In vitro fermentation of various fiber and starch sources by pig fecal inocula1

Interactive effects of dietary fibre and lipid types modulate the predicted production and absorption of caecal and colorectal short chain fatty acids in growing pigs

BACKGROUND

High-fibre diets are supplemented with lipids to meet the required energy content, but data on the interactions between dietary fibre (DF) and lipid types on gastrointestinal fermentation in pigs is scant.

OBJECTIVE

To use a combination of in vivo and in vitro fermentation methodologies to determine the interactive effects of DF and lipid types on short chain fatty acids (SCFA) production and absorption, and organic matter (OM) fermentability in the caecum, and colorectal tract of pigs.

METHODS

Eight ileal- and caecal-cannulated Yorkshire barrows were fed either pectin- or cellulose-containing diets that were supplemented with either corn oil or beef tallow in two independent Youden squares with a 2×2 factorial arrangement of treatments (n = 6). Ileal and caecal digesta were collected, freeze-dried and fermented using inoculum from fresh caecal digesta and faeces, respectively, to determine individual SCFA production and absorption, and fermentability of OM.

RESULTS

There were interactions (P < 0.001) between DF and lipid types observed in which the addition of beef tallow decreased the quantity of caecal and colorectal acetic acid production and caecal acetic absorption, caecal butyric production, predicted caecal OM fermentability, and the predicted colorectal propionic acid in pectin diets but did not have effects in cellulose diets. The addition of beef tallow increased (P < 0.001) the production of caecal butyric and propionic acids during in vitro fermentation in cellulose diets and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of OM in pectin diets.

CONCLUSIONS

The interactions between DF and lipids on gastrointestinal fermentation largely depend on the degree of saturation of fatty acids in dietary lipids. The addition of beef tallow selectively decreased the production and absorption of individual SCFA in pectin and cellulose diets but increased caecal butyric and propionic acid production in cellulose diets and the ATTD of OM in pectin diets.

In vitro fermentation characteristics of different types of fiber-rich ingredients by pig fecal inoculum

BACKGROUND

Dietary fibers with varying physicochemical properties have different fermentation characteristics, which may differently impact host health. The present study aimed to determine the fermentation characteristics including gas production kinetics, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production and microbial composition of different fibrous ingredients using in vitro fermentation by fecal microbiota.

RESULTS

Sugar beet pule (SBP), wheat bran (WB), dried corn distillers grains with solubles (DDGS), rice bran (RB) and alfalfa meal (AM) were selected to fermentation in vitro for 36 h. The results showed that SBP had the greatest gas production. SBP had the highest in vitro dry matter fermentability (IVDMF) and production of acetate, propionate and total SCFAs, followed by WB, which were all greater than DDGS, AM and RB. The alpha-diversity was higher in the DDGS, AM and RB groups than in the WB and SBP groups. Differences in microbial community composition were observed among groups. The relative abundance of Treponema was highest in WB group. RB group showed lower Prevotella abundance than other groups but had higher Succinivibrio abundance. Interestingly, the Lactobacillus reached the highest abundances in the DDGS group. Correlation analysis indicated that the relative abundance of Treponema and Prevotella was positively associated with the gas production, IVDMF and SCFAs, whereas norank_f_Muribaculaceae, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Lysinibacillus and Succinivibrio were the opposite.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, WB and SBP were fermented rapidly by fecal microbiota compared to DDGS, AM and RB. Different fiber sources have different fiber compositions and fermentation properties that affect the microbial compositins and SCFAs production. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Starchy and fibrous feedstuffs differ in their in vitro digestibility and fermentation characteristics and differently modulate gut microbiota of swine

Background

Alternative feedstuffs may contribute to reducing feed costs of pig production. But these feedstuffs are typically rich in fiber and resistant starch (RS). Dietary fibers and RS are fermented in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and modulate the microbial community. Certain microbes in the GIT can promote host health, depending on the type of fermentation substrates available. In this study, six alternative feedstuffs (three starchy: Okinawan sweet potato, OSP; yam, and taro, and three fibrous: wheat millrun, WMR; barley brewers grain, BBG; and macadamia nut cake, MNC) were evaluated for their in vitro digestibility and fermentation characteristics and their effects on pig’s hindgut microbial profile. After 2 steps of enzymatic digestion assay, residues were fermented using fresh pig feces as microbial inoculum, and gas production was recorded periodically for 72 h and modeled for fermentation kinetics. After fermentation, the residual liquid phase was analyzed for short-chain fatty acid (SCFA), and the solid phase was used to determine the nutrient’s digestibility and microbial community.

Results

In vitro ileal digestibility of dry matter and gross energy was higher in starchy than fibrous feedstuffs. Total gas and SCFA production were significantly higher (P < 0.001) in starchy feedstuffs than fibrous feedstuffs. Both acetate and propionate production was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in all starchy feedstuffs than BBG and MNC; WMR was in between. Overall alpha diversity was not significantly different within and between starchy and fibrous feedstuffs. Beta diversity (measured using bray Curtis dissimilarity distance) of starchy feedstuffs was significantly different (P < 0.005) than fibrous feedstuffs.

Conclusion

Starchy feedstuffs acted as a substrate to similar types of microbes, whereas fibrous feedstuffs resulted in a more diverse microbial population. Such alternative feedstuffs may exert comparable beneficial effects, thus may be included in swine diets to improve gut health.

