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Dziedzic A, Michlewska S, Jóźwiak P, Dębski J, Karbownik MS, Łaczmański Ł, Kujawa D, Glińska S, Miller E, Niwald M, Kloc M, Balcerzak Ł, Saluk J. Quantitative and structural changes of blood platelet cytoskeleton proteins in multiple sclerosis (MS). J Autoimmun 2024; 145:103204. [PMID: 38520895 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2024.103204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies show that cardiovascular events related to platelet hyperactivity remain the leading causes of death among multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Quantitative or structural changes of platelet cytoskeleton alter their morphology and function. Here, we demonstrated, for the first time, the structural changes in MS platelets that may be related to their hyperactivity. MS platelets were found to form large aggregates compared to control platelets. In contrast to the control, the images of overactivated, irregularly shaped MS platelets show changes in the cytoskeleton architecture, fragmented microtubule rings. Furthermore, MS platelets have long and numerous pseudopodia rich in actin filaments. We showed that MS platelets and megakaryocytes, overexpress β1-tubulin and β-actin mRNAs and proteins and have altered post-translational modification patterns. Moreover, we identified two previously undisclosed mutations in the gene encoding β1-tubulin in MS. We propose that the demonstrated structural changes of platelet cytoskeleton enhance their ability to adhere, aggregate, and degranulate fueling the risk of adverse cardiovascular events in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Dziedzic
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of General Biochemistry, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Sylwia Michlewska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Piotr Jóźwiak
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology, Banacha 12/16, 90-236 Lodz, Poland
| | - Janusz Dębski
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5a 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Łukasz Łaczmański
- Laboratory of Genomics & Bioinformatics, Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Weigla 12, 53-114 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Dorota Kujawa
- Laboratory of Genomics & Bioinformatics, Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Weigla 12, 53-114 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Sława Glińska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Miller
- Department of Neurological Rehabilitation, Medical University of Lodz, Milionowa 14, 93-113 Lodz, Poland
| | - Marta Niwald
- Department of Neurological Rehabilitation, Medical University of Lodz, Milionowa 14, 93-113 Lodz, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Kloc
- The Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Surgery, The Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Genetics, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Łucja Balcerzak
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Joanna Saluk
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of General Biochemistry, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland
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2
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Becker IC, Wilkie AR, Unger BA, Sciaudone AR, Fatima F, Tsai IT, Xu K, Machlus KR, Italiano JE. Dynamic actin/septin network in megakaryocytes coordinates proplatelet elaboration. Haematologica 2024; 109:915-928. [PMID: 37675512 PMCID: PMC10905084 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2023.283369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Megakaryocytes (MK) undergo extensive cytoskeletal rearrangements as they give rise to platelets. While cortical microtubule sliding has been implicated in proplatelet formation, the role of the actin cytoskeleton in proplatelet elongation is less understood. It is assumed that actin filament reorganization is important for platelet generation given that mouse models with mutations in actin-associated proteins exhibit thrombocytopenia. However, due to the essential role of the actin network during MK development, a differential understanding of the contribution of the actin cytoskeleton on proplatelet release is lacking. Here, we reveal that inhibition of actin polymerization impairs the formation of elaborate proplatelets by hampering proplatelet extension and bead formation along the proplatelet shaft, which was mostly independent of changes in cortical microtubule sliding. We identify Cdc42 and its downstream effectors, septins, as critical regulators of intracellular actin dynamics in MK, inhibition of which, similarly to inhibition of actin polymerization, impairs proplatelet movement and beading. Super-resolution microscopy revealed a differential association of distinctive septins with the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton, respectively, which was disrupted upon septin inhibition and diminished intracellular filamentous actin dynamics. In vivo, septins, similarly to F-actin, were subject to changes in expression upon enforcing proplatelet formation through prior platelet depletion. In summary, we demonstrate that a Cdc42/septin axis is not only important for MK maturation and polarization, but is further required for intracellular actin dynamics during proplatelet formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle C Becker
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Adrian R Wilkie
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Bret A Unger
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720
| | | | - Farheen Fatima
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - I-Ting Tsai
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Ke Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720
| | - Kellie R Machlus
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Joseph E Italiano
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 1 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA, 02115; Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115.
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3
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Diao L, Zheng W, Zhao Q, Liu M, Fu Z, Zhang X, Bao L, Cong Y. Cryo-EM of α-tubulin isotype-containing microtubules revealed a contracted structure of α4A/β2A microtubules. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2023; 55:1551-1560. [PMID: 37439022 PMCID: PMC10577476 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2023130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubules are hollow α/β-tubulin heterodimeric polymers that play critical roles in cells. In vertebrates, both α- and β-tubulins have multiple isotypes encoded by different genes, which are intrinsic factors in regulating microtubule functions. However, the structures of microtubules composed of different tubulin isotypes, especially α-tubulin isotypes, remain largely unknown. Here, we purify recombinant tubulin heterodimers composed of different mouse α-tubulin isotypes, including α1A, α1C and α4A, with the β-tubulin isotype β2A. We further assemble and determine the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of α1A/β2A, α1C/β2A, and α4A/β2A microtubules. Our structural analysis demonstrates that α4A/β2A microtubules exhibit longitudinal contraction between tubulin interdimers compared with α1A/β2A and α1C/β2A microtubules. Collectively, our findings reveal that α-tubulin isotype composition can tune microtubule structures, and also provide evidence for the "tubulin code" hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Diao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
| | - Wei Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
| | - Qiaoyu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
| | - Mingyi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
- School of Life Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech UniversityShanghai201210China
| | - Zhenglin Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
| | - Xu Zhang
- School of Life Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech UniversityShanghai201210China
- Shanghai Advanced Research InstituteChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai201210China
| | - Lan Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
- School of Life Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech UniversityShanghai201210China
| | - Yao Cong
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular BiologyShanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyCenter for Excellence in Molecular Cell ScienceUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghai200031China
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4
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McKenna ED, Sarbanes SL, Cummings SW, Roll-Mecak A. The Tubulin Code, from Molecules to Health and Disease. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2023; 39:331-361. [PMID: 37843925 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-030123-032748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are essential dynamic polymers composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers. They support intracellular trafficking, cell division, cellular motility, and other essential cellular processes. In many species, both α-tubulin and β-tubulin are encoded by multiple genes with distinct expression profiles and functionality. Microtubules are further diversified through abundant posttranslational modifications, which are added and removed by a suite of enzymes to form complex, stereotyped cellular arrays. The genetic and chemical diversity of tubulin constitute a tubulin code that regulates intrinsic microtubule properties and is read by cellular effectors, such as molecular motors and microtubule-associated proteins, to provide spatial and temporal specificity to microtubules in cells. In this review, we synthesize the rapidly expanding tubulin code literature and highlight limitations and opportunities for the field. As complex microtubule arrays underlie essential physiological processes, a better understanding of how cells employ the tubulin code has important implications for human disease ranging from cancer to neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth D McKenna
