Tocotrienols and Cancer: From the State of the Art to Promising Novel Patents

Combined metabolic and enzymatic engineering for de novo biosynthesis of δ-tocotrienol in Yarrowia lipolytica

δ-Tocotrienol, an isomer of vitamin E with anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and anti-coronary arteriosclerosis properties, is widely used in health care, medicine and other fields. Microbial synthesis of δ-tocotrienol offers significant advantages over plant extraction and chemical synthesis methods, including increased efficiency, cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability. However, limited precursor availability and low catalytic efficiency of key enzymes remain major bottlenecks in the biosynthesis of δ-tocotrienol. In this study, we assembled the complete δ-tocotrienol biosynthetic pathway in Yarrowia lipolytica and enhanced the precursor supply, resulting in a titre of 102.8 mg/L. The catalytic efficiency of the rate-limiting steps in the pathway was then enhanced through various strategies, including fusion expression of key enzymes homogentisate phytyltransferaseand and tocopherol cyclase, semi-rational design of SyHPT and multi-copy integration of pathway genes. The final a δ-tocotrienol titre in a 5 L bioreactor was 466.8 mg/L following fed-batchfermentation. This study represents the first successful de novo biosynthesis of δ-tocotrienol in Y. lipolytica, providing valuable insights into the synthesis of vitamin E-related compounds.

Molecular Insights in the Anticancer Activity of Natural Tocotrienols: Targeting Mitochondrial Metabolism and Cellular Redox Homeostasis

The role of mitochondria as the electric engine of cells is well established. Over the past two decades, accumulating evidence has pointed out that, despite the presence of a highly active glycolytic pathway (Warburg effect), a functional and even upregulated mitochondrial respiration occurs in cancer cells to meet the need of high energy and the biosynthetic demand to sustain their anabolic growth. Mitochondria are also the primary source of intracellular ROS. Cancer cells maintain moderate levels of ROS to promote tumorigenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance; indeed, once the cytotoxicity threshold is exceeded, ROS trigger oxidative damage, ultimately leading to cell death. Based on this, mitochondrial metabolic functions and ROS generation are considered attractive targets of synthetic and natural anticancer compounds. Tocotrienols (TTs), specifically the δ- and γ-TT isoforms, are vitamin E-derived biomolecules widely shown to possess striking anticancer properties since they regulate several intracellular molecular pathways. Herein, we provide for the first time an overview of the mitochondrial metabolic reprogramming and redox homeostasis perturbation occurring in cancer cells, highlighting their involvement in the anticancer properties of TTs. This evidence sheds light on the use of these natural compounds as a promising preventive or therapeutic approach for novel anticancer strategies.

Necroptosis Induced by Delta-Tocotrienol Overcomes Docetaxel Chemoresistance in Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate cancer (PCa) represents the fifth cause of cancer death in men. Currently, chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of cancers, including PCa, mainly inhibit tumor growth by apoptosis induction. However, defects in apoptotic cellular responses frequently lead to drug resistance, which is the main cause of chemotherapy failure. For this reason, trigger non-apoptotic cell death might represent an alternative approach to prevent drug resistance in cancer. Several agents, including natural compounds, have been shown to induce necroptosis in human cancer cells. In this study we evaluated the involvement of necroptosis in anticancer activity of delta-tocotrienol (δ-TT) in PCa cells (DU145 and PC3). Combination therapy is one tool used to overcome therapeutic resistance and drug toxicity. Evaluating the combined effect of δ-TT and docetaxel (DTX), we found that δ-TT potentiates DTX cytotoxicity in DU145 cells. Moreover, δ-TT induces cell death in DU145 cells that have developed DTX resistance (DU-DXR) activating necroptosis. Taken together, obtained data indicate the ability of δ-TT to induce necroptosis in both DU145, PC3 and DU-DXR cell lines. Furthermore, the ability of δ-TT to induce necroptotic cell death may represent a promising therapeutical approach to overcome DTX chemoresistance in PCa.