Sources of Dietary Fiber Affect the SCFA Production and Absorption in the Hindgut of Growing Pigs

Effects of different dietary fiber (DF) sources on short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) production and absorption in the hindgut of growing pigs were studied by an in vivo–vitro (ileal cannulated pigs and fecal inoculum-based fermentation) method. Thirty-six cannulated pigs (body weight: 48.5 ± 2.1 kg) were randomly allocated to 6 treatments containing the same DF content (16.5%), with either wheat bran (WB), corn bran (CB), sugar beet pulp (SBP), oat bran (OB), soybean hulls (SH), or rice bran (RB) as DF sources. Pigs were allowed 15 days for diet adaptation, and then, fresh ileal digesta and feces were collected to determine SCFA concentration which was normalized for food dry matter intake (DMI) and the hindgut DF fermentability. Fecal microbiota was inoculated into the freeze-dried ileal digesta samples to predict the ability of SCFA production and absorption in the hindgut by in vitro fermentation. The SH group had the largest concentration of total SCFA and propionate in ileal digesta and fecal samples of growing pigs (p < 0.05). Nonetheless, the predicted acetate, total SCFA production, absorption in the SBP group were the highest (p < 0.01), but the lowest in the OB group (p < 0.01) among all groups. Even SBP and OB group had a similar ratio of soluble DF (SDF) to insoluble DF (IDF). The CB group had high determined ileal and fecal butyrate concentration but the lowest butyrate production and absorption in the hindgut (p < 0.01). Overall, the source of DF had a great impact on the hindgut SCFA production and absorption, and SBP fiber had a great potential to increase hindgut SCFA production and absorption.

In vitro fermentation profiles of different soybean oligosaccharides and their effects on skatole production and cecal microbiota of broilers

Objective

The objective of this study was to investigate the in vitro fermentation profiles of different soybean oligosaccharides (SBOs) and their effects on skatole production and cecal microbiota of broilers.

Methods

Five SBOs with varying main component contents were fermented using an in vitro batch incubation inoculated with broiler cecal microbiota. Gas production was recorded automatically, skatole, indole and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography, and microbial changes were analyzed using 16S DNA gene sequencing.

Results

The addition of SBOs increased (p<0.05) gas production, suggesting bacterial growth-stimulating activities. In addition, the concentrations of indole were significantly (p<0.05) decreased after SBO supplementation, and SBO III, with higher sucrose and stachyose contents, decreased (p<0.05) the skatole level. Our results also revealed that the fermentation of SBOs by cecal microbiota produced (p<0.05) SCFAs, which were dominated by propionic acid, butyrate acid and lactic acid compared to the control. In addition, SBO III increased (p<0.05) the abundance of Firmicutes and Subdoligranulum and decreased that of Bacteroides.

Conclusion

These results suggest that SBOs with higher sucrose and stachyose contents are promising prebiotics in modulating gut microbiota and reducing odor emission in broilers.

Growth performance, visceral organ weights, and gut health of weaned pigs fed diets with different dietary fiber solubility and lipid sources

The objective of this study was to determine the interactive effects of dietary fiber solubility and lipid source on growth performance, visceral organ weights, gut histology, and gut microbiota composition of weaned pigs. A total of 280 nursery pigs [initial body weight (BW) = 6.84 kg] weaned at 21 d were housed in 40 pens (7 pigs/pen). The pigs were fed four diets (10 pens/diet) in a randomized complete block design in two phases: Phase 1 from 0 to 2 wk and Phase 2 from 2 to 5 wk. The diets were corn-soybean meal-based with either sugar beet pulp (SBP) or soybean hulls (SBH) as a fiber source and either soybean oil (SBO) or choice white grease (CWG) as a lipid source in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. The BW and feed intake were determined by phase, whereas visceral organ weights, intestinal histology, and gut microbial composition were determined at the end of the trial. Dietary fiber solubility and lipid source did not interact (P > 0.05) on average daily feed intake and average daily gain across all phases. However, the gain to feed ratio (G:F) for CWG-containing diets was lower (P < 0.05) than that for SBO-containing diets for Phase 1. Also, G:F for SBP-containing diets was lower (P < 0.05) than that for SBH-containing diets for Phase 1 and for the entire study period. Pigs fed SBP-containing diets had greater (P < 0.05) stomach weight, and tended to have greater (P < 0.10) small and large intestine weights relative to BW than those fed SBH-containing diets. Duodenal villous height to crypt depth ratio for CWG-based diets tended to be greater (P = 0.09) than that for SBO-based diets. Fiber solubility and lipid source interacted (P < 0.05) on relative abundance of Bacteroides in the colon such that the relative abundance of the Bacteroides for CWG was greater (P < 0.05) than that for the SBO in SBP-based diet, but not in SBH-based diet. Relative abundance of Butyricicoccus in the colon for SBH-based diet was greater (P < 0.05) than that for SBP-based diet. In conclusion, inclusion of SBH instead of SBP in corn-soybean meal-based diets for weaned pigs can result in increased feed efficiency and relative abundance of Butyricicoccus in the colon, which is associated with improved gut health. Also, inclusion of SBO instead of CWG in the diets for weaned pigs can result in improved feed efficiency during Phase 1 feeding; however, the pigs may recover from the low feed efficiency induced by dietary inclusion of CWG instead of SBO after Phase 1 feeding.

In vitro assessment of probiotic potential of selected bacteria isolated from pig faeces with potential application of odour reduction

To evaluate the odour reduction potential of four different bacterial species such as Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, Acetobacter tropicalis, and Bacillus subtilis subsp. subtilis that were isolated from fresh faeces of pigs and identified based on16S rDNA gene sequence analyses. Faecal slurry in anaerobic salt medium with 1% soluble starch (which was served as control group) and the addition of four different isolated bacterial cultures (1.0 × 10⁷CFU/mL), designated as M1, M2, M3, and M4, respectively, were incubated anaerobically for 12 and 24 h. Total gas production was increased with the incubation period (p < 0.05). M1 and M4 had decreased pattern (p < 0.05) of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide gas from 12 to 24 h. The lowest total volatile fatty acids (p < 0.05), highest lactate, and moderate butyrate concentration was observed in the M1 group at 24 h of incubation. Likewise, M1 group had the lowest total biogenic amine, histamine, ethylamine, putrescine, methylamine, and cadaverine compared to the other groups (p < 0.05) at 24 h of incubation. Overall results suggest that E. faecium can be used as a potent odour reducer in pigs production.

