Relation of left ventricular hypertrophy to inflammation and albuminuria in adults with type 2 diabetes: the strong heart study

Diabetic microvascular complications are associated with left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is an important and common pathologic change in the heart of patients with diabetes mellitus. Microvascular complications have been reported to be involved in the development and process of LVH. This study aimed to explore the association between diabetic microvascular complications and LVH in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study. A total of 2912 patients with T2DM were enrolled, including 360 patients with LVH and 2552 patients without LVH. Demographic data, medical history and laboratory indices were collected, along with information on diabetic microvascular complications and results from cardiac ultrasonography. The study utilized multivariable logistic regression to evaluate the independent effects of microvascular complications (DR, DPN, or DKD) and the cumulative number of these complications on the presence of LVH, while adjusting for potential confounding factors.

RESULT

In patients with T2DM, those with LVH were older and had higher body mass index, waist circumference and hip circumference than those without LVH. Additionally, the proportion of patients with diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD) was larger among those with LVH compared to those without LVH. After adjusting for potential confounding factors, DR and DKD were associated with increased odds of LVH (odds ratio [OR] = 1.351 and OR = 1.404, respectively). The risk of LVH also increased progressively in patients with two or more diabetic microvascular conditions compared to those with only one. In subgroup analysis, the risk of LVH increased with the number of microvascular conditions in male patients with T2DM.

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetic microvascular complications were significantly associated with LVH in T2DM. Moreover, the risk of LVH increased with the number of microvascular complications, particularly in males with T2DM.

Circulating inflammatory factors and risk causality associated with type 2 diabetic nephropathy: A Mendelian randomization and bioinformatics study

The main causative factors of diabetic nephropathy (DN), a common complication of diabetes mellitus, are metabolic abnormalities and hemodynamic changes. However, studies have shown that the immune-inflammatory response also plays an important role in DN pathogenesis. Therefore, in this study, we analyzed the causal relationship and immune infiltration between inflammatory factors and DN using Mendelian randomization (MR) and bioinformatics techniques. We analyzed the causal relationship between 91 inflammatory factors and DN using two-sample MR dominated by the results of inverse variance-weighted analysis. Based on the MR analysis, the immune mechanism of inflammatory factors in DN was further explored using immune cell infiltration analysis. MR analysis indicated a positive causal relationship between DN and IL1A, caspase 8 (CASP8), macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1, IL10, STAM-binding protein, and tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 12 (TNFSF12) and a negative causal relationship between DN and cystatin D, fibroblast growth factor 19, neurturin, and TNFSF14. The pathogenic mechanism of CASP8 may involve the recruitment of CD4+ T cells and macrophages for DN infiltration. In this study, we found a causal relationship between DN and IL1A, CASP8, macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1, IL10, STAM-binding protein, TNFSF12, cystatin D, fibroblast growth factor 19, neurturin, and TNFSF14. Bioinformatic immune infiltration analysis further revealed that CASP8 regulates DN by influencing the infiltration of immune cells, such as T cells and macrophages.

Joint Association of Albuminuria and Left Ventricular Hypertrophy With Incident Heart Failure in Adults at High Risk With Hypertension: A Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial Substudy

Albuminuria and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) are independent predictors of heart failure (HF); however, to the best of our knowledge, their combined effect on the risk of HF has not yet been explored. Therefore, we examined the joint associations of albuminuria and electrocardiographic-LVH with incident acute decompensated HF (ADHF), and whether albuminuria/LVH combinations modified the effects of blood pressure control strategy in reducing the risk of ADHF. A total of 8,511 participants from the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) were included. Electrocardiographic-LVH was present if any of the following criteria were present: Cornell voltage, Cornell voltage product, or Sokolow-Lyon. Albuminuria was defined as urine albumin/creatinine ratio ≥30 mg/g. ADHF was defined as hospitalization or emergency department visit for ADHF. Cox proportional hazard models were used to examine the association of neither LVH nor albuminuria (reference), either LVH or albuminuria, and both (LVH + albuminuria) with incident ADHF. Over a median follow-up of 3.2 years, 182 cases of ADHF occurred. In adjusted models, concomitant albuminuria and LVH were associated with greater risk of ADHF than either albuminuria or LVH in isolation (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval]: 4.95 [3.22 to 7.62], 2.04 [1.39 to 3.00], and 1.47 [0.93 to 2.32], respectively, additive interaction p = 0.01). The effect of intensive blood pressure in reducing ADHF was attenuated in participants with coexisting albuminuria and LVH without any interaction between treatment group assignment and albuminuria/LVH categories (interaction p = 0.26). In conclusion, albuminuria and LVH are additive predictors of ADHF. The effect of intensive blood pressure control in reducing ADHF risk did not vary significantly across albuminuria/LVH combinations.

Joint Association of Albuminuria and Left Ventricular Hypertrophy with Incident Heart Failure in High-Risk Adults with Hypertension: a SPRINT substudy

Background

Albuminuria and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) are independent predictors of heart failure (HF), however their combined effect on risk of HF has not been explored previously.

Objectives

To examine the joint associations of albuminuria and electrocardiographic (ECG) LVH with incident acute decompensated HF (ADHF), and whether albuminuria/LVH combinations modified the effects of blood pressure control strategy in reducing the risk of ADHF.

Methods

8,511 participants from the SPRINT (Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial) were included. ECG-LVH was present if any of the following criteria: Cornell voltage, Cornell voltage product, or Sokolow Lyon were present. Albuminuria was defined as urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥30 mg/g. ADHF was defined as hospitalization or emergency visit for ADHF. Cox proportional hazard models were used to examine the association of neither LVH, nor albuminuria (reference), either LVH or albuminuria, and both (LVH + albuminuria) with incident ADHF.

Results

Over a median follow-up of 3.2 years, 182 cases of ADHF occurred. In adjusted models, concomitant albuminuria and LVH were associated with higher risk of ADHF than either albuminuria or LVH in isolation (HR (95% CI): 4.95 (3.22-7.62), 2.04 (1.39-3.00), and 1.47 (0.93-2.32), respectively (additive interaction p=0.01). The effect of intensive blood pressure in decreasing ADHF attenuated among participants with co-existing albuminuria and LVH without any interaction between treatment group assignment and albuminuria/LVH categories (interaction p-value= 0.26).

Conclusions

Albuminuria and LVH are additive predictors of ADHF. The effect of intensive blood pressure control in decreasing ADHF risk did not vary significantly across albuminuria/LVH combinations.

Association of lipoprotein(a) with left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with new-onset acute myocardial infarction: A large cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The association of lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] with echocardiography-estimated left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in high-risk population remains uncertain, so we assessed the association between Lp(a) with echocardiography-derived LVH in patients with new-onset acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

METHODS

In this large, single-center, cross-sectional observational study, we enrolled 2,096 patients with new-onset AMI. Lp(a) was used as the independent variable and LVH was used as the dependent variable. Logistic regression, subgroup and sensitivity analysis were performed to test the association of Lp(a) with LVH.