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Stephanie L Sarbanes
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Steven W Cummings
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Antonina Roll-Mecak
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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5
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Sun B, Cheng X, Zhang M, Shi Q, Zhao X, Wang X, Zhang Y. Dynamic observation of circRNA and mRNA profiles in a rat model of deep vein thrombosis. Exp Ther Med 2023; 26:467. [PMID: 37664678 PMCID: PMC10469585 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2023.12166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The goal of the present study was to identify different transcriptome expression profiles involved in the pathogenesis of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and to illustrate the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of circular RNAs (circRNAs) and mRNAs in DVT progression. A Sprague-Dawley rat model of DVT was successfully established through the stenosis method and samples were sequenced at four time points (1, 6 and 12 h, and 3 days after ligation) to observe the dynamic changes in circRNAs and mRNAs during DVT progression. RNA sequencing was used to analyze the circRNA and mRNA expression profiles, and associated functions and pathways, in the blood of DVT rats at the four time points. In addition, Short Time Series Expression Miner (STEM) analysis was performed to explore temporal gene expression. Differential expression of 1,680, 4,018, 3,724, and 3,036 circRNAs, and 400, 1,176, 373, and 573 mRNAs was observed in the 1, 6 and 12 h, and 3-day groups, respectively, compared with the sham group (fold change >2.0 or <-2.0, P<0.05). Functional enrichment analysis indicated that differentially expressed mRNAs were associated with the following terms: Immune response, cell activation, blood stasis facilitated organelle, extracellular membrane-bounded organelle, and blood microparticle, oxygen transporter activity. STEM analysis indicated that the expression of 366 circRNAs in circRNA profile 45 and 270 mRNAs in mRNA profile 45 was consistent with thrombus progression. Enrichment analysis was performed on mRNA profile 45. The main Gene Ontology annotations were chromosome segregation, mitotic sister chromatid segregation, cell cycle process, and ligand-dependent nuclear receptor transcription coactivator activity. Pathway enrichment analysis identified the platelet-associated pathway, immune-associated pathway, and inflammation-relation pathway. According to the enriched platelet-associated pathways, four mRNAs and ten candidate circRNAs were selected for reverse transcription-quantitative PCR verification. The expression of nine of the ten circRNAs and all four mRNAs was consistent with the sequencing results. In summary, differentially expressed circRNAs and mRNAs are dynamically involved in DVT development. Dysregulated transcriptome profiles and the corresponding functions and pathways may provide mechanistic insights into DVT diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baolan Sun
- Department of Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Xi Cheng
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Mu Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Qin Shi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Xinxin Zhao
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Xudong Wang
- Department of Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Yuquan Zhang
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
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6
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Stump AL, Rioux DJ, Albright R, Melki GL, Prosser DC. Yeast Models of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Type 8 Mimic Phenotypes Seen in Mammalian Cells Expressing Mutant VAPB P56S. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1147. [PMID: 37509182 PMCID: PMC10377116 DOI: 10.3390/biom13071147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a complex neurodegenerative disease that results in the loss of motor neurons and can occur sporadically or due to genetic mutations. Among the 30 genes linked to familial ALS, a P56S mutation in VAPB, an ER-resident protein that functions at membrane contact sites, causes ALS type 8. Mammalian cells expressing VAPBP56S have distinctive phenotypes, including ER collapse, protein and/or membrane-containing inclusions, and sensitivity to ER stress. VAPB is conserved through evolution and has two homologs in budding yeast, SCS2 and SCS22. Previously, a humanized version of SCS2 bearing disease-linked mutations was described, and it caused Scs2-containing inclusions when overexpressed in yeast. Here, we describe a yeast model for ALS8 in which the two SCS genes are deleted and replaced with a single chromosomal copy of either wild-type or mutant yeast SCS2 or human VAPB expressed from the SCS2 promoter. These cells display ER collapse, the formation of inclusion-like structures, and sensitivity to tunicamycin, an ER stress-inducing drug. Based on the phenotypic similarity to mammalian cells expressing VAPBP56S, we propose that these models can be used to study the molecular basis of cell death or dysfunction in ALS8. Moreover, other conserved ALS-linked genes may create opportunities for the generation of yeast models of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- AnnaMari L. Stump
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
- VCU Life Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - Daniel J. Rioux
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
- VCU Life Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - Richard Albright
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - Guiliano L. Melki
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - Derek C. Prosser
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
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7
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Fu G, Yan S, Khoo CJ, Chao VC, Liu Z, Mukhi M, Hervas R, Li XD, Ti SC. Integrated regulation of tubulin tyrosination and microtubule stability by human α-tubulin isotypes. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112653. [PMID: 37379209 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Tubulin isotypes are critical for the functions of cellular microtubules, which exhibit different stability and harbor various post-translational modifications. However, how tubulin isotypes determine the activities of regulators for microtubule stability and modifications remains unknown. Here, we show that human α4A-tubulin, a conserved genetically detyrosinated α-tubulin isotype, is a poor substrate for enzymatic tyrosination. To examine the stability of microtubules reconstituted with defined tubulin compositions, we develop a strategy to site-specifically label recombinant human tubulin for single-molecule TIRF microscopy-based in vitro assays. The incorporation of α4A-tubulin into the microtubule lattice stabilizes the polymers from passive and MCAK-stimulated depolymerization. Further characterization reveals that the compositions of α-tubulin isotypes and tyrosination/detyrosination states allow graded control for the microtubule binding and the depolymerization activities of MCAK. Together, our results uncover the tubulin isotype-dependent enzyme activity for an integrated regulation of α-tubulin tyrosination/detyrosination states and microtubule stability, two well-correlated features of cellular microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoling Fu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shan Yan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Chen Jing Khoo
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Victor C Chao
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Mayur Mukhi
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Rubén Hervas
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Xiang David Li
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shih-Chieh Ti
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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8
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Diao L, Liu M, Liu Y, Zhang X, Bao L. Microtubules composed of α4A undergo curved growth mainly mediated by its core structure. J Mol Cell Biol 2023; 15:mjad004. [PMID: 36694953 PMCID: PMC10294638 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjad004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Diao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Mingyi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yanling Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- Guangdong Institute of Intelligence Science and Technology, Hengqin, Zhuhai 519031, China
| | - Lan Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- Guangdong Institute of Intelligence Science and Technology, Hengqin, Zhuhai 519031, China
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9