Astaxanthin Alleviates Ochratoxin A-Induced Cecum Injury and Inflammation in Mice by Regulating the Diversity of Cecal Microbiota and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common environmental pollutant found in a variety of foods and grains, and excessive OTA consumption causes serious global health effects on animals and humans. Astaxanthin (AST) is a natural carotenoid that has anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, immunomodulatory, antitumor, antidiabetes, and other biological activities. The present study is aimed at investigating the effects of AST on OTA-induced cecum injury and its mechanism of action. Eighty C57 mice were randomly divided into four groups, including the control group, OTA group (5 mg/kg body weight), AST group (100 mg/kg body weight), and AST intervention group (100 mg/kg body weight AST+5 mg/kg body weight OTA). It was found that AST decreased the endotoxin content, effectively prevented the shortening of mouse cecum villi, and increased the expression levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins, consisting of occludin, claudin-1, and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1). AST increased the number of goblet cells, the contents of mucin-2 (MUC2), and defensins (Defa5 and β-pD2) significantly, while the expression of mucin-1 (MUC1) decreased significantly. The 16S rRNA sequencing showed that AST affected the richness and diversity of cecum flora, decreased the proportion of lactobacillus, and also decreased the contents of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) (acetate and butyrate). In addition, AST significantly decreased the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and p-p65, while increasing the expression of p65. Meanwhile, the expression of inflammatory factors including TNF-α and INF-γ decreased, while the expression of IL-10 increased. In conclusion, AST reduced OTA-induced cecum injury by regulating the cecum barrier function and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Beet Pulp: An Alternative to Improve the Gut Health of Growing Pigs

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of dietary fiber on the gut health of growing pigs. In total, 30 growing pigs with an initial average body weight of 45.8 ± 2.78 kg were divided into three groups with 10 replicates per treatment, and one pig per replicate. The treatments included a corn-soybean meal-based diet (control group, 1.5% crude fiber (CF)), corn-soybean meal + beet pulp-based diet (beet pulp group, 5.74% CF) and corn-soybean meal-based diet (feed intake-pairing group (pairing group); the feed intake was equal to the beet pulp group, 1.5% CF). The whole trial lasted 28 days. The beet pulp group had a longer length of the large intestine, higher weight of the small intestine and whole intestine, greater density of the large intestine and whole intestine, and higher villus height in the jejunum and ileum than the control group (p < 0.05). The messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels of epidermal growth factor (EGF), glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2), and glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor (GLP-2R) in the duodenum, EGF and GLP-2 in the jejunum, EGF in the ileum, and GLP-2 in the colon were higher in the beet pulp group than in the control group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the apparent total tract digestibility of crude ash, energy, dry matter (DM), and crude protein (CP) was lower in the beet pulp group than in the control group (p < 0.05), while the apparent total tract digestibility of CF, the activity of jejunal lactase, and the mRNA abundance of duodenal GLP-2 were higher in the beet pulp group than in the control and pairing groups (p < 0.05). In addition, the beet pulp group had more goblet cells in the colon, more Bifidobacterium spp. in the cecal digesta, higher concentrations of acetic acid and butyric acid in the cecal digesta, and higher mRNA abundance of duodenal regeneration protein Ⅲγ (REG-Ⅲγ), jejunal mucin 2 (MUC-2), and ileal G protein-coupled receptor 43 (GPR-43) than the control group (p < 0.05). However, these parameters did not differ between the control and pairing groups (p > 0.05). These findings indicate feeding a high-fiber diet (5.74% CF, obtained from beet pulp) to pigs could modulate the gut microbiota composition, increase the short-chain fatty-acid (SCFA) content in the hindgut, and improve gut health, which is independent of the feed intake.

Effects of Italian Ryegrass (IRG) Supplementation on Animal Performance, Gut Microbial Compositions and Odor Emission from Manure in Growing Pigs

Fermentable carbohydrate (FC) is a promising material to reduce odor emission from pig manure. This study was conducted to investigate the impact of diets containing Italian ryegrass (IRG), as a FC, on animal performance, odorous chemical and bacterial composition of manure. Pigs were weighed and fed diets containing various levels of IRG powder (0%, 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%) for 28 days. At the end of the trial, manure was collected to analyze the chemical composition, odorous compounds and bacterial community structure. As dietary IRG levels increased, concentrations of phenols and indoles were decreased by 12% and 37% compared with control, respectively, without changes in growth performance. IRG treatment increased the relative abundances of genera belong to the family Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, Veillonellaceae, Peptostreptococcaceae and Lactobacillaceae, in order Clostridiales of phylum Firmicutes, but decreased the relative abundances of genus Sphaerochaeta in phylum Spirochaetes and genus AB243818_g of family Porphyromonadaceae in phylum Bacteroidetes when compared with control. Results from the current study demonstrate that IRG supplemented diets had a beneficial effect of reducing the odorous compounds in manure, possibly by altering the bacterial community structure towards predominantly carbohydrate utilizing microorganisms in the large intestine.