RESULTS

The concentration of Lp(a) was higher in LVH group compared with the non-LVH group (P < 0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that higher Lp(a) was strongly associated with higher risk of LVH, independently of traditional cardiovascular risk factors (Fully adjusted model, Q4 vs Q1, OR: 1.941, 95% CI: 1.343-2.803, P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that the association of Lp(a) with LVH persisted in the subgroups of age (<60 and ≥60 years), sex (male and female), smoking (yes and no), diabetes (yes), hypertension (yes), hyperlipidemia (yes), and chronic kidney diseases (yes and no). Further sensitivity analysis indicated that Lp(a) remained significantly associated with LVH after further adjusting for high-sensitivity C-reactive protein or excluding patients with estimated glomerular filtration rate < 30 ml/min/1.73 m² or dividing Lp(a) into multiple dichotomous variables.

CONCLUSION

Lp(a) was closely associated with LVH in patients with new-onset AMI.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Diagnosis of Left Ventricular Hypertrophy and its Associations in Patients Living with Diabetes

Background

Macrovascular complications of diabetes mellitus (DM) include cardiac manifestations such as left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), which can increase the risk of heart failure and death.

Objectives

To determine associations between LVH and other variables in patients living with DM (PLWD).

Methods

A retrospective study over 1 year was conducted on patients who attended the DM clinic at Edendale Hospital in South Africa. Electrocardiographs (ECGs) and standardised data sheets were analysed. The Sokolov-Lyon, Cornell and Romhilt-Estes methods were utilised for diagnosing LVH on ECGs.

Results

There were 609 PLWD included in the study, with 80 PLWD (13.1%) having LVH (LVH+), whereas 529 PLWD (86.9%) had no LVH (LVH-). The Sokolov-Lyon method proved to be the best method of diagnosing LVH based on ECG (100% of patients diagnosed), with an 'R wave in Augmented Vector Left (AVL) ≥11 mm' being the best approach for determining LVH. LVH + patients were significantly younger than LVH - patients (27.22 years vs. 58.98 years, P < 0.001) and had lower systolic blood pressure (SBP) (118.62 mmHg vs. 139.77 mmHg, P < 0.001). Type 1 DM (DM1+) comprised the majority (77.5%) of LVH + patients. LVH + patients had significantly better high-density lipoproteins (1.36 mmol/L vs. 1.25 mmol/L, P = 0.024) and triglycerides (1.40 mmol/L vs. 1.85 mmol/L, P = 0.010) than LVH - patients.

Conclusion

LVH was seen more frequently in younger patients who often had DM1+, lower SBP, higher HDL, and lower triglycerides. Most cases of LVH were diagnosed using the Sokolov-Lyon method. LVH should be screened for frequently in PLWD, irrespective of whether patients are hypertensive or not, and this should be done at all ages.

Left ventricular structure and function in patients with chronic kidney disease assessed by 3D echocardiography: the CPH-CKD ECHO study

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality amongst patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This is the first study using 3-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) to investigate associations between adverse changes of the left ventricle, and different stages of CKD. Participants were recruited from the Copenhagen CKD cohort study and the Herlev-Gentofte CKD cohort study. Patients were stratified according to GFR category (G1 + 2: eGFR ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, G3: eGFR = 30-59 mL/min/1.73 m2, and G4 + 5: eGFR ≤ 29 mL/min/1.73 m2), and according to albuminuria (A1: UACR < 30 mg/g, A2: 30-300 mg/g, A3: > 300 mg/g). Echocardiograms were analysed for left ventricular (LV) mass index (LVMi), LV ejection fraction (LVEF), and global strain measures. In adjusted analysis, eGFR groups were adjusted for confounders and albuminuria category, while albuminuria groups were adjusted for confounders and GFR category. The study population consisted of 662 outpatients with CKD and 169 controls. Mean age was 57 ± 13 years, and 61% were males. Mean LVEF and global longitudinal strain (GLS) were increasingly impaired across eGFR groups: LVEF = 60.1%, 58.4%, and 57.8% (p = 0.013), GLS =  - 16.1%, - 14.8%, and - 14.6% (p < 0.0001) for G1 + 2, G3, and G4 + 5. LVMi and prevalence of LV hypertrophy increased with albuminuria severity: mean LVMi = 87.9 g/m2, 88.1 g/m2, and 92.1 g/m2 (p = 0.007) from A1-3. Adjusted analysis confirmed reduced LVEF in G3 compared with G1 + 2, and increased LVMi in A3 compared with A1. Increasingly impaired eGFR was associated with adverse changes in LV systolic function, while albuminuria was associated with adverse changes in LV mass assessed by 3DE. Their associations were independent of each other.

Role of inflammation in diabetic cardiomyopathy

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) has reached a pandemic scale. Systemic chronic inflammation dominates the diabetes pathophysiology and has been implicated as a causal factor for the development of vascular complications. Heart failure (HF) is regarded as the most common cardiovascular complication of T2D and the diabetic diagnosis is an independent risk factor for HF development. Key molecular mechanisms pivotal to the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy include the NF-κB pathway and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, in addition to advanced glycation end product accumulation and inflammatory interleukin overexpression. Chronic myocardial inflammation in T2D mediates structural and metabolic changes, including cardiomyocyte apoptosis, impaired calcium handling, myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis, all of which contribute to the diabetic HF phenotype. Advanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) has emerged as a gold standard non-invasive tool to delineate myocardial structural and functional changes. This review explores the role of chronic inflammation in diabetic cardiomyopathy and the ability of CMR to identify inflammation-mediated myocardial sequelae, such as oedema and diffuse fibrosis.

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: A Target for Intervention

Heart failure is an important manifestation of diabetic heart disease. Before the development of symptomatic heart failure, as much as 50% of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) develop asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction including left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is highly prevalent in patients with T2DM and is a strong predictor of adverse cardiovascular outcomes including heart failure. Importantly regression of LVH with antihypertensive treatment especially renin angiotensin system blockers reduces cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. However, this approach is only partially effective since LVH persists in 20% of patients with hypertension who attain target blood pressure, implicating the role of other potential mechanisms in the development of LVH. Moreover, the pathophysiology of LVH in T2DM remains unclear and is not fully explained by the hyperglycemia-associated cellular alterations. There is a growing body of evidence that supports the role of inflammation, oxidative stress, AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) and insulin resistance in mediating the development of LVH. The recognition of asymptomatic LVH may offer an opportune target for intervention with cardio-protective therapy in these at-risk patients. In this article, we provide a review of some of the key clinical studies that evaluated the effects of allopurinol, SGLT2 inhibitor and metformin in regressing LVH in patients with and without T2DM.