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Tantry MSA, Santhakumar K. Insights on the Role of α- and β-Tubulin Isotypes in Early Brain Development. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3803-3823. [PMID: 36943622 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03302-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Tubulins are the highly conserved subunit of microtubules which involve in various fundamental functions including brain development. Microtubules help in neuronal proliferation, migration, differentiation, cargo transport along the axons, synapse formation, and many more. Tubulin gene family consisting of multiple isotypes, their differential expression and varied post translational modifications create a whole new level of complexity and diversity in accomplishing manifold neuronal functions. The studies on the relation between tubulin genes and brain development opened a new avenue to understand the role of each tubulin isotype in neurodevelopment. Mutations in tubulin genes are reported to cause brain development defects especially cortical malformations, referred as tubulinopathies. There is an increased need to understand the molecular correlation between various tubulin mutations and the associated brain pathology. Recently, mutations in tubulin isotypes (TUBA1A, TUBB, TUBB1, TUBB2A, TUBB2B, TUBB3, and TUBG1) have been linked to cause various neurodevelopmental defects like lissencephaly, microcephaly, cortical dysplasia, polymicrogyria, schizencephaly, subcortical band heterotopia, periventricular heterotopia, corpus callosum agenesis, and cerebellar hypoplasia. This review summarizes on the microtubule dynamics, their role in neurodevelopment, tubulin isotypes, post translational modifications, and the role of tubulin mutations in causing specific neurodevelopmental defects. A comprehensive list containing all the reported tubulin pathogenic variants associated with brain developmental defects has been prepared to give a bird's eye view on the broad range of tubulin functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Ananthakrishna Tantry
- Department of Genetic Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, 603203, India
| | - Kirankumar Santhakumar
- Department of Genetic Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, 603203, India.
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10
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Cushion TD, Leca I, Keays DA. MAPping tubulin mutations. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1136699. [PMID: 36875768 PMCID: PMC9975266 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1136699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubules are filamentous structures that play a critical role in a diverse array of cellular functions including, mitosis, nuclear translocation, trafficking of organelles and cell shape. They are composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers which are encoded by a large multigene family that has been implicated in an umbrella of disease states collectively known as the tubulinopathies. De novo mutations in different tubulin genes are known to cause lissencephaly, microcephaly, polymicrogyria, motor neuron disease, and female infertility. The diverse clinical features associated with these maladies have been attributed to the expression pattern of individual tubulin genes, as well as their distinct Functional repertoire. Recent studies, however, have highlighted the impact of tubulin mutations on microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). MAPs can be classified according to their effect on microtubules and include polymer stabilizers (e.g., tau, MAP2, doublecortin), destabilizers (e.g., spastin, katanin), plus-end binding proteins (e.g., EB1-3, XMAP215, CLASPs) and motor proteins (e.g., dyneins, kinesins). In this review we analyse mutation-specific disease mechanisms that influence MAP binding and their phenotypic consequences, and discuss methods by which we can exploit genetic variation to identify novel MAPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Cushion
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
| | - Ines Leca
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
| | - David A Keays
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria.,Division of Neurobiology, Department Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
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11
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Wu Y, Clark KC, Nguyen EV, Niranjan B, Horvath LG, Taylor RA, Daly RJ. Proteomic characterisation of prostate cancer intercellular communication reveals cell type-selective signalling and TMSB4X-dependent fibroblast reprogramming. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2022; 45:1311-1328. [PMID: 36169805 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-022-00719-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In prostate cancer, the tumour microenvironment (TME) represents an important regulator of disease progression and response to treatment. In the TME, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a key role in tumour progression, however the mechanisms underpinning fibroblast-cancer cell interactions are incompletely resolved. Here, we address this by applying cell type-specific labelling with amino acid precursors (CTAP) and mass spectrometry (MS)-based (phospho)proteomics to prostate cancer for the first time. METHODS Reciprocal interactions between PC3 prostate cancer cells co-cultured with WPMY-1 prostatic fibroblasts were characterised using CTAP-MS. Signalling network changes were determined using Metascape and Enrichr and visualised using Cytoscape. Thymosin β4 (TMSB4X) overexpression was achieved via retroviral transduction and assayed by ELISA. Cell motility was determined using Transwell and random cell migration assays and expression of CAF markers by indirect immunofluorescence. RESULTS WPMY-1 cells co-cultured with PC3s demonstrated a CAF-like phenotype, characterised by enhanced PDGFRB expression and alterations in signalling pathways regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cytoskeletal organisation and cell polarisation. In contrast, co-cultured PC3 cells exhibited more modest network changes, with alterations in mTORC1 signalling and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. The expression of the actin binding protein TMSB4X was significantly decreased in co-cultured WPMY-1 fibroblasts, and overexpression of TMSB4X in fibroblasts decreased migration of co-cultured PC3 cells, reduced fibroblast motility, and protected the fibroblasts from being educated to a CAF-like phenotype by prostate cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the potential of CTAP-MS to characterise intercellular communication within the prostate TME and identify regulators of cellular crosstalk such as TMSB4X.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjian Wu
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Kimberley C Clark
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Elizabeth V Nguyen
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Birunthi Niranjan
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Lisa G Horvath
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia
- University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Camperdown, NSW, 2050, Australia
| | - Renea A Taylor
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Roger J Daly
- Cancer Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
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Kimmerlin Q, Moog S, Yakusheva A, Ziessel C, Eckly A, Freund M, Závodszky G, Knapp Y, Mangin P, Lanza F. Loss of α4A- and β1-tubulins leads to severe platelet spherocytosis and strongly impairs hemostasis in mice. Blood 2022; 140:2290-9. [PMID: 36026602 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2022016729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Native circulating blood platelets present with a discoid flat morphology maintained by a submembranous peripheral ring of microtubules, named marginal band. The functional importance of this particular shape is still debated, but it was initially hypothesized to facilitate platelet interaction with the injured vessel wall and to contribute to hemostasis. The importance of the platelet discoid morphology has since been questioned on the absence of clear bleeding tendency in mice lacking the platelet-specific β1-tubulin isotype, which exhibits platelets with a thinner marginal band and an ovoid shape. Here, we generated a mouse model inactivated for β1-tubulin and α4A-tubulin, an α-tubulin isotype strongly enriched in platelets. These mice present with fully spherical platelets completely devoid of a marginal band. In contrast to the single knockouts, the double deletion resulted in a severe bleeding defect in a tail-clipping assay, which was not corrected by increasing the platelet count to normal values by the thrombopoietin-analog romiplostim. In vivo, thrombus formation was almost abolished in a ferric chloride-injury model, with only a thin layer of loosely packed platelets, and mice were protected against death in a model of thromboembolism. In vitro, platelets adhered less efficiently and formed smaller-sized and loosely assembled aggregates when perfused over von Willebrand factor and collagen matrices. In conclusion, this study shows that blood platelets require 2 unique α- and β-tubulin isotypes to acquire their characteristic discoid morphology. Lack of these 2 isotypes has a deleterious effect on flow-dependent aggregate formation and stability, leading to a severe bleeding disorder.