Dietary administration of resistant starch improved caecal barrier function by enhancing intestinal morphology and modulating microbiota composition in meat duck

Resistant starch (RS) was recently approved to exert a powerful influence on gut health, but the effect of RS on the caecal barrier function in meat ducks has not been well defined. Thus, the effect of raw potato starch (RPS), a widely adopted RS material, on microbial composition and barrier function of caecum for meat ducks was determined. A total of 360 Cherry Valley male ducks of 1-d-old were randomly divided and fed diets with 0 (control), 12, or 24 % RPS for 35 d. Diets supplemented with RPS significantly elevated villus height and villus height:crypt depth ratio in the caecum. The 16S rRNA sequence analysis indicated that the diet with 12 % RPS had a higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and the butyrate-producing bacteria Faecalibacterium, Subdoligranulum, and Erysipelatoclostridium were enriched in all diets. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium were significantly increased in the 24 % RPS diet v. the control diet. When compared with the control diet, the diet with 12 % RPS was also found to notably increase acetate, propionate and butyrate contents and up-regulated barrier-related genes including claudin-1, zonula occludens-1, mucin-2 and proglucagon in the caecum. Furthermore, the addition of 12 % RPS significantly reduced plasma TNF-α, IL-1β and endotoxin concentrations. These data revealed that diets supplemented with 12 % RPS partially improved caecal barrier function in meat ducks by enhancing intestinal morphology and barrier markers expression, modulating the microbiota composition and attenuating inflammatory markers.

Fructooligosaccharides and wheat bran fed at similar fermentation levels differentially affect the expression of genes involved in transport, signaling, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and oncogenesis in the colon epithelia of healthy Fischer 344 rats

The influence of the source of fermentable material (FM) on the luminal concentrations of their end products and its effects on colon cell metabolism and disease susceptibility is not well characterized. We hypothesized that total fermentation but not the source (type) of FM would be the main factor in determining cellular /molecular outcomes in the healthy colon epithelia. The main aim of this study was to elucidate the role of two different sources of FM, fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and wheat bran (WB), on the expression of genes involved in short chain fatty acid (SCFA) transport, G-protein signaling, apoptosis, cell proliferation and oncogenesis in colon epithelia of healthy rats. Male Fischer 344 rats (n = 10/group) were fed AIN-93G control (0% FM) or experimental diets containing WB (~1%, 2%, or 5% FM) or FOS (~2%, 5%, or 8% FM). Rats were killed after 6 weeks and the colon mucosa was assessed for the expression of target genes using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. By comparison to the control, dose-related changes of mRNA levels were found in rats fed FOS-based diets, including: (a) upregulation of three SCFA transporters (Smct2, Mct1 and Mct4) but downregulation of Mct2, (b) upregulation of Gpr109a and downregulation of Gpr120, Gpr43, Gprc5a, Rgs2 and Rgs16, (c) upregulation of apoptosis-related genes including Bcl2, Bcl2-like 1, Bak1, Caspase 3, Caspase 8 and Caspase 9, (d) downregulation of the oncogenes and metastasis genes Ros1, Fos, Cd44, Fn1 and Plau, and (e) downregulation of several genes involved in cellular proliferation including Hbegf, Hoxb13, Cgref1, Wfdc1, Tgm3, Fgf7, Nov and Lumican. In contrast, rats fed WB-based diets resulted in dose-related upregulation of mRNA levels of Smct2, Rgs16, Gprc5a, Gpr109a, Bcl2-like 1, Caspase 8, and Fos. Additionally, different gene expression responses were observed in rats fed FOS and WB at 2% and 5% FM. Over all, these gene changes elicited by FOS and WB were independent of the expression of the tumor suppressor Tp53. These results suggest that fermentation alone is not the sole determinant of gene responses in the healthy rat colon.

Kiwifruit fibre level influences the predicted production and absorption of SCFA in the hindgut of growing pigs using a combined in vivo-in vitro digestion methodology

Combined in vivo (ileal cannulated pig) and in vitro (faecal inoculum-based fermentation) digestion methodologies were used to predict the production and absorption of SCFA in the hindgut of growing pigs. Ileal and faecal samples were collected from animals (n 7) fed diets containing either 25 or 50 g/kg DM of kiwifruit fibre from added kiwifruit for 14 d. Ileal and faecal SCFA concentrations normalised for food DM intake (DMI) and nutrient digestibility were determined. Ileal digesta were collected and fermented for 38 h using a fresh pig faecal inoculum to predict SCFA production. The predicted hindgut SCFA production along with the determined ileal and faecal SCFA were then used to predict SCFA absorption in the hindgut and total tract organic matter digestibility. The determined ileal and faecal SCFA concentrations (e.g. 8·5 and 4·4 mmol/kg DMI, respectively, for acetic acid for the low-fibre diet) represented only 0·2-3·2 % of the predicted hindgut SCFA production (e.g. 270 mmol/kg DMI for acetic acid). Predicted production and absorption of acetic, butyric and propionic acids were the highest for the high-fibre diet (P0·05). In conclusion, determined ileal and faecal SCFA concentrations represent only a small fraction of total SCFA production, and may therefore be misleading in relation to the effect of diets on SCFA production and absorption. Considerable quantities of SCFA are produced and absorbed in the hindgut of the pig by the fermentation of kiwifruit.

Nondietary Gut Materials Interfere with the Determination of Dietary Fiber Digestibility in Growing Pigs When Using the Prosky Method

BACKGROUND

Reported negative ileal and total tract dietary fiber (DF) digestibility values are physiologically untenable and suggest the presence of nondietary material in the gut contents that interferes with the DF determination.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to demonstrate the importance of interfering material (IM) when the Prosky method was used to determine DF digestibility.

METHODS

Fourteen pigs (41.6 ± 3.0 kg) were surgically implanted with ileal T-cannulas. A semisynthetic fiber-free diet and 2 semisynthetic diets containing kiwifruit as the sole fiber source [25 or 50 g fiber/kg dry matter (DM)] were prepared. Titanium dioxide was used as an indigestible marker. Pigs were fed the kiwifruit-containing diets (n=7 per diet) for 44 d, followed by the fiber-free diet (n=14) for 7 d. Ileal digesta and feces were collected over 3 d, starting on days 42 and 49. The flow of IM and the soluble, insoluble, and total DF digestibility were determined.