The MEK inhibitor U0126 ameliorates diabetic cardiomyopathy by restricting XBP1's phosphorylation dependent SUMOylation

Background: Chronic diabetes accelerates vascular dysfunction often resulting in cardiomyopathy but underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Recent studies have shown that the deregulated unfolded protein response (UPR) dependent on highly conserved IRE1α-spliced X-box- binding protein (XBP1s) and the resulting endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER-Stress) plays a crucial role in the occurrence and development of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM). In the present study, we determined whether targeting MAPK/ERK pathway using MEK inhibitor U0126 could ameliorate DCM by regulating IRE1α-XBP1s pathway.

Method: Three groups of 8-week-old C57/BL6J mice were studied: one group received saline injection as control (n=8) and two groups were made diabetic by streptozotocin (STZ) (n=10 each). 18 weeks after STZ injection and stable hyperglycemia, one group had saline treatment while the second group was treated with U0126 (1mg/kg/day), 8 weeks later, all groups were sacrificed. Cardiac function/histopathological changes were determined by echocardiogram examination, Millar catheter system, hematoxylin-eosin staining and western blot analysis. H9C2 cardiomyocytes were employed for in vitro studies.

Results: Echocardiographic, hemodynamic and histological data showed overt myocardial hypertrophy and worsened cardiac function in diabetic mice. Chronic diabetic milieu enhanced SUMOylation and impaired nuclear translocation of XBP1s. Intriguingly, U0126 treatment significantly ameliorated progression of DCM, and this protective effect was achieved through enriching XBP1s' nuclear accumulation. Mechanistically, U0126 inhibited XBP1s' phosphorylation on S348 and SUMOylation on K276 promoting XBP1s' nuclear translocation. Collectively, these results identify that MEK inhibition restores XBP1s-dependent UPR and protects against diabetes-induced cardiac remodeling.

Conclusion: The current study identifies previously unknown function of MEK/ERK pathway in regulation of ER-stress in DCM. U0126 could be a therapeutic target for the treatment of DCM.

Plasma lipocalin-2/NGAL is stable over 12 weeks and is not modulated by exercise or dieting

Amongst other immune cells, neutrophils play a key role in systemic inflammation leading to cardiovascular disease and can release inflammatory factors, including lipocalin-2 (LCN2). LCN2 drives cardiac hypertrophy and plays a role in maladaptive remodelling of the heart and has been associated with renal injury. While lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise are known to attenuate low-grade inflammation, their ability to modulate plasma LCN2 levels is unknown. Forty-eight endurance athletes and 52 controls (18–55 years) underwent measurement for various cardiovascular health indicators, along with plasma LCN2 concentration. No significant difference in LCN2 concentration was seen between the two groups. LCN2 was a very weak predictor or absent from models describing blood pressures or predicting athlete status. In another cohort, 57 non-diabetic overweight or obese men and post-menopausal women who fulfilled Adult Treatment Panel III metabolic syndrome criteria were randomly allocated into either a control, modified Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, or DASH and exercise group. Pre- and post-intervention demographic, cardiovascular health indicators, and plasma LCN2 expression were measured in each individual. While BMI fell in intervention groups, LCN2 levels remained unchanged within and between all groups, as illustrated by strong correlations between LCN2 concentrations pre- and 12 weeks post-intervention (r = 0.743, P < 0.0001). This suggests that circulating LCN2 expression are stable over a period of at least 12 weeks and is not modifiable by diet and exercise.

Left ventricular myocardial mass index and its correlates as an early marker of cardiovascular risk among nonobese normotensive Indian women with polycystic ovary syndrome: lessons from a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To quantitate left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and correlate it with inflammation, insulin resistance (IR) and serum androgen levels among nonobese normotensive women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study SETTING: Tertiary care institute in North India PATIENTS: A total of 260 drug-naive women qualifying the Rotterdam 2003 criteria for diagnosis of PCOS and 250 apparently healthy women matched for age and body mass index (BMI).

INTERVENTIONS

Clinical, biochemical, hormonal, and inflammatory marker assessment was followed by estimation of LVM and LVMI by 2-dimensional echocardiography.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

LVM and LVMI in nonobese, normotensive women with PCOS and its correlation with subinflammation, IR, and androgen excess.

RESULTS

Mean ages (28.08 ± 4.18 vs. 29.44 ± 6.33 years) and BMI (24.43 ± 4.15 vs. 23.92 ± 4.21 kg/m²) of cases vs. controls were comparable, as was blood pressure and plasma glucose (1 hour after oral glucose tolerance test [OGTT]). Women with PCOS had fewer menstrual cycles per year and higher Ferriman-Gallwey scores, plasma insulin, homeostasis model assessment of IR, total testosterone, plasma glucose (fasting and 2 hours after OGTT), serum high-sensitive C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 than did the controls (P<.001). Significant differences were observed in LVM (101.50 ± 30.19 vs. 89.35 ± 27.57 g) and LVMI (63.60 ± 16.67 vs. 56.32 ± 10.84 g/m²) between women with PCOS and the controls (P<.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that proinflammatory markers and IR rather than hyperandrogenism correlated with LVMI.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that normotensive nonobese women with PCOS were more likely to have elevated mean LVMI than were healthy controls and it was positively correlated with proinflammatory markers and IR but not with androgen excess. Well-designed long-term follow-up studies with a larger cohort of subjects with comprehensive cardiovascular risk assessment are warranted to conclusively answer the question.

SGLT1 inhibition boon or bane for diabetes-associated cardiomyopathy

Chronic hyperglycaemia is a peculiar feature of diabetes mellitus (DM). Sequential metabolic abnormalities accompanying glucotoxicity are some of its implications. Glucotoxicity most likely corresponds to the vascular intricacy and metabolic alterations, such as increased oxidation of free fatty acids and reduced glucose oxidation. More than half of those with diabetes also develop cardiac abnormalities due to unknown causes, posing a major threat to the currently available marketed preparations which are being used for treating these cardiac complications. Even though impairment in cardiac functioning is the principal cause of death in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D), reducing plasma glucose levels has little effect on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that inhibitors of sodium glucose transporter (SGLT) represent a putative therapeutic intervention for these pathological conditions. Several clinical trials have reported the efficacy of SGLT inhibitors as a novel and potent antidiabetic agent which along with its antihyperglycaemic activity possesses the potential of effectively treating its associated cardiac abnormalities. Thus, hereby, the present review highlights the role of SGLT inhibitors as a successful drug candidate for correcting the shifts in deregulation of cardiac energy substrate metabolism together with its role in treating diabetes-related cardiac perturbations.

Inflammatory Cytokines and SIRT1 Levels in Subcutaneous Abdominal Fat: Relationship With Cardiac Performance in Overweight Pre-diabetics Patients

Objectives: In obese patients the superficial adipose tissue expresses cytokines, and sirtuins, that may affect myocardial function. In this study, we investigated the effect of metformin therapy added to a hypocaloric diet on the inflammatory pattern and cardiac performance (MPI) in obese patients with pre-diabetic condition. Materials and Methods: Fifty-eight obese patients that were enrolled for abdominoplastic surgery were divided into patients with pre-diabetic condition (n 40) and normo-glycemic patients (n18). Patients with pre-diabetic condition were randomly assigned to metformin therapy added to a hypocaloric diet (group 1, n 20) or to a hypocaloric diet therapy alone (group 2, n20). Patients with normo-glycemic condition were assigned to a hypocaloric diet therapy. Results: During enrollment, obese patients with a pre-diabetic condition (group 1 and 2) presented higher glucose values, lower values of insulin, and higher values of the homeostasis model for the assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) than obese patients with normo-glycemic condition(group 3). In addition, they had higher values of C Reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 (IL6), and lower values of sirtuin 1(SIRT1). In the 12th month of the follow-up, metformin therapy induced in patients with pre-diabetic condition (group 1) a significant reduction of glucose values, HOMA-IR, and inflammatory markers such as CRP (1.04 ± 0.48 vs. 0.49 ± 0.02 mmol/L, p < 0.05), IL6 (4.22 ± 0.45 vs. 3.33 ± 0.34 pg/ml, p < 0.05), TNFα (6.95 ± 0.59 vs. 5.15 ± 0.44 pg/ml, p < 0.05), and Nitrotyrosine (5,214 ± 0,702 vs. 2,151 ± 0,351 nmol/l, p < 0.05). This was associated with a significant reduction of Intima-media thickness (1.01 ± 0.15 vs. 0.86 ± 0.15 mm, p < 0.05), Septum (14 ± 2.5 vs. 10.5 ± 2 mm, p < 0.05), Posterior wall (11 ± 1.5 vs. 8 ± 1 mm, p < 0.05), LV mass (192.5 ± 49.5 vs. 133.2 ± 37.6 g, p < 0.05) and of MPI (0.58 ± 0.03 vs. 0.38 ± 0.02, p < 0.05). At 12 months of follow-up, group 2 experienced only a reduction of cholesterol (4.15 ± 0.94 vs. 4.51 ± 0.88 mmol/L, p < 0.05) and triglycerides (1.71 ± 1.18 vs. 1.83 ± 0.54 mmol/L, p < 0.05). At 12 months of follow-up, group 3 experienced a significant reduction of inflammatory markers, and also of echographic parameters, associated with amelioration of myocardial performance. To date, IL6 expression was related to higher values of left ventricle mass (R-value 0.272, p-value 0.039), and to higher IMT (R-value 0.272, p-value 0.039), such as those observed for CRP (R-value 0.308, p-value 0.021), for glucose blood values (R-value 0.449, p-value 0.001), and for HOMA-IR (R-value 0.366, p-value 0.005). An inverse correlation was found between subcutaneous fat expression of SIRT1 and myocardial performance index (R-value-0.236, p-value 0.002). Conclusion: In obese patients with pre-diabetic condition a metformin therapy may reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, and this may be associated with the amelioration of the cardiac performance. Clinical research trial number: NCT03439592.

Association of Endocan, Ischemia-Modified Albumin, and hsCRP Levels With Endothelial Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

We investigated the relationship of ischemia-modified albumin (IMA) and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels with direct (endocan) and indirect (carotid intima-media thickness [cIMT] and 24 hours urine protein excretion) endothelial dysfunction indicators in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Patients with T2DM (n = 88) and 88 healthy individuals were included in the study. The median endocan (475.15 vs 216.37 pg/mL; P < .001, respectively) and hsCRP (10.74 vs 3.11 mg/L; P < .001, respectively) and the mean IMA (0.64 ± 0.12 vs 0.51 ± 0.12 absorbance units; P < .001, respectively) levels were higher in participants with endothelial dysfunction compared to those without endothelial dysfunction in T2DM. The 24-hour urine protein excretion and cIMT levels had a positive correlation with hsCRP ( r = .357; P = .001 and r = .592; P < .001, respectively), IMA ( r = .519; P < .001 and r = .495; P < .001, respectively) and endocan ( r = .347; P = .001 and r = .583; P < .001, respectively) levels in the T2DM group. Stepwise multivariable logistic regression analysis, which included laboratory findings found to be associated with endothelial dysfunction, showed that endocan (odds ratio [OR] = 1.456; P = .004), hsCRP (OR = 1.298; P = .008), and IMA (OR = 2.270, P = .003) were independent risk factors. It was found that none of these markers were superior in terms of diagnostic discrimination for endothelial dysfunction. Endocan, IMA, and hsCRP levels were found to be associated with endothelial dysfunction in patients with T2DM.

LncRNAs: Proverbial Genomic "Junk" or Key Epigenetic Regulators During Cardiac Fibrosis in Diabetes?

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are critical regulators in a multitude of biological processes. Recent evidences demonstrate potential pathogenetic implications of lncRNAs in diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM); however, the majority of lncRNAs have not been comprehensively characterized. While the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the functions of lncRNAs remain to be deciphered in DCM, emerging data in other pathophysiological conditions suggests that lncRNAs can have versatile features such as genomic imprinting, acting as guides for certain histone-modifying complexes, serving as scaffolds for specific molecules, or acting as molecular sponges. In an effort to better understand these features of lncRNAs in the context of DCM, our review will first summarize some of the key molecular alterations that occur during fibrosis in the diabetic heart (extracellular proteins and endothelial-to-mesenchymal transitioning), followed by a review of the current knowledge on the crosstalk between lncRNAs and major epigenetic mechanisms (histone methylation, histone acetylation, DNA methylation, and microRNAs) within this fibrotic process.

Experimental and Human Evidence for Lipocalin-2 (Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin [NGAL]) in the Development of Cardiac Hypertrophy and heart failure

BACKGROUND

Cardiac hypertrophy increases the risk of developing heart failure and cardiovascular death. The neutrophil inflammatory protein, lipocalin-2 (LCN2/NGAL), is elevated in certain forms of cardiac hypertrophy and acute heart failure. However, a specific role for LCN2 in predisposition and etiology of hypertrophy and the relevant genetic determinants are unclear. Here, we defined the role of LCN2 in concentric cardiac hypertrophy in terms of pathophysiology, inflammatory expression networks, and genomic determinants.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We used 3 experimental models: a polygenic model of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, a model of intrauterine growth restriction and Lcn2-knockout mouse; cultured cardiomyocytes; and 2 human cohorts: 114 type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and 2064 healthy subjects of the YFS (Young Finns Study). In hypertrophic heart rats, cardiac and circulating Lcn2 was significantly overexpressed before, during, and after development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Lcn2 expression was increased in hypertrophic hearts in a model of intrauterine growth restriction, whereas Lcn2-knockout mice had smaller hearts. In cultured cardiomyocytes, Lcn2 activated molecular hypertrophic pathways and increased cell size, but reduced proliferation and cell numbers. Increased LCN2 was associated with cardiac hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. In the YFS, LCN2 expression was associated with body mass index and cardiac mass and with levels of inflammatory markers. The single-nucleotide polymorphism, rs13297295, located near LCN2 defined a significant cis-eQTL for LCN2 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Direct effects of LCN2 on cardiomyocyte size and number and the consistent associations in experimental and human analyses reveal a central role for LCN2 in the ontogeny of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

Long-term administration of angiotensin (1-7) prevents heart and lung dysfunction in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes (db/db) by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation and pathological remodeling

Congestive heart failure is one of the most prevalent and deadly complications of type 2 diabetes that is frequently associated with pulmonary dysfunction. Among many factors that contribute to development and progression of diabetic complications is angiotensin II (Ang2). Activation of pathological arm of renin-angiotensin system results in increased levels of Ang2 and signaling through angiotensin type 1 receptor. This pathway is well recognized for its role in induction of oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, hypertrophy and fibrosis. Angiotensin (1-7) [A(1-7)], through activation of Mas receptor, opposes the actions of Ang2 which can result in the amelioration of diabetic complications; enhancing the overall welfare of diabetic patients. In this study, 8 week-old db/db mice were administered A(1-7) daily via subcutaneous injections. After 16 weeks of treatment, echocardiographic assessment of heart function demonstrated significant improvement in cardiac output, stroke volume and shortening fraction in diabetic animals. A(1-7) also prevented cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, apoptosis, lipid accumulation, and decreased diabetes-induced fibrosis and OS in the heart tissue. Treatment with A(1-7) reduced levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines that contribute to the low grade inflammation observed in diabetes. In addition, lung pathologies associated with type 2 diabetes, including fibrosis and congestion, were decreased with treatment. OS and macrophage infiltration were also reduced in the lungs after treatment with A(1-7). Long-term administration of A(1-7) to db/db mice is effective in improving heart and lung function in db/db mice. Treatment prevented pathological remodeling of the tissues and reduced OS, fibrosis and inflammation.

Present Insights on Cardiomyopathy in Diabetic Patients

The pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is partially understood and is likely to be multifactorial, involving metabolic disturbances, hypertension and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN). Therefore, an important need remains to further delineate the basic mechanisms of diabetic cardiomyopathy and to apply them to daily clinical practice. We attempt to detail some of these underlying mechanisms, focusing in the clinical features and management. The novelty of this review is the role of CAN and reduction of blood pressure descent during sleep in the development of DCM. Evidence has suggested that CAN might precede left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction in normotensive patients with type 2 diabetes, serving as an early marker for the evaluation of preclinical cardiac abnormalities. Additionally, a prospective study demonstrated that an elevation of nocturnal systolic blood pressure and a loss of nocturnal blood pressure fall might precede the onset of abnormal albuminuria and cardiovascular events in hypertensive normoalbuminuric patients with type 2 diabetes. Therefore, existing microalbuminuria could imply the presence of myocardium abnormalities. Considering that DCM could be asymptomatic for a long period and progress to irreversible cardiac damage, early recognition and treatment of the preclinical cardiac abnormalities are essential to avoid severe cardiovascular outcomes. In this sense, we recommend that all type 2 diabetic patients, especially those with microalbuminuria, should be regularly submitted to CAN tests, Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring and echocardiography, and treated for any abnormalities in these tests in the attempt of reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Influence of chronic kidney disease on cardiac structure and function

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), the presence of kidney dysfunction and/or damage, is a worldwide public health issue. Although CKD is independently associated with various subtypes of cardiovascular diseases, a recent international collaborative meta-analysis demonstrates that CKD is particularly strongly associated with heart failure, suggesting its critical impact on cardiac structure and function. Although numerous studies have investigated the association of CKD and cardiac structure and function, these studies substantially vary regarding source populations and methodology (e.g., measures of CKD and/or parameters of cardiac structure and function), making it difficult to reach universal conclusions. Nevertheless, in this review, we comprehensively examine relevant studies, discuss potential mechanisms linking CKD to alteration of cardiac structure and function, and demonstrate clinical implications as well as potential future research directions. We exclusively focus on studies investigating both CKD measures, kidney function (i.e., glomerular filtration rate [GFR], creatinine clearance, or levels of filtration markers), and kidney damage represented by albuminuria, since current international clinical guidelines of CKD recommend staging CKD and assessing its clinical risk based on both GFR and albuminuria.

Barnidipine or Lercanidipine on Echocardiographic Parameters in Hypertensive, Type 2 Diabetics with Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: A Randomized Clinical Trial

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of lercanidipine or barnidipine on echocardiographic parameters, in hypertensive, type 2 diabetics with left ventricular hypertrophy. One hundred and forty-four patients were randomized to lercanidipine, 20 mg/day, or barnidipine, 20 mg/day, in addition to losartan, 100 mg/day, for 6 months. We evaluated: blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1c), lipid profile, creatinine, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), sodium, potassium, and acid uric. Echocardiography was performed at baseline and after 6 months. Both lercanidipine and barnidipine decreased blood pressure. Left ventricular mass index was reduced to a greater extent with barnidipine + losartan. Interventricular septal thickness in diastole was reduced by barnidipine + losartan. Posterior wall thickness in diastole was decreased by both treatments, even if barnidipine + losartan were more effective. Ratio of peak early diastolic filling velocity to peak filling velocity at atrial contraction was increased by barnidipine + losartan, but not by lercanidipine + losartan. Finally, isovolumetric relaxation and time and left atrial volume index were reduced by barnidipine + losartan, while lercanidipine + losartan did not affect them. In conclusion, barnidipine + losartan provided a greater improvement of echocardiographic parameters compared to lercanidipine + losartan.

Cross-sectional analysis of serum calcium levels for associations with left ventricular hypertrophy in normocalcemia individuals with type 2 diabetes

Background

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is prevalent in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Recent studies show that an increase in albumin-adjusted serum calcium level is associated with an elevated risk of T2DM. We speculate that increased serum calcium levels in T2DM patients are related to LVH prevalence.

Methods

In this echocardiographic study, 833 normocalcemia and normophosphatemia patients with T2DM were enrolled. The associations between serum calcium and metabolic parameters, left ventricular mass index (LVMI), as well as the rate of LVH were examined using bivariate linear correlation, multivariate linear regression and logistic regression, respectively. The predictive performance of serum calcium for LVH was evaluated using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC).