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Abstract
Platelets (small, anucleate cell fragments) derive from large precursor cells, megakaryocytes (MKs), that reside in the bone marrow. MKs emerge from hematopoietic stem cells in a complex differentiation process that involves cytoplasmic maturation, including the formation of the demarcation membrane system, and polyploidization. The main function of MKs is the generation of platelets, which predominantly occurs through the release of long, microtubule-rich proplatelets into vessel sinusoids. However, the idea of a 1-dimensional role of MKs as platelet precursors is currently being questioned because of advances in high-resolution microscopy and single-cell omics. On the one hand, recent findings suggest that proplatelet formation from bone marrow-derived MKs is not the only mechanism of platelet production, but that it may also occur through budding of the plasma membrane and in distant organs such as lung or liver. On the other hand, novel evidence suggests that MKs not only maintain physiological platelet levels but further contribute to bone marrow homeostasis through the release of extracellular vesicles or cytokines, such as transforming growth factor β1 or platelet factor 4. The notion of multitasking MKs was reinforced in recent studies by using single-cell RNA sequencing approaches on MKs derived from adult and fetal bone marrow and lungs, leading to the identification of different MK subsets that appeared to exhibit immunomodulatory or secretory roles. In the following article, novel insights into the mechanisms leading to proplatelet formation in vitro and in vivo will be reviewed and the hypothesis of MKs as immunoregulatory cells will be critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Tilburg
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
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Abstract
The microtubule cytoskeleton is assembled from the α- and β-tubulin subunits of the canonical tubulin heterodimer, which polymerizes into microtubules, and a small number of other family members, such as γ-tubulin, with specialized functions. Overall, microtubule function involves the collective action of multiple α- and β-tubulin isotypes. However, despite 40 years of awareness that most eukaryotes harbor multiple tubulin isotypes, their role in the microtubule cytoskeleton has remained relatively unclear. Various model organisms offer specific advantages for gaining insight into the role of tubulin isotypes. Whereas simple unicellular organisms such as yeast provide experimental tractability that can facilitate deeper access to mechanistic details, more complex organisms, such as the fruit fly, nematode and mouse, can be used to discern potential specialized functions of tissue- and structure-specific isotypes. Here, we review the role of α- and β-tubulin isotypes in microtubule function and in associated tubulinopathies with an emphasis on the advances gained using model organisms. Overall, we argue that studying tubulin isotypes in a range of organisms can reveal the fundamental mechanisms by which they mediate microtubule function. It will also provide valuable perspectives on how these mechanisms underlie the functional and biological diversity of the cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel T Nsamba
- Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Mohan L Gupta
- Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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Kimmerlin Q, Strassel C, Eckly A, Lanza F. The tubulin code in platelet biogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 137:63-73. [PMID: 35148939 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Blood platelets are small non-nucleated cellular fragments that prevent and stop hemorrhages. They are produced in the bone marrow by megakaryocytes through megakaryopoiesis. This intricate process involves profound microtubule rearrangements culminating in the formation of a unique circular sub-membranous microtubule array, the marginal band, which supports the typical disc-shaped morphology of platelets. Mechanistically, these processes are thought to be controlled by a specific tubulin code. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the key isotypes, notably β1-, α4A- and α8-tubulin, and putative post-translational modifications, involved in platelet and marginal band formation. Additionally, we provide a provisional list of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) involved in these processes and a survey of tubulin variants identified in patients presenting defective platelet production. A comprehensive characterization of the platelet tubulin code and the identification of essential MAPs may be expected in the near future to shed new light on a very specialized microtubule assembly process with applications in platelet diseases and transfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Kimmerlin
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand-Est, BPPS UMR-S1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Catherine Strassel
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand-Est, BPPS UMR-S1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Anita Eckly
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand-Est, BPPS UMR-S1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France.
| | - François Lanza
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand-Est, BPPS UMR-S1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France.
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16
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Kimmerlin Q, Dupuis A, Bodakuntla S, Weber C, Heim V, Henriot V, Moog S, Eckly A, Guéguen P, Ferec C, Gachet C, Janke C, Lanza F. Mutations in the most divergent α-tubulin isotype, α8-tubulin, cause defective platelet biogenesis. J Thromb Haemost 2022; 20:461-469. [PMID: 34704371 DOI: 10.1111/jth.15573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the panel of genes commonly associated with inherited macrothrombocytopenia, an important fraction encodes key cytoskeletal proteins such as tubulin isotypes, the building blocks of microtubules. Macrothrombocytopenia-causing mutations have been identified in the TUBB1 and TUBA4A genes, emphasizing their importance in the formation of platelets and their marginal band, a unique microtubule ring-like structure that supports the platelet typical disc-shaped morphology. This raised the hypothesis that other tubulin isotypes normally expressed in platelets could play a similar role in their formation. OBJECTIVES To assess whether tubulin isotype genes other than TUBA4A and TUBB1 could be implicated in inherited macrothrombocytopenia. METHODS We used high throughput sequencing to screen a cohort of 448 French blood donors with mild thrombocytopenia for mutations in a panel of selected genes known or suspected to be involved in platelet biogenesis. RESULTS We identified six distinct novel mutations in TUBA8, which encodes the most-divergent α-tubulin, as the causative determinant of macrothrombocytopenia and platelet marginal band defects. Functionally, all TUBA8 mutations were found to fully or partially inhibit the incorporation of the mutated α8-tubulin in the microtubule network. CONCLUSION This study provides strong support for a key role of multiple tubulin genes in platelet biogenesis by discovering variants in a tubulin gene that was previously not known to be important for platelets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Kimmerlin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Arnaud Dupuis
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Satish Bodakuntla
- Institut Curie, CNRS UMR3348, Paris-Sciences-et-Lettres Research University, Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3348, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
- Laboratory of Structural Cell Biology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Claire Weber
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Véronique Heim
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Véronique Henriot
- Institut Curie, CNRS UMR3348, Paris-Sciences-et-Lettres Research University, Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3348, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Sylvie Moog
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Anita Eckly
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Paul Guéguen
- Laboratoire de génétique moléculaire et d'histocompatibilité, Centre Hospitalier Régional et Universitaire Morvan, INSERM U1078, EFS Bretagne, Brest, France
| | - Claude Ferec
- Laboratoire de génétique moléculaire et d'histocompatibilité, Centre Hospitalier Régional et Universitaire Morvan, INSERM U1078, EFS Bretagne, Brest, France
| | - Christian Gachet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Carsten Janke
- Institut Curie, CNRS UMR3348, Paris-Sciences-et-Lettres Research University, Orsay, France
- CNRS UMR3348, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - François Lanza
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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Octave M, Pirotton L, Ginion A, Robaux V, Lepropre S, Ambroise J, Bouzin C, Guigas B, Giera M, Foretz M, Bertrand L, Beauloye C, Horman S. Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase Inhibitor CP640.186 Increases Tubulin Acetylation and Impairs Thrombin-Induced Platelet Aggregation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222313129. [PMID: 34884932 PMCID: PMC8658010 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) is the first enzyme regulating de novo lipid synthesis via the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA. The inhibition of its activity decreases lipogenesis and, in parallel, increases the acetyl-CoA content, which serves as a substrate for protein acetylation. Several findings support a role for acetylation signaling in coordinating signaling systems that drive platelet cytoskeletal changes and aggregation. Therefore, we investigated the impact of ACC inhibition on tubulin acetylation and platelet functions. Human platelets were incubated 2 h with CP640.186, a pharmacological ACC inhibitor, prior to thrombin stimulation. We have herein demonstrated that CP640.186 treatment does not affect overall platelet lipid content, yet it is associated with increased tubulin acetylation levels, both at the basal state and after thrombin stimulation. This resulted in impaired platelet aggregation. Similar results were obtained using human platelets that were pretreated with tubacin, an inhibitor of tubulin deacetylase HDAC6. In addition, both ACC and HDAC6 inhibitions block key platelet cytoskeleton signaling events, including Rac1 GTPase activation and the phosphorylation of its downstream effector, p21-activated kinase 2 (PAK2). However, neither CP640.186 nor tubacin affects thrombin-induced actin cytoskeleton remodeling, while ACC inhibition results in decreased thrombin-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation. We conclude that when using washed human platelets, ACC inhibition limits tubulin deacetylation upon thrombin stimulation, which in turn impairs platelet aggregation. The mechanism involves a downregulation of the Rac1/PAK2 pathway, being independent of actin cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Octave
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Laurence Pirotton
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Audrey Ginion
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Valentine Robaux
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Sophie Lepropre
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Jérôme Ambroise
- Centre de Technologies Moléculaires Appliquées, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Caroline Bouzin
- IREC Imaging Platform, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Bruno Guigas
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Martin Giera
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Marc Foretz
- CNRS, INSERM, Institut Cochin, Université de Paris, F-75014 Paris, France;
| | - Luc Bertrand
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
| | - Christophe Beauloye
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
- Division of Cardiology, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sandrine Horman
- Pôle de Recherche Cardiovasculaire (CARD), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium; (M.O.); (L.P.); (A.G.); (V.R.); (S.L.); (L.B.); (C.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32-2-764-55-66
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Daimon E, Shibukawa Y, Thanasegaran S, Yamazaki N, Okamoto N. Macrothrombocytopenia of Takenouchi-Kosaki syndrome is ameliorated by CDC42 specific- and lipidation inhibitors in MEG-01 cells. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17990. [PMID: 34504210 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97478-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrothrombocytopenia is a common pathology of missense mutations in genes regulating actin dynamics. Takenouchi-Kosaki syndrome (TKS) harboring the c.191A > G, Tyr64Cys (Y64C) variant in Cdc42 exhibits a variety of clinical manifestations, including immunological and hematological anomalies. In the present study, we investigated the functional abnormalities of the Y64C mutant in HEK293 cells and elucidated the mechanism of macrothrombocytopenia, one of the symptoms of TKS patients, by monitoring the production of platelet-like particles (PLP) using MEG-01 cells. We found that the Y64C mutant was concentrated at the membrane compartment due to impaired binding to Rho-GDI and more active than the wild-type. The Y64C mutant also had lower association with its effectors Pak1/2 and N-WASP. Y64C mutant-expressing MEG-01 cells demonstrated short cytoplasmic protrusions with aberrant F-actin and microtubules, and reduced PLP production. This suggested that the Y64C mutant facilitates its activity and membrane localization, resulting in impaired F-actin dynamics for proplatelet extension, which is necessary for platelet production. Furthermore, such dysfunction was ameliorated by either suppression of Cdc42 activity or prenylation using chemical inhibitors. Our study may lead to pharmacological treatments for TKS patients.
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Requena S, Sánchez-Madrid F, Martín-Cófreces NB. Post-translational modifications and stabilization of microtubules regulate transport of viral factors during infections. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:1735-48. [PMID: 34436545 DOI: 10.1042/BST20210017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs) constitute a source of diversity for microtubule (MT) functions, in addition to the different isotypes of α and β-tubulin acting as building blocks of MTs. Also, MT-associated proteins (MAPs) confer different characteristics to MTs. The combination of all these factors regulates the stability of these structures that act as rails to transport organelles within the cell, facilitating the association of motor complexes. All these functions are involved in crucial cellular processes in most cell types, ranging from spindle formation in mitosis to the defense against incoming cellular threats during phagocytosis mediated by immune cells. The regulation of MT dynamics through tubulin PTMs has evolved to depend on many different factors that act in a complex orchestrated manner. These tightly regulated processes are particularly relevant during the induction of effective immune responses against pathogens. Viruses have proved not only to hijack MTs and MAPs in order to favor an efficient infection, but also to induce certain PTMs that improve their cellular spread and lead to secondary consequences of viral processes. In this review, we offer a perspective on relevant MT-related elements exploited by viruses.
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Chen J, Kholina E, Szyk A, Fedorov VA, Kovalenko I, Gudimchuk N, Roll-Mecak A. α-tubulin tail modifications regulate microtubule stability through selective effector recruitment, not changes in intrinsic polymer dynamics. Dev Cell 2021; 56:2016-2028.e4. [PMID: 34022132 PMCID: PMC8476856 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Microtubules are non-covalent polymers of αβ-tubulin dimers. Posttranslational processing of the intrinsically disordered C-terminal α-tubulin tail produces detyrosinated and Δ2-tubulin. Although these are widely employed as proxies for stable cellular microtubules, their effect (and of the α-tail) on microtubule dynamics remains uncharacterized. Using recombinant, engineered human tubulins, we now find that neither detyrosinated nor Δ2-tubulin affect microtubule dynamics, while the α-tubulin tail is an inhibitor of microtubule growth. Consistent with the latter, molecular dynamics simulations show the α-tubulin tail transiently occluding the longitudinal microtubule polymerization interface. The marked differential in vivo stabilities of the modified microtubule subpopulations, therefore, must result exclusively from selective effector recruitment. We find that tyrosination quantitatively tunes CLIP-170 density at the growing plus end and that CLIP170 and EB1 synergize to selectively upregulate the dynamicity of tyrosinated microtubules. Modification-dependent recruitment of regulators thereby results in microtubule subpopulations with distinct dynamics, a tenet of the tubulin code hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Chen
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ekaterina Kholina
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Agnieszka Szyk
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Vladimir A Fedorov
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya Kovalenko
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan 414056, Russia; Sechenov University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Nikita Gudimchuk
- Department of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Dmitry Rogachev National Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Immunology, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Antonina Roll-Mecak
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Mbiandjeu S, Balduini A, Malara A. Megakaryocyte Cytoskeletal Proteins in Platelet Biogenesis and Diseases. Thromb Haemost 2021; 122:666-678. [PMID: 34218430 DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1731717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Thrombopoiesis governs the formation of blood platelets in bone marrow by converting megakaryocytes into long, branched proplatelets on which individual platelets are assembled. The megakaryocyte cytoskeleton responds to multiple microenvironmental cues, including chemical and mechanical stimuli, sustaining the platelet shedding. During the megakaryocyte's life cycle, cytoskeletal networks organize cell shape and content, connect them physically and biochemically to the bone marrow vascular niche, and enable the release of platelets into the bloodstream. While the basic building blocks of the cytoskeleton have been studied extensively, new sets of cytoskeleton regulators have emerged as critical components of the dynamic protein network that supports platelet production. Understanding how the interaction of individual molecules of the cytoskeleton governs megakaryocyte behavior is essential to improve knowledge of platelet biogenesis and develop new therapeutic strategies for inherited thrombocytopenias caused by alterations in the cytoskeletal genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Mbiandjeu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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22
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Nishida K, Tsuchiya K, Obinata H, Onodera S, Honda Y, Lai YC, Haruta N, Sugimoto A. Expression Patterns and Levels of All Tubulin Isotypes Analyzed in GFP Knock-In C. elegans Strains. Cell Struct Funct 2021; 46:51-64. [PMID: 33967119 PMCID: PMC10511039 DOI: 10.1247/csf.21022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Most organisms have multiple α- and β-tubulin isotypes that likely contribute to the diversity of microtubule (MT) functions. To understand the functional differences of tubulin isotypes in Caenorhabditis elegans, which has nine α-tubulin isotypes and six β-tubulin isotypes, we systematically constructed null mutants and GFP-fusion strains for all tubulin isotypes with the CRISPR/Cas9 system and analyzed their expression patterns and levels in adult hermaphrodites. Four isotypes-α-tubulins TBA-1 and TBA-2 and β-tubulins TBB-1 and TBB-2-were expressed in virtually all tissues, with a distinct tissue-specific spectrum. Other isotypes were expressed in specific tissues or cell types at significantly lower levels than the broadly expressed isotypes. Four isotypes (TBA-5, TBA-6, TBA-9, and TBB-4) were expressed in different subsets of ciliated sensory neurons, and TBB-4 was inefficiently incorporated into mitotic spindle MTs. Taken together, we propose that MTs in C. elegans are mainly composed of four broadly expressed tubulin isotypes and that incorporation of a small amount of tissue-specific isotypes may contribute to tissue-specific MT properties. These newly constructed strains will be useful for further elucidating the distinct roles of tubulin isotypes.Key words: tubulin isotypes, microtubules, C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Nishida
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Kenta Tsuchiya
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Obinata
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Shizuka Onodera
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Yu Honda
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Yen-Cheng Lai
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Nami Haruta
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Asako Sugimoto
- Laboratory of Developmental Dynamics, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
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Heib T, Hermanns HM, Manukjan G, Englert M, Kusch C, Becker IC, Gerber A, Wackerbarth LM, Burkard P, Dandekar T, Balkenhol J, Jahn D, Beck S, Meub M, Dütting S, Stigloher C, Sauer M, Cherpokova D, Schulze H, Brakebusch C, Nieswandt B, Nagy Z, Pleines I. RhoA/Cdc42 signaling drives cytoplasmic maturation but not endomitosis in megakaryocytes. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109102. [PMID: 33979620 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Megakaryocytes (MKs), the precursors of blood platelets, are large, polyploid cells residing mainly in the bone marrow. We have previously shown that balanced signaling of the Rho GTPases RhoA and Cdc42 is critical for correct MK localization at bone marrow sinusoids in vivo. Using conditional RhoA/Cdc42 double-knockout (DKO) mice, we reveal here that RhoA/Cdc42 signaling is dispensable for the process of polyploidization in MKs but essential for cytoplasmic MK maturation. Proplatelet formation is virtually abrogated in the absence of RhoA/Cdc42 and leads to severe macrothrombocytopenia in DKO animals. The MK maturation defect is associated with downregulation of myosin light chain 2 (MLC2) and β1-tubulin, as well as an upregulation of LIM kinase 1 and cofilin-1 at both the mRNA and protein level and can be linked to impaired MKL1/SRF signaling. Our findings demonstrate that MK endomitosis and cytoplasmic maturation are separately regulated processes, and the latter is critically controlled by RhoA/Cdc42.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Heib
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Heike M Hermanns
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Hepatology Research Laboratory, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Georgi Manukjan
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Englert
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Charly Kusch
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Isabelle Carlotta Becker
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Annika Gerber
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lou Martha Wackerbarth
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Burkard
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Dandekar
- Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Balkenhol
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Hepatology Research Laboratory, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Jahn
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Hepatology Research Laboratory, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Beck
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mara Meub
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dütting
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Stigloher
- Imaging Core Facility, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Sauer
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Deya Cherpokova
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Harald Schulze
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Cord Brakebusch
- Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bernhard Nieswandt
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Zoltan Nagy
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Irina Pleines
- Institute of Experimental Biomedicine, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; Rudolf Virchow Center, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.
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Bornert A, Boscher J, Pertuy F, Eckly A, Stegner D, Strassel C, Gachet C, Lanza F, Léon C. Cytoskeletal-based mechanisms differently regulate in vivo and in vitro proplatelet formation. Haematologica 2021; 106:1368-1380. [PMID: 32327502 PMCID: PMC8094084 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2019.239111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelets are produced by bone marrow megakaryocytes through cytoplasmic protrusions, named native proplatelets (nPPT), into blood vessels. Proplatelets also refer to protrusions observed in megakaryocyte culture (cultured proplatelets [cPPT]) which are morphologically different. Contrary to cPPT, the mechanisms of nPPT formation are poorly understood. We show here in living mice that nPPT elongation is in equilibrium between protrusion and retraction forces mediated by myosin-IIA. We also found, using wild-type and b1-tubulin-deficient mice, that microtubule behavior differs between cPPT and nPPT, being absolutely required in vitro, while less critical in vivo. Remarkably, microtubule depolymerization in myosin-deficient mice did not affect nPPT elongation. We then calculated that blood Stokes’ forces may be sufficient to promote nPPT extension, independently of myosin and microtubules. Together, we propose a new mechanism for nPPT extension that might explain contradictions between severely affected cPPT production and moderate platelet count defects in some patients and animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Bornert
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Julie Boscher
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Fabien Pertuy
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Anita Eckly
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - David Stegner
- University Hospital Würzburg and Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, Germany
| | - Catherine Strassel
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Christian Gachet
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - François Lanza
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Catherine Léon
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, FMTS, Strasbourg, France
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25
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Bernusso VA, Vieira KP, Duarte ASS, Lescano CH, Mónica FZ, Vicente CP, De Paula EV, Saad STO, Lazarini M. Deficiency of ARHGAP21 alters megakaryocytic cell lineage responses and enhances platelet hemostatic function. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res 2021; 1868:119012. [PMID: 33727037 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2021.119012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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26
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Potts KS, Farley A, Dawson CA, Rimes J, Biben C, de Graaf C, Potts MA, Stonehouse OJ, Carmagnac A, Gangatirkar P, Josefsson EC, Anttila C, Amann-Zalcenstein D, Naik S, Alexander WS, Hilton DJ, Hawkins ED, Taoudi S. Membrane budding is a major mechanism of in vivo platelet biogenesis. J Exp Med 2021; 217:151972. [PMID: 32706855 PMCID: PMC7478734 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20191206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
How platelets are produced by megakaryocytes in vivo remains controversial despite more than a century of investigation. Megakaryocytes readily produce proplatelet structures in vitro; however, visualization of platelet release from proplatelets in vivo has remained elusive. We show that within the native prenatal and adult environments, the frequency and rate of proplatelet formation is incompatible with the physiological demands of platelet replacement. We resolve this inconsistency by performing in-depth analysis of plasma membrane budding, a cellular process that has previously been dismissed as a source of platelet production. Our studies demonstrate that membrane budding results in the sustained release of platelets directly into the peripheral circulation during both fetal and adult life without induction of cell death or proplatelet formation. In support of this model, we demonstrate that in mice deficient for NF-E2 (the thrombopoietic master regulator), the absence of membrane budding correlates with failure of in vivo platelet production. Accordingly, we propose that membrane budding, rather than proplatelet formation, supplies the majority of the platelet biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn S Potts
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alison Farley
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Caleb A Dawson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Joel Rimes
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Christine Biben
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Carolyn de Graaf
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Margaret A Potts
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Olivia J Stonehouse
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amandine Carmagnac
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Pradnya Gangatirkar
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emma C Josefsson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Casey Anttila
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Daniela Amann-Zalcenstein
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Shalin Naik
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Warren S Alexander
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Douglas J Hilton
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Edwin D Hawkins
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Samir Taoudi
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
The main function of blood platelets is to ensure hemostasis and prevent hemorrhages. The 1011 platelets needed daily are produced in a well-orchestrated process. However, this process is not yet fully understood and in vitro platelet production is still inefficient. Platelets are produced in the bone marrow by megakaryocytes, highly specialized precursor cells that extend cytoplasmic projections called proplatelets (PPTs) through the endothelial barrier of sinusoid vessels. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster we discuss the mechanisms and pathways involved in megakaryopoiesis and platelet formation processes. We especially address the – still underestimated – role of the microenvironment of the bone marrow, and present recent findings on how PPT extension in vivo differs from that in vitro and entails different mechanisms. Finally, we recapitulate old but recently revisited evidence that – although bone marrow does produce megakaryocytes and PPTs – remodeling and the release of bona fide platelets, mainly occur in the downstream microcirculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Boscher
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Ines Guinard
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Anita Eckly
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - François Lanza
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Catherine Léon
- Université de Strasbourg, INSERM, EFS Grand Est, BPPS UMR-S 1255, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
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28
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Moutin MJ, Bosc C, Peris L, Andrieux A. Tubulin post-translational modifications control neuronal development and functions. Dev Neurobiol 2020; 81:253-272. [PMID: 33325152 PMCID: PMC8246997 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Microtubules (MTs) are an essential component of the neuronal cytoskeleton; they are involved in various aspects of neuron development, maintenance, and functions including polarization, synaptic plasticity, and transport. Neuronal MTs are highly heterogeneous due to the presence of multiple tubulin isotypes and extensive post‐translational modifications (PTMs). These PTMs—most notably detyrosination, acetylation, and polyglutamylation—have emerged as important regulators of the neuronal microtubule cytoskeleton. With this review, we summarize what is currently known about the impact of tubulin PTMs on microtubule dynamics, neuronal differentiation, plasticity, and transport as well as on brain function in normal and pathological conditions, in particular during neuro‐degeneration. The main therapeutic approaches to neuro‐diseases based on the modulation of tubulin PTMs are also summarized. Overall, the review indicates how tubulin PTMs can generate a large number of functionally specialized microtubule sub‐networks, each of which is crucial to specific neuronal features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Jo Moutin
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Christophe Bosc
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Leticia Peris
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Annie Andrieux
- Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, University Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble, France
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Borys F, Joachimiak E, Krawczyk H, Fabczak H. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Microtubule Dynamics in Normal and Cancer Cells. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25163705. [PMID: 32823874 PMCID: PMC7464520 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25163705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules (MTs), highly dynamic structures composed of α- and β-tubulin heterodimers, are involved in cell movement and intracellular traffic and are essential for cell division. Within the cell, MTs are not uniform as they can be composed of different tubulin isotypes that are post-translationally modified and interact with different microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). These diverse intrinsic factors influence the dynamics of MTs. Extrinsic factors such as microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) can also affect MT dynamics. MTAs can be divided into two main categories: microtubule-stabilizing agents (MSAs) and microtubule-destabilizing agents (MDAs). Thus, the MT skeleton is an important target for anticancer therapy. This review discusses factors that determine the microtubule dynamics in normal and cancer cells and describes microtubule–MTA interactions, highlighting the importance of tubulin isoform diversity and post-translational modifications in MTA responses and the consequences of such a phenomenon, including drug resistance development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Borys
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland;
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, 3 Noakowskiego Street, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Ewa Joachimiak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: (E.J.); (H.F.)
| | - Hanna Krawczyk
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, 3 Noakowskiego Street, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Hanna Fabczak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia Biology Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: (E.J.); (H.F.)
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Guéguen P, Dupuis A, Py JY, Desprès A, Masson E, Le Marechal C, Cooper DN, Gachet C, Chen JM, Férec C. Pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants in at least five genes account for approximately 3% of mild isolated nonsyndromic thrombocytopenia. Transfusion 2020; 60:2419-2431. [PMID: 32757236 DOI: 10.1111/trf.15992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thrombocytopenia has a variety of different etiologies, both acquired and hereditary. Inherited thrombocytopenia may be associated with other symptoms (syndromic forms) or may be strictly isolated. To date, only about half of all the familial forms of thrombocytopenia have been accounted for in terms of well-defined genetic abnormalities. However, data are limited on the nature and frequency of the underlying causative genetic variants in individuals with mild isolated nonsyndromic thrombocytopenia. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Thirteen known or candidate genes for isolated thrombocytopenia were included in a gene panel analysis in which targeted next-generation sequencing was performed on 448 French blood donors with mild isolated nonsyndromic thrombocytopenia. RESULTS A total of 68 rare variants, including missense, splice site, frameshift, nonsense, and in-frame variants (all heterozygous) were identified in 11 of the 13 genes screened. Twenty-nine percent (N = 20) of the variants detected were absent from both the French Exome Project and gnomAD exome databases. Using stringent criteria and an unbiased approach, we classified seven predicted loss-of-function variants (three in ITGA2B and four in TUBB1) and four missense variants (one in GP1BA, two in ITGB3 and one in ACTN1) as being pathogenic or likely pathogenic. Altogether, they were found in 13 members (approx. 3%) of our studied cohort. CONCLUSION We present the results of gene panel sequencing of known and candidate thrombocytopenia genes in mild isolated nonsyndromic thrombocytopenia. Pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants in five known thrombocytopenia genes were identified, accounting for approximately 3% of individuals with the condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Guéguen
- CHRU Brest, Brest, France.,EFS, Univ Brest, Inserm, UMR 1078, GGB, Brest, France
| | - Arnaud Dupuis
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Yves Py
- EFS Centre-Pays de la Loire, Site d'Orléans, Orléans, France
| | | | - Emmanuelle Masson
- CHRU Brest, Brest, France.,EFS, Univ Brest, Inserm, UMR 1078, GGB, Brest, France
| | - Cédric Le Marechal
- CHRU Brest, Brest, France.,EFS, Univ Brest, Inserm, UMR 1078, GGB, Brest, France
| | - David N Cooper
- Institute of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Christian Gachet
- Université de Strasbourg, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Etablissement Français du Sang Grand Est, Unité Mixte de Recherche-S 1255, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | | | - Claude Férec
- CHRU Brest, Brest, France.,EFS, Univ Brest, Inserm, UMR 1078, GGB, Brest, France
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Janke C, Magiera MM. The tubulin code and its role in controlling microtubule properties and functions. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2020; 21:307-26. [PMID: 32107477 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-020-0214-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 356] [Impact Index Per Article: 89.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are core components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton with essential roles in cell division, shaping, motility and intracellular transport. Despite their functional heterogeneity, microtubules have a highly conserved structure made from almost identical molecular building blocks: the tubulin proteins. Alternative tubulin isotypes and a variety of post-translational modifications control the properties and functions of the microtubule cytoskeleton, a concept known as the 'tubulin code'. Here we review the current understanding of the molecular components of the tubulin code and how they impact microtubule properties and functions. We discuss how tubulin isotypes and post-translational modifications control microtubule behaviour at the molecular level and how this translates into physiological functions at the cellular and organism levels. We then go on to show how fine-tuning of microtubule function by some tubulin modifications can affect homeostasis and how perturbation of this fine-tuning can lead to a range of dysfunctions, many of which are linked to human disease.
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Ghalloussi D, Dhenge A, Bergmeier W. New insights into cytoskeletal remodeling during platelet production. J Thromb Haemost 2019; 17:1430-1439. [PMID: 31220402 PMCID: PMC6760864 DOI: 10.1111/jth.14544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The past decade has brought unprecedented advances in our understanding of megakaryocyte (MK) biology and platelet production, processes that are strongly dependent on the cytoskeleton. Facilitated by technological innovations, such as new high-resolution imaging techniques (in vitro and in vivo) and lineage-specific gene knockout and reporter mouse strains, we are now able to visualize and characterize the molecular machinery required for MK development and proplatelet formation in live mice. Whole genome and RNA sequencing analysis of patients with rare platelet disorders, combined with targeted genetic interventions in mice, has led to the identification and characterization of numerous new genes important for MK development. Many of the genes important for proplatelet formation code for proteins that control cytoskeletal dynamics in cells, such as Rho GTPases and their downstream targets. In this review, we discuss how the final stages of MK development are controlled by the cellular cytoskeletons, and we compare changes in MK biology observed in patients and mice with mutations in cytoskeleton regulatory genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorsaf Ghalloussi
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Ankita Dhenge
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Wolfgang Bergmeier
- McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
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Cuenca-Zamora EJ, Ferrer-Marín F, Rivera J, Teruel-Montoya R. Tubulin in Platelets: When the Shape Matters. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E3484. [PMID: 31315202 PMCID: PMC6678703 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20143484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelets are anuclear cells with a short lifespan that play an essential role in many pathophysiological processes, including haemostasis, inflammation, infection, vascular integrity, and metastasis. