significant differences were found between exercises and sex for 30-40% 1-RM. These results confirm that men have higher velocities at different relative loads (i.e., % 1-RM) compared to women during upper-body rowing exercises.

Adherence to aerobic training combined with high protein intake is associated with low blood pressure in Italian older adults: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Lifestyle habits have a key role in cardiometabolic health. The effects of combined aerobic training (AT) and high protein intake (HPI) on cardiometabolic parameters in older adults are not well established.

AIMS

To investigate the association of AT and HPI with blood pressure (BP), blood glucose, and total blood cholesterol levels in a sample of Italian older adults enrolled in the Longevity Check-up 7 + (Lookup 7 +) study.

METHODS

Lookup 7 + is an ongoing project started in June 2015 and conducted in unconventional settings (e.g., exhibitions, malls, health promotion campaigns) across Italy with the aim of fostering adoption of healthy lifestyles in the general population. For the present investigation, analyses were conducted in participants 65 + years and with body mass index values ≥ 18.5 kg/m2 (n = 3219). Systolic (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), blood glucose, and total blood cholesterol were measured. Protein intake was estimated using a 12-item food frequency questionnaire. HPI was operationalized as a daily protein intake ≥ 0.8 g/kg of body weight. AT was operationalized as the practice of running and/or swimming for 60 + minutes at least twice weekly during the previous year.

RESULTS

The mean age of the 3219 participants was 72.7 ± 5.7 years, and 55.2% were women. Adherence to AT combined with a HPI was negatively and independently associated with SPB (β: - 4.976; 95% confidence interval: - 9.8 to - 0.08). No other significant associations were observed.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that AT combined with HPI was negatively associated with SBP in a large and relatively unselected sample of Italian older adults living in the community. These findings need confirmation by ad hoc designed studies.

Diver Underwater Cycling Endurance After Short-Term Warm and Hot Water Acclimation

INTRODUCTION

It is unclear whether immersion heat acclimation benefits exercise in warm water conditions. This study examined the effects of heat acclimation strategies on heart rate (HR), core temperature, and time to exhaustion (TTE) during cycling exercise in varying warm water conditions.

METHODS

Twenty male divers completed this study at the Navy Experimental Diving Unit. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two 9-day heat acclimation groups. The first group (WARM; n = 10) cycled for 2 hours at 50 W in 34.4 °C water, while the second group (HOT; n = 10) cycled for 1 hour against minimal resistance in 36.7 °C water. Following acclimation, TTE was tested by underwater cycling (30 W) in 35.8 °C, 37.2 °C, and 38.6 °C water.

RESULTS

Throughout acclimation, the rate of core temperature rise in the first 30 minutes of exercise increased (P = .02), but the maximum core temperature reached was not different for either group. Time to exhaustion (TTE) was reduced, and the rate of core temperature rise during performance testing increased (both P < .001) with increasing water temperature but was not different between groups. Core temperature and HR increased throughout performance testing in each water condition and were lower in the HOT compared to the WARM acclimation group (all P < .05) with the exception of core temperature in the 37.2 °C condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Underwater exercise performance did not differ between the two acclimation strategies. This study suggests that passive acclimation to a higher water temperature may improve thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses to exercise in warm water. Hot water immersion adaptations are dependent on exercise intensity and water temperature.

Validity and reliability of upper extremity star excursion balance test in adolescent swimmers

Background

Upper limb balance is one of the important physical fitness parameters for all populations, especially overhead athletes like swimmers. Upper extremity star excursion balance test (UESEBT) is a comprehensive dynamic balance assessment, this study aims to explore the reliability and validity of UESEBT among adolescent swimmers.

Methods

This cross-sectional study recruited 70 adolescent swimmers. All participants were required to complete UESEBT, upper quarter Y-balance test (UQYBT), maximal isometric strength (MIS) tests in upper limb, closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test (CKCUEST), trunk flexor endurance test (TFET) and lateral trunk endurance test (LTET). The intra- and inter-operator reliability and the correlation of UESEBT with other physical performances were conducted.

Results

For reliability, the intra- and inter-operator reliability of all directions and composite score were high-to-excellent (ICC = 0.706-1.000) among all participants. For validity, the UESEBT has a moderate-to-strong correlation with UQYBT (r = 0.42-0.72, p < 0.001), and a weak-to moderate one with CKCUEST (r = 0.25-0.42, p < 0.05). Furthermore, the UESEBT performance showed weak-to-moderate correlations with MIS (r = 0.24-0.44, p < 0.05). UESEBT was correlated to LTET (r = 0.24-0.33, p < 0.05) whereas no relationship was found with TFET.

Conclusions

UESEBT was a reliable and valid tool to screen upper extremity dynamic balance among adolescent swimmers. UESEBT provides more detailed information in eight directions to assess the upper limb sport performance. Further study should explore the prediction ability of UESEBT for injury.

Relationship between Maximum Force-Velocity Exertion and Swimming Performances among Four Strokes over Medium and Short Distances: The Stronger on Dry Land, the Faster in Water?

Evaluating force-velocity characteristics on dry-land is of the utmost importance in swimming, because higher levels of these bio-motor abilities positively affect in-water performance. However, the wide range of possible technical specializations presents an opportunity for a more categorized approach that has yet to be seized. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify feasible differences in maximum force-velocity exertion based on swimmers' stroke and distance specialization. To this scope, 96 young male swimmers competing at the regional level were divided into 12 groups, one for each stroke (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and front crawl) and distance (50 m, 100 m, and 200 m). They performed two single pull-up tests, 5-min before and after competing in a federal swimming race. We assessed force (N) and velocity (m/s) exertion via linear encoder. There were no significant differences between pre-post maximum force-velocity exertions, despite the decreasing trend. Force-parameters highly correlated with each other and with the swimming performance time. Moreover, both force (t = -3.60, p < 0.001) and velocity (t = -3.90, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of swimming race time. Sprinters (both 50 m and 100 m) of all strokes could exert significantly higher force-velocity compared to 200 m swimmers (e.g., 0.96 ± 0.06 m/s performed by sprinters vs. 0.66 ± 0.03 m/s performed by 200 m swimmers). Moreover, breaststroke sprinters presented significantly lower force-velocity compared to sprinters specialized in the other strokes (e.g., 1047.83 ± 61.33 N performed by breaststroke sprinters vs. 1263.62 ± 161.23 N performed by butterfly sprinters). This study could provide the foundation for future research regarding the role of stroke and distance specializations in modeling swimmers' force-velocity abilities, thus influencing paramount elements for specific training and improvement towards competitions.