RESULTS

Considerable amounts of IM were present when the Prosky method was applied to ileal digesta (12 g/kg DM intake) and feces (28 g/kg DM intake) collected from pigs fed the fiber-free diet after adaptation to the diet containing 50 g/kg DM of fiber. The pigs adapted to the highest fiber concentration had 0.9- and 0.7-fold greater ileal and fecal IM flows than their counterparts adapted to the lowest concentration. In the ileal digesta, crude mucin was the main IM source in the soluble DF fraction (66%). In the ileal digesta and feces, microbial cells were the main IM source in the insoluble DF fraction. The determined ileal soluble DF and total tract insoluble DF digestibilities increased by 44-54% and 78% respectively after correction for IM (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Large amounts of IM are present in ileal digesta and feces of pigs when fiber is determined with the Prosky method, leading to a marked underestimation.

Molecular details of a starch utilization pathway in the human gut symbiont Eubacterium rectale

Eubacterium rectale is a prominent human gut symbiont yet little is known about the molecular strategies this bacterium has developed to acquire nutrients within the competitive gut ecosystem. Starch is one of the most abundant glycans in the human diet, and E. rectale increases in vivo when the host consumes a diet rich in resistant starch, although it is not a primary degrader of this glycan. Here we present the results of a quantitative proteomics study in which we identify two glycoside hydrolase 13 family enzymes, and three ABC transporter solute-binding proteins that are abundant during growth on starch and, we hypothesize, work together at the cell surface to degrade starch and capture the released maltooligosaccharides. EUR_21100 is a multidomain cell wall anchored amylase that preferentially targets starch polysaccharides, liberating maltotetraose, whereas the membrane-associated maltogenic amylase EUR_01860 breaks down maltooligosaccharides longer than maltotriose. The three solute-binding proteins display a range of glycan-binding specificities that ensure the capture of glucose through maltoheptaose and some α1,6-branched glycans. Taken together, we describe a pathway for starch utilization by E. rectale DSM 17629 that may be conserved among other starch-degrading Clostridium cluster XIVa organisms in the human gut.

In situ prebiotics for weaning piglets: in vitro production and fermentation of potato galacto-rhamnogalacturonan

Postweaning diarrhea (PWD) in pigs is a leading cause of economic loss in pork production worldwide. The current practice of using antibiotics and zinc to treat PWD is unsustainable due to the potential of antibiotic resistance and ecological disturbance, and novel methods are required. In this study, an in vitro model was used to test the possibility of producing prebiotic fiber in situ in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of the piglet and the prebiotic activity of the resulting fiber in the terminal ileum. Soluble fiber was successfully produced from potato pulp, an industrial waste product, with the minimal enzyme dose in a simulated upper GI tract model extracting 26.9% of the initial dry matter. The fiber was rich in galactose and galacturonic acid and was fermented at 2.5, 5, or 10 g/liter in a glucose-free medium inoculated with the gut contents of piglet terminal ileum. Fermentations of 5 g/liter inulin or 5 g/liter of a purified potato fiber were used as controls. The fibers showed high fermentability, evident by a dose-dependent drop in pH and an increase in the organic acid content, with lactate in particular being increased. Deep sequencing showed a significant increase in the numbers of Lactobacillus and Veillonella organisms and an insignificant increase in the numbers of Clostridium organisms as well as a decrease in the numbers of Streptococcus organisms. Multivariate analysis showed clustering of the treatment groups, with the group treated with purified potato fiber being clearly separated from the other groups, as the microbiota composition was 60% Lactobacillus and almost free of Clostridium. For animal studies, a dosage corresponding to the 5-g/liter treatment is suggested.

Effects of replacing soybean meal with fermented rapeseed meal on performance, serum biochemical variables and intestinal morphology of broilers

This trial was performed to study the effects of replacing soybean meal (SBM) with fermented rapeseed meal (RSM) on growth performance, serum biochemistry variable and intestinal morphology of broilers. A total of 640 d-old Arbor Acres broiler chicks were randomly allocated to 4 dietary treatments, 4 pens per treatment and 40 birds per pen for a 6-wk feeding trial. In the four treatment groups, fermented RSM replaced soybean meal at 0, 5, 10, and 15%, respectively. On 21 d and 42 d, two birds from each pen were randomly selected and slaughtered. Blood samples and sections of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were collected for measurement of serum biochemical variables and intestinal morphology, respectively. Results showed that body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion (FC) were significantly (p<0.01) poorer for birds fed the 15% fermented RSM diet than those fed with 0, 5 and 10% fermented RSM diets during all periods. Compared with 0 and 5% fermented RSM groups, IgG content in the serum of birds in 10 and 15% fermented RSM groups was improved (p<0.01) urea nitrogen content of serum was reduced (p<0.01) during both growing and finishing periods. However, IgM, phosphorus and calcium levels increased (p<0.05) only during the growing period. Increased (p<0.05) villus height was observed in the duodenum and jejunum of broilers fed the diet with 10% fermented RSM. In addition, villus height to crypt depth ratio in the jejunum was significantly higher (p<0.01) for birds fed the diet with 10% fermented RSM than for those fed diets with 0, 5 and 15% fermented RSM. The present results suggest that RSM fermented with Lactobacillus fermentum and Bacillus subtilis is a promising alternative protein source and that it could be safely used replace up to 10% SBM in broiler diets.

Large intestinal fermentation capacity of fattening pigs on organic farms as measured in vitro using contrasting substrates

BACKGROUND

In accordance with the EU regulations, organic farms require pigs to be fed diets high in fibre, which may impact on the pigs' large intestinal fermentation capacity. The ability of pigs to ferment non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) depends on characteristics of the dietary NSP source and microbes present in the large intestine of pigs. Little information exists on the fibre fermentation capacity of organically raised pigs. The aim of this study was to determine the variation in fibre fermentation capacity of fattening pigs within and between organic farms using an in vitro batch culture method and three contrasting substrates: oligofructose, soy pectin and cellulose.

RESULTS

Pigs from different organic farms showed varying fermentation capacities as assessed by gas production, kinetics and fermentation end-products formed (P < 0.01). Coefficients of variation between inocula within farms varied by up to 40% for gas production and kinetics, in particular for incubation with cellulose. No relationship between on-farm feeding practice and the pigs' fermentation capacity could be established.

CONCLUSION

The fermentation capacity of pigs reared under organic conditions varies considerable between farms. Finishing pigs reared under organic farming conditions are fast fermenters of oligofructose and soy pectin. More than four donor animals should be used per inoculum to accurately assess in vitro fermentation capacity. Fermentation results could not be related to dietary management under on-farm conditions.

Effect of Phytogenic Feed Additives in Soybean Meal on In vitro Swine Fermentation for Odor Reduction and Bacterial Community Comparison

The effect of different phytogenic feed additives on reducing odorous compounds in swine was investigated using in vitro fermentation and analyzed their microbial communities. Soybean meal (1%) added with 0.1% different phytogenic feed additives (FA) were in vitro fermented using swine fecal slurries and anaerobically incubated for 12 and 24 h. The phytogenic FAs used were red ginseng barn powder (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, FA1), persimmon leaf powder (Diospyros virginiana L., FA2), ginkgo leaf powder (Ginkgo biloba L., FA3), and oregano lippia seed oil extract (Lippia graveolens Kunth, OL, FA4). Total gas production, pH, ammonia-nitrogen (NH₃-N), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), nitrite-nitrogen (NO₂⁻-N), nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N), sulfate (SO₄⁻⁻), volatile fatty acids (VFA) and other metabolites concentration were determined. Microbial communities were also analyzed using 16S rRNA DGGE. Results showed that the pH values on all treatments increased as incubation time became longer except for FA4 where it decreased. Moreover, FA4 incubated for 12 and 24 h was not detected in NH₃-N and H₂S. Addition of FAs decreased (p<0.05) propionate production but increased (p<0.05) the total VFA production. Ten 16S rRNA DGGE bands were identified which ranged from 96 to 100% identity which were mostly isolated from the intestine. Similarity index showed three clearly different clusters: I (FA2 and FA3), II (Con and FA1), and III (FA4). Dominant bands which were identified closest to Eubacterium limosum (ATCC 8486T), Uncultured bacterium clone PF6641 and Streptococcus lutetiensis (CIP 106849T) were present only in the FA4 treatment group and were not found in other groups. FA4 had a different bacterial diversity compared to control and other treatments and thus explains having lowest odorous compounds. Addition of FA4 to an enriched protein feed source for growing swine may effectively reduce odorous compounds which are typically associated with swine production.

The effects of fermented soybean meal on immunophysiological and stress-related parameters in Holstein calves after weaning

The present experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of partial substitution of soybean meal (SBM) with fermented SBM (FSBM) on immunophysiological and stress-related parameters in Holstein calves after weaning. Eighteen Holstein calves were randomly assigned to receive either SBM or FSBM (5% of SBM was replaced with FSBM) calf starter and calves were weaned at 42 d of age. It was noted that FSBM contained a lower content of trypsin inhibitor but higher crude protein, amino acids, and small-sized peptides than those of SBM. The group fed FSBM calf starter significantly increased body weight gain and intakes of both feed and milk, when compared with those fed SBM calf starter at 4 wk of age. Calves fed the FSBM calf starter had significantly lower fecal scores than those fed the SBM calf starter during both pre- and postweaning periods. Calves also had better health scores when fed the FSBM calf starter than those fed SBM during the preweaning period. Weaning challenge significantly increased proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels at 1d postweaning (DPW). The TNF-α and IL-6 levels of the SBM group were significantly higher compared with those of the FSBM group at 3 DPW. Acute phase proteins (serum amyloid A and haptoglobin) in the serum were increased after weaning. Concentrations of serum amyloid A and haptoglobin in calves fed FSBM calf starter were significantly lower than those fed the SBM calf starter at 3 and 5 DPW, respectively. The concentration of cortisol was significantly lower in the FSBM group than that of the SBM group at 3 DPW. Weaning stress did not cause drastic changes in the total serum immunoglobulin levels and composition of peripheral lymphocytes. Our results indicate that FSBM may not only improve growth performance, feed intake, and health conditions during the preweaning period, but also alleviate stress responses, which was indicated by reduced induction of stress hormone, proinflammatory cytokines, and acute phase proteins in Holstein calves after weaning.

Bacterial Community Dynamics during Swine In vitro Fermentation Using Starch as a Substrate with Different Feed Additives for Odor Reduction

The experiment was conducted by in vitro fermentation and bacterial community analysis to investigate the reduction of odorous compounds in response to the use of feed additives (FA) during carbohydrate overload in growing pigs. Soluble starch at 1% (control) and various FA at 0.1% Ginseng meal (FA1); Persimmon leaf (FA2); Gingko nut (FA3) and Oregano lippia (FA4) were added to fecal slurry and incubated anaerobically for 12 and 24 h. In vitro parameters and microbial diversity of the dominant bacteria following fermentation were analyzed using Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE), band cloning and sequencing of the V3 region. Results showed that total gas production increased with the advancement of incubation (p<0.05). pH values of FAs and control groups were decreased except the FA4 group which increased somewhat from 12 to 24 h (p<0.05). Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) and H2S gas concentrations were comparatively lower in both stages in FA4 treatment than in the other groups (p<0.05). Hence, NH3-N concentrations in liquid phases were increased (p<0.05) from 12 to 24 h, but the trend was lowest in FA4 than in the other groups at both stages. The total VFA production was comparatively lower and butyrate levels were moderate in FA4 group than in the the other groups during both stages (p<0.05). Indirect odor-reducing compounds such as NO2, NO3 and SO4 concentrations were higher in the FA4 and FA3 than in the other groups at 24 h (p<0.05). After fermentation, ten dominant bands appeared, six of which appeared in all samples and four in only the FA4 treated group. The total number of DGGE bands and diversity was higher in the FA4-group compared to other groups. Additionally, similarity indices were lowest (71%) in the FA4, which represented a different bacterial community compared with the other groups. These findings indicate that NH3-N, H2S and VFA production was minimal, and pH was also better in the FA4 group than in the other groups. Furthermore, the conversion of odor-reducing indirect compounds or their intermediates was higher in the FA4 group in compared to the other groups. FA4 group generated less odorous products and more indirect products by in vitro fermentation at 24 h, and their microbial pattern appeared to differ from that of the other groups. These findings suggest that this particular FA could change the microbial population, which may have a beneficial effect on odor reduction. It is recommended that the oregano lippia may be supplied to growing pigs as FA along with excess carbohydrate sources to reduce the production of odorous compounds.

Modification of anin vitromodel simulating the whole digestive process to investigate cellular endpoints of chemoprevention

In vitrogut fermentation systems are relevant tools to study health benefits of foodstuffs. Most of them are commonly used to investigate the degradation of nutrients or the development of gut flora. Using these models, strong cytotoxic effects of the resulting samples on cultured cells were observed. Hence, the aim of the present study was to develop a modifiedin vitrofermentation model that simulates the whole digestive tract and generates fermented samples that are suitable for testing in cell culture experiments. Wholemeal wheat flour (wwf) was digested and fermentedin vitrowith a fermentation model using different ox gall concentrations (41·6 and 0·6 g/l). The resulting fermentation supernatants (fs) were characterised for metabolites and biological effects in HT29 cells. The fermentation of wwf increased chemopreventive SCFA and decreased carcinogenic deoxycholic acid (DCA). The strong cytotoxic effects of the fs, which were partly due to cholic acid and DCA, were diminished by lowering the ox gall concentration, allowing the use of the samples in cell culture experiments. In conclusion, anin vitrodigestion model, which can be used to study the effects of foodstuffs on chemoprevention and gut health in colon cells, is introduced and its physiological relevance is demonstrated.

Fermented wheat aleurone inhibits growth and induces apoptosis in human HT29 colon adenocarcinoma cells

Fermentation of dietary fibre by the gut microflora may enhance levels of SCFA, which are potentially chemoprotective against colon cancer. Functional food containing wheat aleurone may prevent cancer by influencing cell cycle and cell death. We investigated effects of fermented wheat aleurone on growth and apoptosis of HT29 cells. Wheat aleurone, flour and bran were digested and fermentedin vitro. The resulting fermentation supernatants (fs) were analysed for their major metabolites (SCFA, bile acids and ammonia). HT29 cells were treated for 24–72 h with the fs or synthetic mixtures mimicking the fs in SCFA, butyrate or deoxycholic acid (DCA) contents, and the influence on cell growth was determined. Fs aleurone was used to investigate the modulation of apoptosis and cell cycle. The fermented wheat samples contained two- to threefold higher amounts of SCFA than the faeces control (blank), but reduced levels of bile acids and increased concentrations of ammonia. Fs aleurone and flour equally reduced cell growth of HT29 more effectively than the corresponding blank and the SCFA mixtures. The EC50(48 h) ranged from 10 % (flour) to 19 % (blank). Markedly after 48 h, fs aleurone (10 %) significantly induced apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. In conclusion, fermentation of wheat aleurone results in a reduced level of tumour-promoting DCA, but higher levels of potentially chemopreventive SCFA. Fermented wheat aleurone is able to induce apoptosis and to block cell cycle – two essential markers of secondary chemoprevention.

Biotransformation of sesaminol triglucoside to mammalian lignans by intestinal microbiota

Plant lignans occur widely in foods, with flaxseed recognized as their richest source. Some plant lignans can be converted by intestinal microbiota to the mammalian lignans, enterodiol and enterolactone, which may have protective effects against hormone-related diseases such as breast cancer. This study determined whether plant lignans in sesame seed, particularly sesaminol triglucoside (STG), could be metabolized to mammalian lignans. STG is a furofuran lignan with methylenedioxyphenyls. The transformation of furofuran lignans to mammalian lignans by intestinal microbiota involves the hydrolysis of glucoside, demethylenation of a methylene group, oxidation of dibenzylbutanediol to dibenzylbutyrolactone, and reductive cleavage of furofuran rings. STG has methylenedioxyphenyl moieties in their structures that may require additional oxidative demethylenation of the methylenedioxyphenyl ring for conversion to mammalian lignans. However, STG is metabolized, via intestinal microbiota, to a catechol moiety. The major STG metabolite was characterized as 4-[((3R,4R)-5-(6-hydroxybenzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)-4-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran-3-yl)methyl]benzene-1,2-diol using NMR and mass spectrometry, and STG could be converted to enterolactone and enterodiol by rat intestinal microflora.

Influence of dietary components on development of the microbiota in single-stomached species

After birth, development of a normal microbial community occurs gradually, and is affected by factors such as the composition of the maternal gut microbiota, the environment, and the host genome. Diet also has a direct influence, both on composition and activity of this community. This influence begins with the milk, when specific components exert their growth-promoting effect on a beneficial microbiota, thereby suppressing potential pathogens. For example, breast-fed infants compared with formula-fed babies usually have a microbial community dominated by bifidobacteria. When solid food is introduced (weaning), dramatic changes in microbial composition occur, so pathogens can gain access to the disturbed gastrointestinal (GI) ecosystem. However, use of specific dietary components can alter the composition and activity of the microbiota positively. Of all dietary components, fermentable carbohydrates seem to be most promising in terms of promoting proliferation of beneficial bacterial species. Carbohydrate fermentation results in the production of SCFA which are known for their trophic and health-promoting effects. Fermentation of proteins, on the other hand, is often associated with growth of potential pathogens, and results in production of detrimental substances including NH3and amines. In terms of the GI microbiota, lipids are often associated with the antimicrobial activity of medium-chain fatty acids and their derivatives. The present review aims to provide deeper insights into the composition and development of the neonatal GI microbiota, how this microbiota can be influenced by certain dietary components, and how this might ultimately lead to improvements in host health.

Influence of dietary fiber on inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer: importance of fermentation pattern

The benefits of dietary fiber on inflammatory bowel disease may be related to the fermentative production of butyrate in the colon, which appears to decrease the inflammatory response. The benefits of dietary fiber against colon cancer may be related to both fermentative and non-fermentative processes, although poorly fermentable fibers appear more influential. Dietary fiber fermentation profiles are important in determining optimal fibers for colonic health, and may be a function of structure, processing conditions, and other food components. A greater understanding of the relationships between fermentation rate and dietary fiber structure would allow for development of dietary fibers for optimum colonic health.

Feeding different types of cooked white rice to piglets after weaning influences starch digestion, digesta and fermentation characteristics and the faecal shedding of β-haemolyticEscherichia coli

Forty-eight, 21-d-old pigs were used to examine the effects of different types of cooked white rice on starch digestion, digesta and fermentation characteristics, shedding of β-haemolyticEscherichia coliand performance after weaning. Pigs received one of three rice-based diets: (i) medium-grainAmaroo(AM), (ii) long-grainDoongara(DOON), and (iii) waxy (WAXY). The remainder of the diet consisted predominantly of animal proteins. A fourth diet contained mainly wheat, barley and lupins (WBL). On days 1, 3, 7 and 9 after weaning, a faecal swab was taken for assessment of β-haemolyticE. coliand faecal consistency. Apparent digestibility of starch measured in the ileum 14 d after weaning was highest (P = 0·004) in AM and WAXY and lowest, but the same (P>0·05), in DOON and WBL. Starch digestibility in the rectum was highest in all rice diets (P < 0·001). Digesta viscosity was highest in pigs fed WBL in both the ileum (P < 0·001) and caecum (P = 0·027). Pigs fed rice generally had lighter (P < 0·05) gastrointestinal organs than pigs fed WBL. Performance of pigs was similar for all treatments; however, pigs fed rice-based diets had a higher (P < 0·001) carcass percentage than pigs fed WBL. Pigs fed WBL produced more acid (P < 0·05) but had lower molar proportions of acetate (P < 0·05), isobutyrate (P < 0·01) and isovalerate (P < 0·001) and a higher molar proportion of butyrate (P < 0·01) in the large intestine than pigs fed rice. Shedding ofE. coliwas low; however, pigs fed AM and WBL shed lessE. colithan pigs fed other diets.

Influence of the amount of dietary fiber on the available energy from hindgut fermentation in growing pigs: Use of cannulated pigs and in vitro fermentation1

Available energy from hindgut fermentation to pigs fed various amounts of dietary fiber was investigated using an in vivo-in vitro methodology. Six growing pigs fitted with a simple T-shaped cannula at the terminal ileum, and following a Latin-square design, were fed 3 diets differing in the content of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP): a low fiber diet (LFD, 77 g/kg of DM), a standard fiber diet (SFD, 160 g/kg of DM), and a high fiber diet (HFD, 240 g/kg of DM). After adaptation to the diet for 10 d, samples from feces and ileum were collected and analyzed for DM, energy, NSP, and chromic oxide; feces were also analyzed for short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Freeze-dried ileal samples (10 g/L) were fermented in vitro in a fecal slurry consisting of an anaerobic mineral salt medium and feces (50 g/L) from cannulated pigs fed the same diets. Available energy was calculated from the amount of SCFA produced in vitro after 48 h of incubation. Nonstarch polysaccharide content in the fermented material was measured to assess the in vitro degradation of this fraction. Increasing dietary NSP from 77 to 240 g/kg of feed DM increased (P < 0.001) ileal flow from 199 to 468 g/kg of feed, leading to a reduction in the energy digested at the terminal ileum, from 15 to 11 MJ/kg of feed DM and an increment in energy digested in the hindgut, from 1.6 to 3.5 MJ/kg of feed DM. Total in vitro production of SCFA/kg of feed DM was dependent on the amount of ileal substrate available for fermentation; that is, increased concentrations of NSP in the diet led to an increase in the SCFA that may be available to the animal (P < 0.001). The molar ratio of SCFA produced in vitro was affected by diet; the high fiber diet showed the greatest (P = 0.004) proportion of acetic acid, and the low fiber diet showed a tendency (P = 0.081) to an increased butyric acid proportion compared with the other 2 diets. Net disappearance of NSP during fermentation in vivo and in vitro were compared and showed a close relationship (P < 0.001, slope = 0.906, r = 0.960). In our experimental conditions, available energy as SCFA to the animal from hindgut fermentation increased with the concentration of dietary NSP (P < 0.001) and provided between 7.1 and 17.6% of the total available energy.