Unraveling the Peculiar Features of Mitochondrial Metabolism and Dynamics in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among men in Western countries. Mitochondria, the "powerhouse" of cells, undergo distinctive metabolic and structural dynamics in different types of cancer. PCa cells experience peculiar metabolic changes during their progression from normal epithelial cells to early-stage and, progressively, to late-stage cancer cells. Specifically, healthy cells display a truncated tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and inefficient oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) due to the high accumulation of zinc that impairs the activity of m-aconitase, the enzyme of the TCA cycle responsible for the oxidation of citrate. During the early phase of cancer development, intracellular zinc levels decrease leading to the reactivation of m-aconitase, TCA cycle and OXPHOS. PCa cells change their metabolic features again when progressing to the late stage of cancer. In particular, the Warburg effect was consistently shown to be the main metabolic feature of late-stage PCa cells. However, accumulating evidence sustains that both the TCA cycle and the OXPHOS pathway are still present and active in these cells. The androgen receptor axis as well as mutations in mitochondrial genes involved in metabolic rewiring were shown to play a key role in PCa cell metabolic reprogramming. Mitochondrial structural dynamics, such as biogenesis, fusion/fission and mitophagy, were also observed in PCa cells. In this review, we focus on the mitochondrial metabolic and structural dynamics occurring in PCa during tumor development and progression; their role as effective molecular targets for novel therapeutic strategies in PCa patients is also discussed.

Anticancer effect of Indanone-based thiazolyl hydrazone derivative on p53 mutant colorectal cancer cell lines: An in vitro and in vivo study

Colorectal cancer is a major health problem, and it is the third most diagnosed cancer in the United States. The current treatment for colorectal cancer includes irinotecan, a topoisomerase I inhibitor, and other targeted drugs, such as bevacizumab and regorafenib. The low response rates and incidence of high toxicity caused by these drugs instigated an evaluation of the anticancer efficacy of a series of 13 thiazolyl hydrazone derivatives of 1-indanone, and four compounds among them show favorable anticancer activity against some of the tested colorectal cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.41 ± 0.19 to 6.85 ± 1.44 μM. It is noteworthy that one of the indanone-based thiazolyl hydrazone (ITH) derivatives, N-Indan-1-ylidene-N’-(4-Biphenyl-4-yl-thiazol-2-yl)-hydrazine (ITH-6), has a better cytotoxicity profile against p53 mutant colorectal cancer cells HT-29, COLO 205, and KM 12 than a p53 wild-type colorectal cancer cell line, such as HCT 116. Mechanistic studies show that ITH-6 arrests these three cancer cell lines in the G2/M phase and induces apoptosis. It also causes a rise in the reactive oxygen species level with a remarkable decrease in the glutathione (GSH) level. Moreover, ITH-6 inhibits the expression of NF-κB p65 and Bcl-2, which proves its cytotoxic action. In addition, ITH-6 significantly decreased tumor size, growth rate, and tumor volume in mice bearing HT-29 and KM 12 tumor xenografts. Moreover, CRISPR/Cas9 was applied to establish an NF-κB p65 gene knockout HT-29 cell line model to validate the target of ITH-6. Overall, the results suggest that ITH-6 could be a potential anticancer drug candidate for p53 mutant colorectal cancers.

Exploiting the Metabolic Consequences of PTEN Loss and Akt/Hexokinase 2 Hyperactivation in Prostate Cancer: A New Role for δ-Tocotrienol

The Warburg effect is commonly recognized as a hallmark of nearly all tumors. In prostate cancer (PCa), it has been shown to be driven by PTEN loss- and Akt hyperactivation-associated upregulation of hexokinase 2 (HK2). δ-Tocotrienol (δ-TT) is an extensively studied antitumor compound; however, its role in affecting PCa glycolysis is still unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that δ-TT inhibits glucose uptake and lactate production in PTEN-deficient LNCaP and PC3 PCa cells, by specifically decreasing HK2 expression. Notably, this was accompanied by the inhibition of the Akt pathway. Moreover, the nutraceutical could synergize with the well-known hypoglycemic agent metformin in inducing PCa cell death, highlighting the crucial role of the above metabolic phenotype in δ-TT-mediated cytotoxicity. Collectively, these results unravel novel inhibitory effects of δ-TT on glycolytic reprogramming in PCa, thus providing new perspectives into the mechanisms of its antitumor activity and into its use in combination therapy.

The multifaceted roles of mitochondria at the crossroads of cell life and death in cancer

Mitochondria are the cytoplasmic organelles mostly known as the "electric engine" of the cells; however, they also play pivotal roles in different biological processes, such as cell growth/apoptosis, Ca²⁺ and redox homeostasis, and cell stemness. In cancer cells, mitochondria undergo peculiar functional and structural dynamics involved in the survival/death fate of the cell. Cancer cells use glycolysis to support macromolecular biosynthesis and energy production ("Warburg effect"); however, mitochondrial OXPHOS has been shown to be still active during carcinogenesis and even exacerbated in drug-resistant and stem cancer cells. This metabolic rewiring is associated with mutations in genes encoding mitochondrial metabolic enzymes ("oncometabolites"), alterations of ROS production and redox biology, and a fine-tuned balance between anti-/proapoptotic proteins. In cancer cells, mitochondria also experience dynamic alterations from the structural point of view undergoing coordinated cycles of biogenesis, fusion/fission and mitophagy, and physically communicating with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the Ca²⁺ flux, at the MAM (mitochondria-associated membranes) levels. This review addresses the peculiar mitochondrial metabolic and structural dynamics occurring in cancer cells and their role in coordinating the balance between cell survival and death. The role of mitochondrial dynamics as effective biomarkers of tumor progression and promising targets for anticancer strategies is also discussed.

Natural Product-Based Studies for the Management of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: Computational to Clinical Studies

Background: With prostate cancer being the fifth-greatest cause of cancer mortality in 2020, there is a dire need to expand the available treatment options. Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) progresses despite androgen depletion therapy. The mechanisms of resistance are yet to be fully discovered. However, it is hypothesized that androgens depletion enables androgen-independent cells to proliferate and recolonize the tumor. Objectives: Natural bioactive compounds from edible plants and herbal remedies might potentially address this need. This review compiles the available cheminformatics-based studies and the translational studies regarding the use of natural products to manage CRPC. Methods: PubMed and Google Scholar searches for preclinical studies were performed, while ClinicalTrials.gov and PubMed were searched for clinical updates. Studies that were not in English and not available as full text were excluded. The period of literature covered was from 1985 to the present. Results and Conclusion: Our analysis suggested that natural compounds exert beneficial effects due to their broad-spectrum molecular disease-associated targets. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed several bioactive compounds, including rutaecarpine, berberine, curcumin, other flavonoids, pentacyclic triterpenoids, and steroid-based phytochemicals. Molecular modeling tools, including machine and deep learning, have made the analysis more comprehensive. Preclinical and clinical studies on resveratrol, soy isoflavone, lycopene, quercetin, and gossypol have further validated the translational potential of the natural products in the management of prostate cancer.

δ-Tocotrienol sensitizes and re-sensitizes ovarian cancer cells to cisplatin via induction of G1 phase cell cycle arrest and ROS/MAPK-mediated apoptosis

OBJECTIVES

Among gynaecologic malignancies, ovarian cancer (OC) represents the leading cause of death for women worldwide. Current OC treatment involves cytoreductive surgery followed by platinum-based chemotherapy, which is associated with severe side effects and development of drug resistance. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. Herein, we evaluated the anti-tumour effects of Vitamin E-derived δ-tocotrienol (δ-TT) in two human OC cell lines, IGROV-1 and SKOV-3 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MTT and Trypan blue exclusion assays were used to assess δ-TT cytotoxicity, alone or in combination with other molecules. δ-TT effects on cell cycle, apoptosis, ROS generation and MAPK phosphorylation were investigated by flow cytometry, Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses. The synergism between δ-TT and chemotherapy was evaluated by isobologram analysis.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that δ-TT could induce cell cycle block at G1-S phase and mitochondrial apoptosis in OC cell lines. In particular, we found that the proapoptotic activity of δ-TT correlated with mitochondrial ROS production and subsequent JNK and p38 activation. Finally, we observed that the compound was able to synergize with cisplatin, not only enhancing its cytotoxicity in IGROV-1 and SKOV-3 cells but also re-sensitizing IGROV-1/Pt1 cell line to its anti-tumour effects.

CONCLUSIONS

δ-TT triggers G1 phase cell cycle arrest and ROS/MAPK-mediated apoptosis in OC cells and sensitizes them to platinum treatment, thus representing an interesting option for novel chemopreventive/therapeutic strategies for OC.

Ca2+ overload- and ROS-associated mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to δ-tocotrienol-mediated paraptosis in melanoma cells

Melanoma is an aggressive tumor with still poor therapy outcomes. δ-tocotrienol (δ-TT) is a vitamin E derivative displaying potent anti-cancer properties. Previously, we demonstrated that δ-TT triggers apoptosis in human melanoma cells. Here, we investigated whether it might also activate paraptosis, a non-canonical programmed cell death. In accordance with the main paraptotic features, δ-TT was shown to promote cytoplasmic vacuolization, associated with endoplasmic reticulum/mitochondrial dilation and protein synthesis, as well as MAPK activation in A375 and BLM cell lines. Moreover, treated cells exhibited a significant reduced expression of OXPHOS complex I and a marked decrease in oxygen consumption and mitochondrial membrane potential, culminating in decreased ATP synthesis and AMPK phosphorylation. This mitochondrial dysfunction resulted in ROS overproduction, found to be responsible for paraptosis induction. Additionally, δ-TT caused Ca2+ homeostasis disruption, with endoplasmic reticulum-derived ions accumulating in mitochondria and activating the paraptotic signaling. Interestingly, by using both IP3R and VDAC inhibitors, a close cause-effect relationship between mitochondrial Ca2+ overload and ROS generation was evidenced. Collectively, these results provide novel insights into δ-TT anti-melanoma activity, highlighting its ability to induce mitochondrial dysfunction-mediated paraptosis. δ-tocotrienol induces paraptotic cell death in human melanoma cells, causing endoplasmic reticulum dilation and mitochondrial swelling. These alterations induce an impairment of mitochondrial function, ROS production and calcium overload.

Mitochondrial functional and structural impairment is involved in the antitumor activity of δ-tocotrienol in prostate cancer cells

The therapeutic options for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) are still limited. Natural bioactive compounds were shown to possess pro-death properties in different tumors. We previously reported that δ-tocotrienol (δ-TT) induces apoptosis, paraptosis and autophagy in CRPC cells. Here, we investigated whether δ-TT might exert its activity by impairing mitochondrial functions. We demonstrated that, in PC3 and DU145 cells, δ-TT impairs mitochondrial respiration and structural dynamics. In both cell lines, δ-TT triggers mitochondrial Ca²⁺ and ROS overload. In PC3 cells, both Ca²⁺ and ROS mediate the δ-TT-related anticancer activities (decrease of cell viability, apoptosis, paraptosis, autophagy and mitophagy). As expected, in autophagy-defective DU145 cells, Ca²⁺ overload was involved in δ-TT-induced pro-death effects but not in autophagy and mitophagy. In this cell line, we also demonstrated that ROS overload is not involved in the anticancer activities of δ-TT, supporting a low susceptibility of these cells to ROS-related oxidative stress. Taken together, these data demonstrate that, in CRPC cells, δ-TT triggers cell death by inducing mitochondrial functional and structural impairments, providing novel mechanistic insights in its antitumor activity.

Three-Dimensional Cell Cultures as an In Vitro Tool for Prostate Cancer Modeling and Drug Discovery

In the last decade, three-dimensional (3D) cell culture technology has gained a lot of interest due to its ability to better recapitulate the in vivo organization and microenvironment of in vitro cultured cancer cells. In particular, 3D tumor models have demonstrated several different characteristics compared with traditional two-dimensional (2D) cultures and have provided an interesting link between the latter and animal experiments. Indeed, 3D cell cultures represent a useful platform for the identification of the biological features of cancer cells as well as for the screening of novel antitumor agents. The present review is aimed at summarizing the most common 3D cell culture methods and applications, with a focus on prostate cancer modeling and drug discovery.

De Novo High-Titer Production of Delta-Tocotrienol in Recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Delta-tocotrienol as a vitamin E isomer has received much attention because of its diverse biomedical applications. Microbial biosynthesis of delta-tocotrienol is a promising strategy for its economic and environmental advantages. Here, we accomplished complete biosynthesis of delta-tocotrienol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae from glucose. We first constructed and incorporated a heterologous pathway into the genome of S. cerevisiae by incorporating the genes hpd (from Pseudomonas putida KT2440), hpt (from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803), and vte1 (from Arabidopsis thaliana) for the biosynthesis of delta-tocotrienol. We further enhanced the biosynthesis of the precursor geranylgeranyl diphosphate by overexpressing the thmg1 and ggppssa (from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius) genes, leading to a production titer of delta-tocotrienol of 1.39 ± 0.01 mg/L. Finally, we optimized the fermentation medium using the response surface methodology, enabling a high-titer production of delta-tocotrienol (3.56 ± 0.25 mg/L), ∼2.6-fold of that of the initial culture medium. Fed-batch fermentation in a 2 L fermenter was further used to enhance the production titer of delta-tocotrienol (4.10 ± 0.10 mg/L). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the de novo biosynthesis of delta-tocotrienol in S. cerevisiae, and the highest titer obtained for microbial production of delta-tocotrienol.

Natural Compounds in Prostate Cancer Prevention and Treatment: Mechanisms of Action and Molecular Targets

Prostate cancer (PCa) represents a major cause of cancer mortality among men in developed countries. Patients with recurrent disease initially respond to androgen-deprivation therapy, but the tumor eventually progresses into castration-resistant PCa; in this condition, tumor cells acquire the ability to escape cell death and develop resistance to current therapies. Thus, new therapeutic approaches for PCa management are urgently needed. In this setting, natural products have been extensively studied for their anti-PCa activities, such as tumor growth suppression, cell death induction, and inhibition of metastasis and angiogenesis. Additionally, numerous studies have shown that phytochemicals can specifically target the androgen receptor (AR) signaling, as well as the PCa stem cells (PCSCs). Interestingly, many clinical trials have been conducted to test the efficacy of nutraceuticals in human subjects, and they have partially confirmed the promising results obtained in vitro and in preclinical models. This article summarizes the anti-cancer mechanisms and therapeutic potentials of different natural compounds in the context of PCa prevention and treatment.

The emerging role of paraptosis in tumor cell biology: Perspectives for cancer prevention and therapy with natural compounds

Standard anti-cancer therapies promote tumor growth suppression mainly via induction of apoptosis. However, in most cases cancer cells acquire the ability to escape apoptotic cell death, thus becoming resistant to current treatments. In this setting, the interest in alternative cell death modes has recently increased. Paraptosis is a new form of programmed cell death displaying endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and/or mitochondria dilation, generally due to proteostasis disruption or redox and ion homeostasis alteration. Recent studies have highlighted that several natural compounds can trigger paraptosis in different tumor cell lines. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms underlying paraptotic cell death, as well as the natural products inducing this kind of cell death program. A better understanding of paraptosis should facilitate the development of new therapeutic strategies for cancer prevention and treatment.

Synthesis of Daidzein Glycosides, α-Tocopherol Glycosides, Hesperetin Glycosides by Bioconversion and Their Potential for Anti-Allergic Functional-Foods and Cosmetics

Daidzein is a common isoflavone, having multiple biological effects such as anti-inflammation, anti-allergy, and anti-aging. α-Tocopherol is the tocopherol isoform with the highest vitamin E activity including anti-allergic activity and anti-cancer activity. Hesperetin is a flavone, which shows potent anti-inflammatory effects. These compounds have shortcomings, i.e., water-insolubility and poor absorption after oral administration. The glycosylation of bioactive compounds can enhance their water-solubility, physicochemical stability, intestinal absorption, and biological half-life, and improve their bio- and pharmacological properties. They were transformed by cultured Nicotiana tabacum cells to 7-β-glucoside and 7-β-gentiobioside of daidzein, and 3'- and 7-β-glucosides, 3',7-β-diglucoside, and 7-β-gentiobioside of hesperetin. Daidzein and α-tocopherol were glycosylated by galactosylation with β-glucosidase to give 4'- and 7-β-galactosides of daidzein, which were new compounds, and α-tocopherol 6-β-galactoside. These nine glycosides showed higher anti-allergic activity, i.e., inhibitory activity toward histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells, than their respective aglycones. In addition, these glycosides showed higher tyrosinase inhibitory activity than the corresponding aglycones. Glycosylation of daidzein, α-tocopherol, and hesperetin greatly improved their biological activities.

Cellular and molecular biology of cancer stem cells in melanoma: Possible therapeutic implications

Malignant melanoma is a tumor characterized by a very high level of heterogeneity, responsible for its malignant behavior and ability to escape from standard therapies. In this review we highlight the molecular and biological features of the subpopulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs), well known to be characterized by self-renewal properties, deeply involved in triggering the processes of tumor generation, metastasis, progression and drug resistance. From the molecular point of view, melanoma CSCs are identified and characterized by the expression of stemness markers, such as surface markers, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, embryonic stem cells and intracellular markers. These cells are endowed with different functional features. In particular, they play pivotal roles in the processes of tumor dissemination, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and angiogenesis, mediated by specific intracellular signaling pathways; moreover, they are characterized by a unique metabolic reprogramming. As reported for other types of tumors, the CSCs subpopulation in melanoma is also characterized by a low immunogenic profile as well as by the ability to escape the immune system, through the expression of a negative modulation of T cell functions and the secretion of immunosuppressive factors. These biological features allow melanoma CSCs to escape standard treatments, thus being deeply involved in tumor relapse. Targeting the CSCs subpopulation is now considered an attractive treatment strategy; in particular, combination treatments, based on both CSCs-targeting and standard drugs, will likely increase the therapeutic options for melanoma patients. The characterization of CSCs in liquid biopsies from single patients will pave the way towards precision medicine.

Unraveling the molecular mechanisms and the potential chemopreventive/therapeutic properties of natural compounds in melanoma

Melanoma is the most fatal form of skin cancer. Current therapeutic approaches include surgical resection, chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy. However, these treatment strategies are associated with development of drug resistance and severe side effects. In recent years, natural compounds have also been extensively studied for their anti-melanoma effects, including tumor growth inhibition, apoptosis induction, angiogenesis and metastasis suppression and cancer stem cell elimination. Moreover, a considerable number of studies reported the synergistic activity of phytochemicals and standard anti-melanoma agents, as well as the enhanced effectiveness of their synthetic derivatives and novel formulations. However, clinical data confirming these promising effects in patients are still scanty. This review emphasizes the anti-tumor mechanisms and potential application of the most studied natural products for melanoma prevention and treatment.