Effect of Different Types of Strength Training on Swimming Performance in Competitive Swimmers: A Systematic Review

Background

Strength training is widely used in swimming for improvement in performance. There are several ways to embark on strength training, which to different degrees follows the principle of specificity. There are disagreements in the literature on which training methods lead to the greatest performance improvements and to what degree resistance training must be specific to swimming to transfer to swimming performance.

Objective

The study was undertaken to examine (1) how different approaches to strength training for competitive swimmers can improve swimming performance and (2) which form of strength training resulted in the largest improvement in swimming performance.

Methods

A systematic review of the literature was undertaken using the following databases: PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Scopus. Studies were eligible if they met the following criteria: (1) a training intervention lasting longer than 3 weeks that investigates the effects strength training has on swimming performance, (2) involves youth or older experienced swimmers, (3) involves in-water specific resistance training, dry-land swim-like resistance training or non-specific dry-land strength training and (4) interventions with clear pre- and posttest results stated. Non-English language articles were excluded. Percent change and between-group effect size (ES) were calculated to compare the effects of different training interventions.

Results

A range of studies investigating different strength training methods were examined. The percent change in performance and between-group ES were calculated; 27 studies met the inclusion criteria. The review revealed no clear consensus on which method of strength training was the most beneficial to swimming performance. All methods had intervention groups that increased their swimming performance.

Conclusions

This review shows that swimming differs from other sports as it is performed in water, and this demands a specific way of training. The results show that a combined swimming and strength training regimen seemed to have a better effect on swimming performance than a swim-only approach to training. Based on the principle of specificity and gains in swimming performance, there is not a clear conclusion, as the three main methods of strength training revealed similar gains in swimming performance of 2–2.5%.

Biophysical Impact of 5-Week Training Cessation on Sprint Swimming Performance

PURPOSE

To assess changes in swimming performance, anthropometrics, kinematics, energetics, and strength after 5-week training cessation.

METHODS

Twenty-one trained and highly trained swimmers (13 males: 17.4 [3.1] y; 50-m front crawl 463 [77] FINA points; 8 females: 16.7 [1.7] y; 50-m front crawl 535 [48] FINA points) performed a 50-m front-crawl all-out swim test, dryland and pool-based strength tests, and 10-, 15-, 20-, and 25-m front-crawl all-out efforts for anaerobic critical velocity assessment before and after a 5-week training cessation. Heart rate and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) were continuously measured before and after the 50-m swim test (off-kinetics).

RESULTS

Performance was impaired 1.9% (0.54 s) for males (P = .007, d = 0.91) and 2.9% (0.89 s) for females (P = .033, d = 0.93). Neither the anthropometrical changes (males: r2 = .516, P = .077; females: r2 = .096, P = .930) nor the physical activities that each participant performed during the off-season (males: r2 = .060, P = .900; females: r2 = .250, P = .734) attenuated performance impairments. Stroke rate and clean swimming speed decreased (P < .05), despite similar stroke length and stroke index (P > .05). Blood lactate concentrations remained similar (P > .05), but V˙O2 peak decreased in females (P = .04, d = 0.85). Both sexes showed higher heart rate before and after the 50-m swim test after 5 weeks (P < .05). Anaerobic metabolic power deterioration was only observed in males (P = .035, d = 0.65). Lower in-water force during tethered swimming at zero speed was observed in males (P = .033, d = 0.69). Regarding dryland strength, lower-body impairments were observed for males, while females showed upper-body impairments (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

A 5-week training cessation yielded higher heart rate in the 50-m front crawl, anaerobic pathways, and dryland strength impairments. Coaches should find alternatives to minimize detraining effects during the off-season.

Capillary Blood Recovery Variables in Young Swimmers: An Observational Case Study

Sport diagnostics is still in pursuit of the optimal combination of biochemical and hematological markers to assess training loads and the effectiveness of recovery. The biochemical and hematological markers selected for a panel should be specific to the sport and training program. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of selected biochemical and hematological variables in professional long-distance and sprint swimming. Twenty-seven participants aged 15–18 years took part in the study. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities and creatinine (Cr), C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, total bilirubin (TB), direct bilirubin (DB) and iron concentrations were measured for 10 weeks and compared with the traditional sport diagnostic markers of creatine kinase (CK) activity and urea (U) concentration. Additionally, capillary blood morphology was analyzed. An effective panel should consist of measurements of CK and AST activities and urea, TB, DB and ferritin concentrations. These markers provide a good overview of athletes’ post-training effort changes, can help assess the effectiveness of their recovery regardless of sex or competitive distance and are affordable. Moreover, changes in ferritin concentration can indicate inflammation status and, when combined with iron concentration and blood morphology, can help to avoid iron deficiencies, anemia and adverse inflammatory states in swimmers.

Gender Differences and the Influence of Body Composition on Land and Pool-Based Assessments of Anaerobic Power and Capacity

Consistent differences between males and females have been shown in land-based measurements of anaerobic power and capacity. However, these differences have not been investigated for a tethered 30-s maximal swimming test (TST). The purpose of this study is to explore gender differences in land and pool-based assessments of anaerobic power (Fpeak) and capacity (Fmean), as well as the influence of body composition. Thirteen males and fifteen females completed land (Wingate (WAnT)) and pool-based (TST) measures of anaerobic power and capacity previously described in the literature. Additionally, the subjects completed assessments of body composition via air displacement plethysmography. The males produced higher force than the females for Fpeak (p < 0.001) and Fmean (p = 0.008) during the TST. However, linear regression analysis determined that lean mass significantly predicted Fpeak (p = 0.002) and Fmean (p < 0.001) during the TST, while gender was no longer significant (p = 0.694 and p = 0.136, respectively). In conclusion, increases in anaerobic power and capacity (Fpeak and Fmean) may be a function of increased lean mass in males and females, warranting future research on the impact of resistance training programs on force production and swimming performance.