Results

Patients with LVH have significantly higher serum calcium than those without LVH. Serum calcium was positively associated with total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, serum uric acid, HOMA-IR and fasting plasma glucose. Multivariate linear regression analysis demonstrated that serum calcium was independently associated with LVMI (p < 0.001). In comparison with patients in the lowest serum calcium quartile, the odds ratio (OR) for LVH in patients in the highest quartile was 2.909 (95% CI 1.792-4.720; p < 0.001). When serum calcium was analyzed as a continuous variable, per 1 mg/dl increase, the OR (95% CI) for LVH was [2.400 (1.552-3.713); p < 0.001]. Serum calcium can predict LVH (AUC = 0.617; 95% CI (0.577-0.656); p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Albumin-adjusted serum calcium is associated with an increased risk of LVH in patients with T2DM.

Activation of TRPV1 attenuates high salt-induced cardiac hypertrophy through improvement of mitochondrial function

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

High-salt diet induces cardiac remodelling and leads to heart failure, which is closely related to cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiac dysfunction. We investigated whether activation of TRP vanilloid (subtype 1) (TRPV1) channels by dietary capsaicin can, by ameliorating cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction, prevent high-salt diet-induced cardiac hypertrophy.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Male wild-type (WT) and TRPV1(-/-) mice were fed a normal or high-salt diet with or without capsaicin for 6 months. Their cardiac parameters and endurance capacity were assessed. Mitochondrial respiration and oxygen consumption were measured using high-resolution respirometry. The expression levels of TRPV1, sirtuin 3 and NDUFA9 were detected in cardiac cells and tissues.

KEY RESULTS

Chronic high-salt diet caused cardiac hypertrophy and reduced physical activity in mice; both effects were ameliorated by capsaicin intake in WT but not in TRPV1(-/-) mice. TRPV1 knockout or high-salt diet significantly jeopardized the proficiency of mitochondrial Complex I oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and reduced Complex I enzyme activity. Chronic dietary capsaicin increased cardiac mitochondrial sirtuin 3 expression, the proficiency of Complex I OXPHOS, ATP production and Complex I enzyme activity in a TRPV1-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

TRPV1 activation by dietary capsaicin can antagonize high-salt diet-mediated cardiac lesions by ameliorating its deleterious effect on the proficiency of Complex I OXPHOS. TRPV1-mediated amendment of mitochondrial dysfunction may represent a novel target for management of early cardiac dysfunction.

Association of serum levels of FGF23 and α-Klotho with glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria among cardiac patients

Background

Expression and/or excretion of fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF23) and its co-receptor Klotho are altered in patients with end-stage renal disease. The possibility that the FGF23/α-Klotho system mediates the aggravated cardiovascular outcome among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been suggested. We determined whether FGF23 and α-Klotho concentrations are altered among patients with reduced renal function and proteinuria.

Methods

Serum FGF23 and α-Klotho were measured in cardiology patients who were not undergoing chronic hemodialysis. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was correlated negatively with FGF23 and positively with α-Klotho.

Results

The correlation between FGF23 and the renal tubular maximum reabsorption rate of phosphate to the GFR (TmP/GFR) was not significant, but that between FGF23 and serum calcium or inorganic phosphate was significant among patients with an estimated GFR of less than 60 mL/min/m². By stepwise multivariate regression analysis, eGFR was selected as significant predictor for FGF23 or α-Klotho among patients with an estimated GFR of less than 60 mL/min/m²; however, urine albumin/creatinine ratio was not selected as a predictor for FGF23 or α-Klotho irrespective of the eGFR levels. In patients with eGFR of <60 mL/min/1.73 m², UACR was significantly associated with log(FGF23); but, this association did not remain statistically significant in a multivariate model.

Conclusions

Among cardiology patients with various stages of CKD, serum concentrations of FGF23 and α-Klotho were associated with renal function, but not with the extent of proteinuria.

Assessment and management of left ventricular hypertrophy in Type 2 diabetes patients with high blood pressure

Diabetes is associated with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). This article reviews the assessment and management of LVH in Type 2 diabetic patients and the available evidence on blood-pressure management in these patients in order to reduce LVH. The best treatment of LVH starts with early identification and rapid implementation of adequate treatment, especially in populations at higher risk. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors should be the first-line therapy, because they are proven to be the most effective in reducing LVH in Type 2 diabetic patients. In patients where angiotensin II receptor antagonists and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are contraindicated or not tolerated, calcium-channel blockers should be the second option.

Cardiac remodeling induced by 13-cis retinoic acid treatment in acne patients

BACKGROUND

Currently, 13-cis-retinoic acid (13-cis-RA) is the most effective therapy for acne. Isotretinoin, a first-generation synthetic 13-cis-RA compound, is associated with numerous adverse effects. To investigate the cardiac effects of 13-cis-RA, acne patients receiving 13-cis-RA were studied.

METHODS

Twenty male patients with acne were enrolled in the study. Patients were treated with a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/d of isotretinoin. All participants were assessed prior to treatment and after 10 weeks of therapy with Doppler-echocardiogram.

RESULTS

Patients showed reductions in right atrium vertical diameter, left atrium longitudinal diameter, left atrium volume and left ventricular diastolic diameter over the course of treatment. Significant increases in interventricular septum diastolic thickness, posterior wall diastolic thickness, relative wall relative thickness and left ventricle (LV) mass were observed. The LV mass index showed an increase in ventricular mass and a decrease in the cavity size. Examining LV systolic function, a decrease was observed for the cardiac index.

CONCLUSION

In this study, 10 weeks of 13-cis-RA therapy at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/d was found to promote concentric-type heart remodeling due to the occurrence of two associated events: heart hypertrophy and hypovolemia.

Association of aldosterone with left ventricular mass in hypertension: interaction with plasma fibrinogen levels

BACKGROUND

Plasma aldosterone concentration is an independent determinant of left ventricular (LV) mass in hypertensive patients, and is related to some hemostatic variables along with it may contribute to a prothrombotic state. We conducted a study to investigate the relationship between hemostatic variables, plasma aldosterone, and cardiac morphology and function in essential hypertension.

METHODS

In 205 patients with untreated essential hypertension, we measured components of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, plasma levels of fibrinogen, D-dimer, prothrombin fragment 1 + 2 (F1 + 2), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and assessed cardiac characteristics with standard echocardiography. For statistical purpose, patients were divided into two groups according to whether their median value of plasma aldosterone was > 125 pg/ml or < 125 pg/ml.

RESULTS

Left ventricular mass index (LVMI) was significantly greater in patients with a high (> 51 ± 13 g/m(2.7)) than with a low plasma aldosterone level (< 41 ± 11 g/m(2.7); P < 0.01) only in patients with fibrinogen levels in the highest tertile. Significant interaction was observed between plasma fibrinogen and aldosterone in the association with LVMI (P = 0.04). Left ventricular mass index was significantly and directly related to age, systolic blood pressure (BP), body mass index (BMI), plasma aldosterone, fibrinogen, and D-dimer levels, whereas no relationships were observed between echocardiographic parameters and other hemostatic variables. Fibrinogen was directly related to age, systolic BP, plasma aldosterone, LVMI, relative wall thickness, and left atrial diameter. Multivariate analysis indicated that LVMI was related to plasma fibrinogen and aldosterone (both P < 0.01) independently of age, BP, and BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma fibrinogen levels interact with plasma aldosterone in its association with left ventricular mass in patients with hypertension.

Effects of high efficiency post-dilution on-line hemodiafiltration or conventional hemodialysis on residual renal function and left ventricular hypertrophy

PURPOSE

Residual renal function (RRF) contributes to dialysis adequacy, quality of life and survival of hemodialysis patients. There is an ongoing debate whether better preservation of residual renal function is the result of chronic fluid volume overload. Our prospective investigation analyzed the effects of different dialytic therapies on RRF and left ventricular hypertrophy, which may be considered--at least in part--a surrogate marker of chronic fluid overload.

METHODS

Two cohorts of end-stage renal disease patients initiating renal replacement therapy (high efficiency post-dilution on-line hemodiafiltration (HDF) in 58 patients, conventional hemodialysis (HD) in 60 patients) were prospectively followed up. RRF was determined at baseline, 12 and 24 months, left ventricular mass index (LVMI) at baseline and after 24 months.

RESULTS

Demographic and renal characteristics, medication or exposure to nephrotoxins were comparable among the two cohorts of patients. RRF declined in all patients throughout the 2-year study period. In HDF patients, the decline was less pronounced (28 %) than in conventional HD patients (68 %). More patients undergoing HD received cardio- and renoprotective antihypertensive drugs. CRP levels were significantly higher in conventional HD. Hypotensive episodes were fewer in HDF. LVMI decreased in 90 % of HDF compared to only 25 %of HD patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data clearly indicate that better preservation of RRF by high efficiency hemodiafiltration is not associated with left ventricular hypertrophy.

C-reactive protein and target organ damage in untreated patients with primary hypertension

High sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) has been recognized as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Asymptomatic organ damage is known to precede cardiovascular events in hypertension. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between hs-CRP and signs of organ damage, namely left ventricular mass index (LVMI), albuminuria, and carotid atherosclerosis in a group of hypertensive patients. One hundred and eighty-two untreated patients with primary hypertension were studied. HS-CRP was measured by immunonephelometry. LVMI was assessed by echocardiography, albuminuria was measured as albumin to creatinine ratio, and carotid atherosclerosis by ultrasonography. Patient stratification according to quartiles of hs-CRP showed a significant trend toward higher age, prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy, and carotid plaques. Moreover, there was a significant correlation among hs-CRP quartiles and left ventricular mass index, carotid cross-sectional area, carotid plaques, and albuminuria. Multiple regression analysis showed that, after adjusting for established cardiovascular risk factors (ie, age, duration of hypertension, smoking habit, body mass index (BMI), 24-hour systolic and diastolic blood pressures, glucose, creatinine, uric acid, triglycerides, total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), hs-CRP remained a strong correlate of target organ damage. These results support the importance of chronic microinflammation in the development of atherosclerotic disease in hypertension.

Is left ventricular hypertrophy a low-level inflammatory state? A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cross-sectional studies have shown that chronic sub-clinical inflammation is associated with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), but results are conflicting. We investigated the association between baseline LVH and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) values, both cross-sectionally and after a six-year-follow-up, in a population-based cohort (n = 1564) and a subgroup from this cohort (n = 515), without obesity, diabetes, metabolic syndrome or any drugs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

ECG tracings at baseline were interpreted according to the Cornell voltage-duration product criteria: 166/1564 subjects (10.6%) showed LVH. Patients with baseline LVH showed increased BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, and a worse metabolic pattern. Their CRP values both at baseline and at follow-up were almost two-fold higher than in patients without LVH. Similar results were found in the healthier sub-sample. In a multiple regression model, CRP at follow-up was directly associated with baseline LVH (expressed as Cornell voltage-duration product) in the whole cohort (β = 0.0003; 95%CI 0.0002-0.0006; p < 0.001) and in the sub-sample (β = 0.0003; 0.0002-0.0004; p < 0.001), after adjusting for age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, smoking, exercise levels, blood pressure and baseline CRP values.

CONCLUSION

Baseline LVH, which is associated with systemic inflammation, predicts increased CRP values at follow-up, independently of cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors, both in a population-based cohort and a healthier sub-sample. The inflammatory consequences of LVH might be an intriguing subject for further researches.

Cardiorenal Syndrome in Hypertensive Rats: Microalbuminuria, Inflammation and Ventricular Hypertrophy

The aim of our study was to evaluate a possible association between microalbuminuria (MA), several low-grade inflammation factors and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) by using a pharmacological approach. This may provide new insights into the pathophysiologic mechanisms of the cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) linking early renal impairment with elevated cardiovascular risk. Two kidney-one clip (2K-1C) renovascular hypertension was induced in 24 male Wistar rats (220-250 g). After the development of hypertension, rats were divided into four groups: 2K-1C (untreated), calcium channel blocker (amlodipine-treated), angiotensin receptor blocker (losartan-treated) and peripheral vasodilator (hydralazine-treated), which were treated for 10 weeks. Rats in the 2K-1C group had all developed hypertension, a significant increase in plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Moreover MA and creatininaemia underwent a significant increase. Under treatment decreases were observed in systolic blood pressure (SBP), TNF-α, CRP, IL-6, BNP concentrations and creatininaemia. These results were related to the absence of MA which was significantly associated with reductions in cardiac mass and hypertrophy markers (BNP and β-MHC gene expression) as well as renal interstitial inflammation. In conclusion, our results suggest that the reduction of MA is correlated with the decrease of the inflammatory components and seems to play an important role in protecting against cardiac hypertrophy and renal injury.

Circulatory syndrome: an evolution of the metabolic syndrome concept!

The metabolic syndrome has been a useful, though controversial construct in clinical practice as well as a valuable model in order to understand the interactions of diverse cardiovascular risk factors. However the increasing importance of the circulatory system in particular the endothelium, in both connecting and controlling organ function has underlined the limitations of the metabolic syndrome definition. The proposed "Circulatory Syndrome" is an attempt to refine the metabolic syndrome concept by the addition of recently documented markers of cardiovascular disease including renal impairment, microalbuminuria, arterial stiffness, ventricular dysfunction and anaemia to more classic factors including hypertension, dyslipidemia and abnormal glucose metabolism; all of which easily measured in clinical practice. These markers interact with each other as well as with other factors such as aging, obesity, physical inactivity, diet and smoking. The final common pathways of inflammation, oxidative stress and hypercoagulability thereby lead to endothelial damage and eventually cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, the Circulatory (MARC) Syndrome, like its predecessor the metabolic syndrome, is only a small step toward an understanding of these complex and as yet poorly understood markers of disease.

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein can predict major adverse cardiovascular events in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes

Inflammation is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). It has been suggested that the measurement of markers of inflammation may aid in predicting the risk of such events. Here, the relationship between high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels and MACE in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes is assessed. A retrospective cohort study was conducted as a follow-up among 1,558 patients with type 2 diabetes and without cardiovascular diseases over a mean period of 55.5 months. A Cox proportional-hazards model was used to determine whether increased hs-CRP levels are useful as a predictor for future MACE. The hazard ratio of MACE was 1.77 (95% CI; 1.16-2.71) in subjects who had the highest hs-CRP levels (> 0.21 mg/dL) compared to subjects who had the lowest hs-CRP levels (< 0.08 mg/dL), after adjusting for age, regular physical activity, current smoking, and duration of diabetes. The present results indicate that high hs-CRP levels can act as a predictor for the MACE occurrence in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes.

Combined use of urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL) and albumin as markers of early cardiac damage in primary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NGAL) is an early and specific marker of acute kidney dysfunction. Recent evidences suggest that NGAL may also be involved in chronic vascular remodeling during the development of atherosclerosis. Albuminuria, a powerful predictor of cardiovascular events, is thought to reflect widespread subclinical vascular abnormalities. We investigated the relationship between urinary NGAL (uNGAL), albuminuria and left ventricular mass (LVM) in patients with primary hypertension.

METHODS

A total of 120 untreated, non diabetic patients with primary hypertension (mean age 47 ± 9 years) were studied. uNGAL was measured by a chemiluminescent microparticle method, optimized on a fully automated analytical platform (ARCHITECT, Abbott Diagnostics Inc, Rome, IT). Albuminuria was measured by immunonephelometry on an Immage Immunochemistry System (Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, California, USA) and expressed as albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR). LVM was assessed by echocardiography and indexed to body surface area (LVM/BSA).

RESULTS

No significant correlation was found between uNGAL and ACR; however, both variables were directly related to clinic systolic blood pressure (rho=0.241, p=0.0085 and rho=0.248, p=0.0068 respectively), left ventricular relative wall thickness (rho=0.251, p=0.0156 and rho=0.263, p=0.0013 respectively), and LVM/BSA (rho=0.285, p=0.0062 and rho=0.213, p=0.0410 respectively). The uNGAL and ACR simultaneous increase above their respective median values was associated with higher LVM/BSA values (p=0.0109) and with a higher prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) (p=0.0017). Furthermore, logistic regression analysis showed that the risk of presenting LVH increased more than 4-fold when uNGAL and ACR were both above the median value, even after adjustment for age, gender and blood pressure values.

CONCLUSIONS

The simultaneous increase in uNGAL and ACR excretion is significantly associated with the increase of LVM in low risk patients with primary hypertension. This association is clinically significant for the early assessment of cardiac damage in hypertension.

Screening for left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the community

BACKGROUND

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a strong predictor of cardiovascular disease and is common among patients with type 2 diabetes. However, no systematic screening for LVH is currently recommended for patients with type 2 diabetes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether NT-proBNP was superior to 12-lead electrocardiography (ECG) for detection of LVH in patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Prospective cross-sectional study comparing diagnostic accuracy of ECG and NT-proBNP for the detection of LVH among patients with type 2 diabetes. Inclusion criteria included having been diagnosed for > 5 years and/or on treatment for type 2 diabetes; patients with Stage 3/4 chronic kidney disease and known cardiovascular disease were excluded. ECG LVH was defined as either the Sokolow-Lyon or Cornell voltage criteria. NT-proBNP level was measured using the Roche Diagnostics Elecsys assay. Left ventricular mass was assessed from echocardiography. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was carried out and area under the curve (AUC) was calculated.

RESULTS

294 patients with type 2 diabetes were recruited, mean age 58 (SD 11) years, BP 134/81 ± 18/11 mmHg, HbA 1c 7.3 ± 1.5%. LVH was present in 164 patients (56%). In a logistic regression model age, gender, BMI and a history of hypertension were important determinants of LVH (p < 0.05). Only 5 patients with LVH were detected by either ECG voltage criteria. The AUC for NT-proBNP in detecting LVH was 0.68.

CONCLUSIONS

LVH was highly prevalent in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes. ECG was an inadequate test to identify LVH and while NT-proBNP was superior to ECG it remained unsuitable for detecting LVH. Thus, there remains a need for a screening tool to detect LVH in primary care patients with type 2 diabetes to enhance risk stratification and management.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy: from the pathophysiology of the cardiac myocytes to current diagnosis and management strategies

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM), although a distinct clinical entity, is also a part of the diabetic atherosclerosis process. It may be independent of the coexistence of ischemic heart disease, hypertension, or other macrovascular complications. Its pathological substrate is characterized by the presence of myocardial damage, reactive hypertrophy, and intermediary fibrosis, structural and functional changes of the small coronary vessels, disturbance of the management of the metabolic cardiovascular load, and cardiac autonomic neuropathy. These alterations make the diabetic heart susceptible to ischemia and less able to recover from an ischemic attack. Arterial hypertension frequently coexists with and exacerbates cardiac functioning, leading to the premature appearance of heart failure. Classical and newer echocardiographic methods are available for early diagnosis. Currently, there is no specific treatment for DCM; targeting its pathophysiological substrate by effective risk management protects the myocardium from further damage and has a recognized primary role in its prevention. Its pathophysiological substrate is also the objective for the new therapies and alternative remedies.

Role of echocardiographic left ventricular mass and carotid intima-media thickness in the cardiovascular risk assessment of asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Standard cardiovascular (CV) risk assessment may underestimate risk in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Cardiac and vascular imaging to detect subclinical disease may augment risk prediction. This study investigated the association between CV risk, left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) in patients with T2DM free of CV symptoms.

METHODS

People with T2DM without known CV disease were recruited from general practice. The 5-year risk of CV events was calculated using an adjusted Framingham equation and the prevalence of LVH and abnormal CIMT across bands of CV risk assessed. In those at intermediate risk, the number needed to scan (NNS) to reclassify one person to high risk was calculated across the group and compared in those above and below 55 years. The association between LV mass and CIMT was also assessed.

RESULTS

Mean age 57 years (SD11), 51% female. Median 5-year CV risk 14.3% (interquartile range 10.3, 19.5), 51% had LVH (American Society of Echocardiography criteria) and 31% an abnormal CIMT (age and sex criteria). In the 52% at intermediate risk, 37% had LVH and 36% an abnormal CIMT. The NNS was 1.7 using both imaging techniques, 2.7 using cardiac imaging alone or 2.8 using vascular imaging alone. Almost twice as many people >55 years had an abnormal CIMT than those <55 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiac and vascular imaging to detect subclinical disease can be used to augment prediction of CV risk in people with T2DM at intermediate risk. The value of reclassifying risk is as yet unproven and requires outcome data from intervention studies.