Efficacy of Core Training in Swimming Performance and Neuromuscular Parameters of Young Swimmers: A Randomised Control Trial

Background: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of core training in the swimming performance and neuromuscular properties of young swimmers. Methods: Eighteen healthy male swimmers (age: 13 ± 2 years, height: 159.6 ± 14.5 cm, weight: 48.7 ± 12.4 kg) were recruited from the Public Authority for Sports swimming pool in Dammam and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group performed a six-week core-training program consisting of seven exercises (three times/week) with regular swimming training. The control group maintained its regular training. Swimming performance and neuromuscular parameters were measured pre- and post-interventions. Results: The experimental group benefitted from the intervention in terms of the 50 m swim time (−1.4 s; 95% confidence interval −2.4 to −0.5) compared with the control group. The experimental group also showed improved swimming velocity (+0.1 m.s−1), stroke rate (−2.8 cycle.min−1), stroke length (+0.2 m.cycle−1), stroke index (+0.4 m2·s−1), total strokes (−2.9 strokes), and contraction time for erector spinae (ES; −1.5 ms), latissimus dorsi (LD; −7 ms), and external obliques (EO; −1.9 ms). Maximal displacement ES (DM-ES) (+3.3 mm), LD (0.5 mm), and EO (+2.2 mm) were compared with the baseline values for the experimental group, and TC-ES (5.8 ms), LD (3.7 ms), EO (2.5 ms), DM-ES (0.2 mm), LD (−4.1 mm), and EO (−1.0 mm) were compared with the baseline values for the control group. The intergroup comparison was statistically significant (p < 0.05; DM-ES p > 0.05). Conclusion: The results indicate that a six-week core-training program with regular swimming training improved the neuromuscular properties and the 50 m freestyle swim performance of the experimental group compared with the control group.

Effects of Repeated Sprint Training With Progressive Elastic Resistance on Sprint Performance and Anterior-Posterior Force Production in Elite Young Soccer Players

ABSTRACT

Le Scouarnec, J, Samozino, P, Andrieu, B, Thubin, T, Morin, JB, and Favier, FB. Effects of repeated sprint training with progressive elastic resistance on sprint performance and anterior-posterior force production in elite young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1675-1681, 2022-This study aimed to determine whether repeated sprint training with progressive high elastic resistance could improve sprint performance and anterior-posterior (AP) force production capacities of elite young soccer players. Seven elite U19 soccer players underwent 10 sessions of elastic-resisted repeated sprints on 8 weeks, whereas 8 U17 players from the same academy (control group) followed the same protocol without elastic bands. Sprint performance and mechanical parameters were recorded on a 30-m sprint before and after training. The control group did not show change for any of the measured variables. In contrast, the elastic-resisted training resulted in a significant improvement of the sprint time (-2.1 ± 1.3%; p = 0.026; Hedges' g = -0.49) and maximal velocity (Vmax; +3.9 ± 2%; p = 0.029; Hedges' g = 0.61) reached during the 30-m sprint. These enhancements were concurrent with an increase in the maximal power output related to AP force (Pmax; +4.9 ± 5.1%%; p = 0.026; Hedges' g = 0.42). Although the theoretical maximal AP force (F0) remained unchanged in both groups, there was a medium but nonsignificant increase in theoretical maximal velocity (V0; +3.7 ± 2.5%; p = 0.13; Hedges' g = 0.5) only in the elastic group. Therefore, the present results show that sprint capacity of elite young soccer players can be further improved by adding incremental resistance against runner displacement to raise the ability to produce AP force, rather at high velocity in the final phase of the acceleration.

Strength Training in Swimming

This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete's performance development, preventive aspects should also be considered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round strength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.

Effect of Resistance Training Methods and Intensity on the Adolescent Swimmer's Performance: A Systematic Review

Background

Resistance training has been widely used in various sports and improves competition performance, especially in swimming. Swimming performance is highly dependent on muscle strength, especially short distances. For adolescent athletes, the existing literature has bound to prove that resistance training is undoubtedly bound to improve swimmers' performance.

Objectives

This study adopts a systematic literature review to (1) examine the effects of resistance training on the performance of adolescent swimmers, and (2) summarize their training methods and intensity.

Methods

The literature search was undertaken in five international databases: the SCOUPS, PubMed, EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus), CNKL, Web of Science. The searches covered documents in English and Chinese published until 30th December 2020. Electronic databases using various keywords related to "strength training" and "adolescent swimmers" were searched. Sixteen studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria where the data was then systematically reviewed using the PRISMA guideline. Furthermore, the physical therapy evidence database (PEDro) scale was used to measure each study's scientific rigor.

Results

This review found that to improve the swimming performance of adolescents, two types of resistance training were used, specifically in water and on land, where both types of training can improve swimming performance. In addition, training with two types of resistance machines were better in the water than with one equipment. Resistance training can improve the swimming performance of adolescent swimmers at 50 m, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m distances. However, most studies only focused on the swimming performance at 50 m and 100 m lengths. A low-intensity, high-speed resistance training programme is recommended for adolescent swimmers to obtain the best training results.

Conclusion

Water or land resistance training can improve the swimming performance. Given that both types of exercises have their strengths and weaknesses, combining these methods may enhance the swimmers' performance. In addition, despite the starting and turning phases consuming up to one-third of the total swimming time for short distances, literature in this area is limited.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero, identifier: CRD42021231510.

Pandemic-Induced Reductions on Swim Training Volume and Performance in Collegiate Swimmers

The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant training disruptions during the 2020-2021 season, due to lockdowns, quarantines, and strict adherence to the pandemic protocols. The main purpose of this study was to determine how the pandemic training restrictions affected training volume and performance in one collegiate swim team. Cumulative training volume data across a 28-week season were compared between a pandemic (2020-2021) versus non-pandemic (2019-2020) season. The swimmers were categorized into three groups (sprinters, mid-distance, and long-distance) based on their training group. The performance times of 25 swimmers who competed in the regional championships, during both the non-pandemic and pandemic year, were compared via one-way ANOVA. Twenty-six male and 22 female swimmers commenced the 2020-2021 (pandemic) season, with 23% of the swimmers voluntarily opting out. Three COVID-19 cases were confirmed (2%) by the medical staff, with no long-term effects. Significant reductions in the average swim volume were verified in sprinters (32,867 ± 10,135 vs. 14,800 ± 7995 yards; p < 0.001), mid-distance (26,457 ± 10,692 vs. 17,054 ± 9.923 yards; p < 0.001), and long-distance (37,600 ± 14,430 vs. 22,254 ± 14,418 yards; p < 0.001) swimmers (non-pandemic vs. pandemic season, respectively). In the regional performance analyses, the sprinters swam faster (n = 8; -0.5 ± 0.6 s), while the mid-distance (n = 10; 0.17 ± 2.1 s) and long-distance (n = 7; 6.0 ± 4.9 s) swimmers swam slower (F = 11.76; p = 0.0003; r² = 0.52). Thus, the pandemic caused significant reductions in swim training volume, with sprinters performing better and long-distance swimmers performing worse at the regional championships.

Prevalence and Impact of the Relative Age Effect on Competition Performance in Swimming: A Systematic Review

This systematic review aimed to examine the prevalence of the relative age effect (RAE) in swimming and its impact on competition performance according to different types of interacting constraints. A systematic literature search, following the PRISMA guidelines for preparing systematic reviews, was performed through four electronic databases, and nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The quality of the selected studies was evaluated using STROBE, and an average score of 16.2 points was obtained. In these studies, the prevalence of the RAE in swimming was observed in more than half (58.65%) of the participants analysed, and the effect of the RAE was more accentuated in young categories (decreased as age increased and was inverted in older ones) and in male swimmers (double that in female swimmers).The impact of the RAE on competitive performance appeared to be related to the strength demands of the event, as the performance in simultaneous strokes, in shorter events, and of swimmers in the postadolescence period seems to be more affected by the RAE. These results indicate that the RAE in competitive swimming relies on individual and environmental (the swimmer's age group and gender) but also task (the competitive events) determinants or limitations. This should serve as a guide for a more effective design of selection and development procedures for young athletes.

Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m Medley Swimmers

Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scientific literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L-1), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L-1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L-1). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance.

Impact of COVID-19 on Swimming Training: Practical Recommendations during Home Confinement/Isolation

The COVID-19 pandemic has had severe effects on communities globally, leading to significant restrictions on all aspects of society, including in sports. Several significant decisions were made to postpone or cancel major swimming events by FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation). Swimmers were no longer allowed to continue their usual training in swimming pools and were confined to their homes. These unusual circumstances may represent a good opportunity to strengthen different areas of swimmer preparation and potentially enhance performance when resuming regular aquatic training. We searched major databases for relevant information, and the present article provides practical information on home-based training for swimmers of all ages. The COVID-19 crisis and its consequences on the swimming community have created a myriad of challenges for swimmers around the world, including maintaining their fitness level and preparing to return optimally and safely to pool training and competitions. Unfortunately, the mental consequences that might arise after the pandemic may also have an impact. We strongly recommend encouraging the swimmers to consider quarantine as an opportunity for development in specific areas of preparation and learn how to best cope with this special situation of self-isolation and/or "physical distancing" for their mental health and in case a similar situation is faced again in the future.

Influence of Biological Maturity on the Muscular Strength of Young Male and Female Swimmers

The present study compared the evolution of strength and muscle mass in swimmers of both sexes across different chronological and biological ages. Seventy-six swimmers (55 males and 21 females) from 10 to 20 years of age underwent evaluations of sexual maturation using the developmental stage of the genitals (G1, G2, G3 G4 and G5) and pubic hair (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5) (Tanner criteria), lean mass using the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry method, and isokinetic strength of the knee extensor muscles. Boys did not present a significant difference in strength among G1, G2, and G3 (p > 0.05) nor between 10 and 13 years of age (p > 0.05), although significant differences in strength of the extensor (p = 0.038) muscles of the knee were found between G3 and G4 and between athletes of 10 and 14 years of age (extensor muscles, p = 0.033). Muscle mass was different between G3 and G4 (p = 0.003) and between 10 and 14 years of age (p = 0.020). The mean age of boys in the G4 pubertal stage was 13.7 ± 2.0 years, although from 12 to 16 years of age, boys are typically in the G4 stage. Girls showed no significant differences in strength nor muscle mass among the pubertal stages (p > 0.05). We conclude that by equating boys by chronological age, individuals with different pubertal development levels, muscle mass, and strength levels can be grouped. Therefore, the relationship between the level of pubertal deve-lopment and chronological age seems to be a useful strategy for grouping boys, while grouping girls by chronological age seems adequate for training and competition.

Effects of Different In-Season Strength Training Methods on Strength Gains and Water Polo Performance

PURPOSE

This study aimed to compare the effects of 5 different 18-week in-season strength training programs on strength gains and specific water polo performance.

METHODS

A total of 56 young male water polo players were randomly assigned to the following 5 training groups: dry-land strength training, in-water-specific strength training, combined (dry-land and in-water) strength training, ballistic training, and eccentric-overload training. Physical performance was assessed before (Pre) and after (Post) the training period using the following battery of tests: in-water boost and countermovement jump, muscle strength in bench-press and full-squat, throwing speed (ThS), in-water agility, and 20-m maximal sprint swim.

RESULTS

Significant group × time interactions were observed for countermovement jump and in-water boost. Eccentric-overload training showed significantly higher gains in ThS and bench-press and full-squat strength than the rest of the training groups. In addition, all training groups (except in-water-specific strength training) induced significant improvements (P ≤ .05) in countermovement jump, in-water boost, and bench-press and full-squat strength. All training groups significantly increased (P ≤ .001) ThS. Moreover, all training groups improved (P ≤ .05) in-water agility (except dry-land strength training) and swimming sprint performance (except in-water-specific strength training and ballistic training).

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that the 18-week in-season strength training programs induced improvements in strength and specific water polo skills. The eccentric-overload training resulted in greater improvements in muscle strength (in both upper and lower body) and ThS than the other training methods examined in the study.

Transfer of Dry-Land Resistance Training Modalities to Swimming Performance

A great number of studies focusing on the effects of dry-land resistance training interventions on swimming performance remain inconclusive. It is suggested that transferability of dry-land strength gains to swimming performance appear when dry-land resistance training programs are swim-specific. The main aim of this study was to compare the effects of specific dry-land resistance training on an ergometer with traditional dry-land exercises, and to determine how much of the resistance training effects were transferred to specific swimming conditions. The study included a group of 26 youth competitive male swimmers (age 15.7 ± 0.5 years, height 174.6 ± 6.6 cm, weight 68.4 ± 8.2 kg, training experience 5.8±0.7 years) of regional level. They were randomly allocated to one of two groups: experimental (E) and control (T). Both groups were involved in a 12-week dry-land resistance training concentrated on increasing muscular strength and power output of the upper limbs. Group E used a specialized ergometer (JBA – Zbigniew Staniak), while group T performed traditional resistance exercises. The program consisted of 10 sets of 30 s of exercise with 30 s rest intervals between each set. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Tukey HSD post hoc comparisons was used to determine if any significant differences existed between training groups across pretest and posttest conditions. The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Dry-land resistance training modalities were the only differences in training between both groups. Our findings show that rates of transfer are much higher in group E than in group T, which resulted in a significant increase in swimming velocity (by 4.32%, p<0.001; ES=1.23, and 2.78%, p<0.003, ES=0.31, respectively).

Strength-Training Periodization: No Effect on Swimming Performance in Well-Trained Adolescent Swimmers

PURPOSE

To assess the effects of periodized versus nonperiodized dry-land strength training (DLST) on indices of swimming performance in well-trained adolescent swimmers.

METHODS

Sixteen athletes (10 boys and 6 girls; age 14.9 [1.1] y) performed similar endurance training for 16 weeks (29.1 [7.5] km·wk-1). During weeks 1 to 7, all athletes additionally performed 2 or 3 times weekly whole-body DLST (3 × 6-10 repetitions at 75-85% 1-repetition maximum [1RM]). Thereafter, the DLST frequency was maintained, but athletes were stratified into periodized (experimental, n = 9) and nonperiodized (control, n = 7) DLST groups. The experimental group performed maximal (3 × 3-4 repetitions at 85-90% 1RM) and explosive DLST (throws and unloaded jumps), while in the control group, DLST was maintained.

RESULTS

Swimming time at 4 mmol·L-1 of blood lactate improved after 7 weeks in both the experimental (+2.6% [1.8%], P = .033) and the control groups (+3.2% [2.4%], P = .081) and plateaued thereafter. Ten-meter start improved in both the experimental (-3.6% [2.5%], P = .039) and the control groups (-5.1% [2.2%], P = .054) throughout the entire intervention. Both groups improved in maximal weight lifted in half-squat (experimental, +19.6% [14.9%], P = .021; control, +25.7% [18.4%], P = .054) and bench press (experimental, +14.1% [4.8%], P = .018; control, +19.3% [11.1%], P = .051). Countermovement-jump height increased only in the experimental group throughout the intervention (+19.4% [7.0%], P = .024). The associations for the pooled changes in half-squat performance and 4 mmol·L-1 of blood lactate were statistically significant (r = .560, P = .024).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings do not support the superior effects of DLST periodization in adolescent swimmers. However, the association between improvements in lower-body strength and swimming performance still indicates the importance of muscle strength in this age group.

In-Season Strength Training in Elite Junior Swimmers: The Role of the Low-Volume, High-Velocity Training on Swimming Performance

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of long-term combined strength training (ST) and plyometrics on strength, power and swimming performances in elite junior swimmers during a competitive season. Ten elite junior swimmers (5 women and 5 men) completed the study (age: 16.6 ± 0.7 years; mass: 62.2 ± 5.4 kg; stature: 1.70 ± 0.07 m). The participants trained twice a week during 20 weeks. The ST program consisted of upper- and lower limbs exercises with low loads and low volume, lifting the load at maximal intended velocity. The effect of the training protocol was assessed using the 1RM in the full squat (SQ) and bench press (BP), jump height (CMJ), the maximal number of repetitions completed in the pull-up (PU) exercise and time during 50-m freestyle. Training program resulted in significant improvements in CMJ (12.1%, ES: 0.57), maximal dynamic strength in the SQ (16.4%, ES: 0.46) and BP (12.1%, ES: 0.34) exercises, the maximum number of repetitions completed during the PU test (90.7%, ES: 0.57) and swimming performance (-3.9%, ES: 0.45). There were no significant differences between both genders. The relative changes in swimming performance showed significant relationship with the relative changes in 1RM of SQ for pooled data (r=-0.66, p<0.05) and the relative changes in the PU exercise in female swimmers (r=-0.99, p<0.05). Therefore, coaches and strength and conditioning professionals should consider including in-season dry-land ST programs within the training routine in order to obtain further improvements in swimming performance.

Nonspecific Resistance Training and Swimming Performance: Strength or Power? A Systematic Review

Muniz-Pardos, B, Gomez-Bruton, A, Matute-Llorente, A, Gonzalez-Aguero, A, Gomez-Cabello, A, Gonzalo-Skok, O, Casajus, JA, and Vicente-Rodriguez, G. Nonspecific resistance training and swimming performance: Strength or power? A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the type of nonspecific resistance intervention that is more effective to enhance swimming performance and to determine the nonspecific strength- or power-related variable that better predicts swimming performance. A search was conducted on PubMed, Cochrane Plus, and SportDiscus up to June 2018. Studies were distributed into 4 categories: dry-land strength (DLS), dry-land power (DLP), combination of training methods, and strength and power in start performance. From 1,844 citations, 33 met the inclusion criteria. Cross-sectional DLS studies showed positive associations between swimming performance and DLS development (especially through upper-body isometric assessments), although the efficacy of DLS training interventions remains unclear. Dry-land power training (principally through plyometrics) was a proficient, nonspecific method to enhance swimming block start performance (SBS; the start phase off the block and during the first 5-15 m), and jump assessment was the best predictor of SBS. Some pioneering nonspecific practices such as the acute exposure to high altitude or the maintenance of a high core temperature during the transition phase before competition seem to improve performance, although more research is required to confirm their efficacy. Further high-quality intervention studies are required to clarify the effect of DLP training on sprint swimming performance.

Acute Resistance Exercise: Physiological and Biomechanical Alterations During a Subsequent Swim Training Session

PURPOSE

To examine the acute effect of dry-land strength training on physiological and biomechanical parameters in a subsequent swim training session.

METHODS

Twelve male swimmers (age: 19.0 [2.2] y, peak oxygen uptake: 65.5 [11.4] mL·kg-1·min-1) performed a 5 × 200-m test with progressively increasing intensity. Blood lactate (BL) concentration was measured after each 200-m bout, and the speed corresponding to 4 mmol·L-1 (V4) was calculated. In the experimental (EXP) and control (CON) conditions, swimmers participated in a swim training session consisting of 1000-m warm-up, a bout of 10-second tethered swimming sprint, and 5 × 400 m at V4. In EXP condition, swimmers completed a dry-land strength training session (load: 85% of 1-repetition maximum) 15 minutes before the swimming session. In CON condition, swimmers performed the swimming session only. Oxygen uptake, BL concentration, arm-stroke rate, arm-stroke length, and arm-stroke efficiency were measured during the 5 × 400 m.

RESULTS

Force in the 10-second sprint was not different between conditions (P = .61), but fatigue index was higher in the EXP condition (P = .03). BL concentration was higher in EXP condition and showed large effect size at the fifth 400-m repetition compared with CON condition (6.4 [2.7] vs 4.6 [2.8] mmol·L-1, d = 0.63). During the 5 × 400 m, arm-stroke efficiency remained unchanged, arm-stroke length was decreased from the third repetition onward (P = .01), and arm-stroke rate showed a medium increment in EXP condition (d = 0.23).

CONCLUSIONS

Strength training completed 15 minutes before a swim training session caused moderate changes in biomechanical parameters and increased BL concentration during swimming. Despite these changes, swimmers were able to maintain force and submaximal speed during the endurance training session.

Use of Loaded Conditioning Activities to Potentiate Middle- and Long-Distance Performance: A Narrative Review and Practical Applications

Blagrove, RC, Howatson, G, and Hayes, PR. Use of loaded conditioning activities to potentiate middle- and long-distance performance: a narrative review and practical applications. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2288-2297, 2019-The warm-up is an integral component of a middle- and long-distance athlete's preperformance routine. The use of a loaded conditioning activity (LCA), which elicits a postactivation potentiation (PAP) response to acutely enhance explosive power performance, is well researched. A similar approach incorporated into the warm-up of a middle- or long-distance athlete potentially provides a novel strategy to augment performance. Mechanisms that underpin a PAP response, relating to acute adjustments within the neuromuscular system, should theoretically improve middle- and long-distance performance through improvements in submaximal force-generating ability. Attempts to enhance middle- and long-distance-related outcomes using an LCA have been used in several recent studies. Results suggest that benefits to performance may exist in well-trained middle- and long-distance athletes by including high-intensity resistance training (1-5 repetition maximum) or adding load to the sport skill itself during the latter part of warm-ups. Early stages of performance seem to benefit most, and it is likely that recovery (5-10 minutes) also plays an important role after an LCA. Future research should consider how priming activity, designed to enhance the VO2 kinetic response, and an LCA may interact to affect performance, and how different LCAs might benefit various modes and durations of middle- and long-distance exercises.

Ultra-Short Race-Pace Training (USRPT) In Swimming: Current Perspectives

The last decade has seen a dramatic rise in sports science research due to the ever-increasing professionalization of sport. As a result, many alternative training methodologies that challenge traditional training philosophies have emerged. In the sport of swimming, ultra-short race-pace training (USRPT) was recently proposed. The aim of this article was to provide current perspectives on USRPT in competitive swimming. A systematic review was conducted to determine the effects of USRPT on performance in competitive swimmers. Of the 1347 studies retrieved, 1332 were excluded. The full-texts of 15 studies were assessed for eligibility. However, all 15 studies were excluded as the intervention did not consist of USRPT. Consequently, there are concerns surrounding USRPT as it is not currently based on peer-reviewed published literature. In addition, the recommendations within USRPT to avoid resistance training, cross-training activities, training intensities less than race-pace velocity and part practice swimming drills are highly controversial and lack scientific evidence. There is evidence to suggest that USRPT is a derivative of high-intensity training (HIT) and there is peer-reviewed published literature available to support the effects of HIT on performance in competitive swimmers. Swimming coaches and sports scientists are advised to consider the applications of USRPT with caution. The authors suggest that USRPT is a training method, which may be incorporated within a holistic periodized training program that includes a variety of training methods and stimuli. Future research should involve a randomized controlled intervention of USRPT in competitive swimmers.

Relationships Between Dry-land Resistance Training and Swim Start Performance and Effects of Such Training on the Swim Start: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The swim start requires an explosive muscular response of the lower body musculature to effectively initiate movement off the starting blocks. There are currently key gaps in the literature evaluating the relationship between dry-land resistance training and swim start performance and the effects of this training on swim start performance, as assessed by the time to 5, 10 or 15 m.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this systematic review were to critically appraise the current literature on (1) the acute relationship between dry-land resistance training and swim start performance and (2) the acute and chronic effects of dry-land resistance training on swim start performance.

METHODS

An electronic search using AusportMed, Embase, Medline (Ovid), SPORTDiscus and Web of Science was performed. The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa quality assessment scale (NOS) (cross-sectional studies) and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale (intervention studies).

RESULTS

Sixteen studies met the eligibility criteria, although the majority did not utilise the starting blocks or technique currently used in elite swimming. Swim start performance was near perfectly related (r > 0.90) to vertical bodyweight jumps and jump height. Post-activation potentiation and plyometrics were found to produce significant improvements in acute and chronic swim start performance, respectively.

CONCLUSION

While there appears to be strong evidence supporting the use of plyometric exercises such as vertical jumps for monitoring and improving swim start performance, future studies need to replicate these findings using current starting blocks and techniques and compare the chronic effects of a variety of resistance training programmes.

The Impact of Resistance Training on Swimming Performance: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The majority of propulsive forces in swimming are produced from the upper body, with strong correlations between upper body strength and sprint performance. There are significant gaps in the literature relating to the impact of resistance training on swimming performance, specifically the transfer to swimming performance.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this systematic literature review are to (1) explore the transfer of resistance-training modalities to swimming performance, and (2) examine the effects of resistance training on technical aspects of swimming.

METHODS

Four online databases were searched with the following inclusion criteria: (1) journal articles with outcome measures related to swimming performance, and (2) competitive swimmers participating in a structured resistance-training programme. Exclusion criteria were (1) participants with a mean age <16 years; (2) untrained, novice, masters and paraplegic swimmers; (3) triathletes and waterpolo players; (4) swimmers with injuries or illness; and (5) studies of starts and turns specifically. Data were extracted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was applied.

RESULTS

For optimal transfer, specific, low-volume, high-velocity/force resistance-training programmes are optimal. Stroke length is best achieved through resistance training with low repetitions at a high velocity/force. Resisted swims are the most appropriate training modality for improving stroke rate.

CONCLUSION

Future research is needed with respect to the effects of long-term resistance-training interventions on both technical parameters of swimming and overall swimming performance. The results of such work will be highly informative for the scientific community, coaches and athletes.

Carbohydrate Supplementation Does Not Improve 10 km Swimming Intermittent Training

The aim of the present study was to test the effectiveness of carbohydrate (CHO) feeding supplemented every 2.5-km, as in official races, on the performance, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and glycaemia during a 10-km intermittent training workout in elite open-water swimmers. A randomized crossover design was used. Participants completed two 10-km intermittent training sessions (20 × 500-m). The relative velocity was expressed in percentage of a single 500-m. Glycaemia was monitored by continuous glucose monitoring. Participants had to ingest either 1 L of tap water (WAT; 0.50 L·h⁻¹) or 120 g of CHO in the form of 8% solution (60 g·h⁻¹). The 15-point RPE scale was used during the trials. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measures was performed (p < 0.05). The relative velocity of each 500-m was not significantly different between the two trials. No significant differences emerged in the relative velocity of the last 500-m between trials. Average RPE was not statistically different between the two trials (11 ± 3 in WAT and 12 ± 3 in CHO). In the last 500-m, glycaemia was significantly higher in the CHO trial (5.92 ± 0.47 mmol·L⁻¹ in CHO; 5.61 ± 0.61 mmol·L⁻¹ in WAT). CHO ingestion did not improve performance or affect RPE during a 10-km intermittent training in elite open-water swimmers.

Chronic Physiological Effects of Swim Training Interventions in Non-Elite Swimmers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Swimming is a popular and potentially health-enhancing exercise, but has received less scientific attention compared with other exercise modes.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to determine the chronic (long-term) effect of pool swim training on physiological outcomes in non-elite or non-competitive swimming participants.

DESIGN

This study was a systematic review with a meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

We searched the electronic databases PubMed, EMBASE and CENTRAL from inception to March 2017.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

The eligibility criteria included randomised controlled trials, quasi-randomised controlled trials and controlled trials of chronic (long-term) swimming interventions in non-elite or non-competitive swimming participants, with a physiological outcome measure.

RESULTS

Our search of 6712 records revealed 29 eligible studies. Swimming had a significant and clinically meaningful effect on maximal oxygen uptake compared with the control in an analysis including multiple populations (mean difference 6.32 mL/kg/min; 95% confidence interval 4.33-8.31), and subgroup analyses of healthy children/adolescents (mean difference 7.93 mL/kg/min; 95% confidence interval 3.31-12.55) and those with asthma (mean difference 9.67 mL/kg/min; 95% confidence interval 5.84-13.51) and healthy adults (mean difference 5.87 mL/kg/min; 95% confidence interval 2.93-8.81). Swimming also resulted in significant improvements in other cardiorespiratory fitness-related outcomes such as maximal minute ventilation (mean difference 0.61 L/min; 95% confidence interval 0.17-1.05), submaximal exercise performance (standardised mean difference 0.64; 95% confidence interval 0.14-1.13) and total exercise test time (mean difference 4.27 min; 95% confidence interval 2.11-6.42). Compared with the control, swimming had significant favourable effects on body mass (mean difference - 2.90 kg, 95% confidence interval - 5.02 to - 0.78), body fat percentage in multiple populations (mean difference - 1.92%; 95% confidence interval - 3.25 to - 0.60) and healthy children/adolescents (mean difference - 1.92%; 95% confidence interval - 4.64 to - 0.80) and lean mass (mean difference 1.96 kg; 95% confidence interval 0.21-3.71), but negative effects on waist circumference in a pooled analysis of two studies involving adults with hypertension (mean difference 4.03 cm; 95% confidence interval 2.58-5.49). Regarding lung function, significant effects of swimming vs. the control were found only for peak expiratory volume in analyses including children/adolescents combined with healthy adults (mean difference 58.74 L/min; 95% confidence interval 29.70-87.78) and children/adolescents with asthma alone (mean difference 63.49 L/min; 95% confidence interval 25.01-101.97). Based on limited data, swimming had similar effects to other exercise modes, except for higher post-intervention body mass index values with swimming vs. running in healthy adults (mean difference 1.18 kg/m²; 95% confidence interval 0.54-1.81).

CONCLUSIONS

Swimming may offer robust beneficial effects on cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition across multiple populations and effects may be comparable to other exercise modes. Future randomised controlled trials are required to establish the effectiveness of swimming on physiological outcomes in healthy populations and those with non-communicable disease.

The Effects of Two Different Resisted Swim Training Load Protocols on Swimming Strength and Performance

This study used a power rack device to evaluate the effects of 2 different approaches to resisted swim training loads on swimming strength and performance. Sixteen male, youth national-level swimmers (mean age, 16.22 ± 2.63 years; body height, 169 ± 10.20 cm; body mass, 61.33 ± 9.90 kg) completed a 6-week specific strength-training program, and were then randomly assigned to one of the two groups: a standard training group (GS, n = 8) and a flat pyramid-loading pattern group (GP, n = 8). Strength and power tests along with specific swimming tests (50-m crawl and 50-m competition-style time trials) were conducted at baseline (pre-test), before the third week (mid-test), and after 6 weeks of intervention (post-test). Isokinetic swim bench tests were conducted to obtain measurements of force production and power, and 1RM tests with the power rack system were conducted to measure the maximum drag load (MDL) and specific swimming power. Following 6 weeks of intervention, the mean MDL increased (p < 0.05) by 13.94%. Scores for the 50-m competition style and 50-m crawl time trials improved by 0.32% and 0.78%, respectively, in the GP; however, those changes were not statistically significant. The GS significantly increased their time in the 50-m competition style by 2.59%, and their isokinetic force production decreased by 14.47% (p < 0.05). The 6-week strength-training program performed with the power rack device in a pyramidal organization was more effective than a standard linear load organization in terms of producing improvements in the MDL; however, it did not produce significant improvements in performance. The use of a strength-training program with a pyramidal organization can be recommended for specific strength-training in young swimmers during a preparatory period. However, in our study, that program did not produce significant changes in 50-m crawl and main competition style performance.

Influence of Maximal Strength on In-Water and Dry-Land Performance in Young Water Polo Players

Keiner, M, Rähse, H, Wirth, K, Hartmann, H, Fries, K, and Haff, GG. Influence of maximal strength on in-water and dry-land performance in young water polo players. J Strength Cond Res 34(7): 1999-2005, 2020-Water polo is a multifaceted sport that is characterized by explosive actions, including sprint swimming, jumping, throwing, and struggling against opponents. Based on these factors, maximal and speed strength may be important characteristics to develop in-water polo players. However, more research is needed to further understand the relationship between various strength characteristics and water polo performance. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between strength, speed strength, and markers of water polo performance in youth water polo players. Sixty-one male youth water polo players (10-14 years, 11.9 ± 1.3 years) had their 1-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press and squat, dry-land speed-strength performance (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], and medicine ball throw), in-water performance (sprint swim and water jump), and anthropometric measurements assessed. Fifty to 60% of the variance in sprint performance was explained by the 1RM bench press and arm span. The influence of the bench press 1RM was more than twice that of the anthropometric factors. Maximum strength in the squat and speed-strength (jump height in SJ, CMJ) variables explained 18-25% variance in the eggbeater kick (a leg strike technique to stay above and jump out of water), and the bench press 1RM explained the 42% of the variance in loaded throws without the influence of anthropometric factors. This study suggests that upper- and lower-body maximal strength parameters are important predictors of the performance capacity of water polo players.

Underwater near-infrared spectroscopy can measure training adaptations in adolescent swimmers

The development of an underwater near-infrared spectroscopy (uNIRS) device has enabled previously unattainable measurements of peripheral muscle hemodynamics and oxygenation to be taken within the natural aquatic environment. The purposes of this study were (i) to trial the use of uNIRS, in a real world training study, and (ii) to monitor the effects of a swim training program upon muscle oxygenation status in short distance swimming. A total of 14 junior club level swimmers completed a repeated swim sprint test before and after an eight week endurance training program. A waterproof, portable Near-Infrared Spectroscopy device was attached to the vastus lateralis. uNIRS successfully measured changes in muscle oxygenation and blood volume in all individuals; rapid sub-second time resolution of the device was able to demonstrate muscle oxygenation changes during the characteristic swim movements. Post training heart rate recovery and swim performance time were significantly improved. uNIRS data also showed significant changes. A larger rise in deoxyhemoglobin during individual sprints suggested training induced an increase in muscle oxygen extraction; a faster recovery time for muscle oxygenation suggested positive training induced changes and significant changes in muscle blood flow also occur. As a strong correlation was seen between an increased reoxygenation rate and an improved swim performance time, these findings support the use of uNIRS as a new performance analysis tool in swimming.

Individualized dry-land intervention program for an elite Paralympic swimmer

The aim of this retrospective case study is the longitudinal description of the physical and functional parameters of a top-level Paralympic swimmer class S9-SB8-SM9 during four swimming seasons of training, from the Paralympic games in London 2012 to the Paralympic games in Rio 2016. A 22-year-old male swimmer underwent a specific preventive dry-land training based on diaphragmatic breathing, postural alignment, and slow-velocity resistance training aimed to improve his muscle strength. He was tested by using the Functional Movement Screen™, photographic postural assessment and vertical jump. The swimmer improved his functional, postural and strength parameters indicating a better functional movement and muscular power. These results show that a four-year specific dry-land intervention could be capable of enhancing the functional and physical requirements of a top-level Paralympic swimmer. This approach might be a suitable novel alternative for coaches and athletic trainers to integrate their training protocols for athletes with similar impairments.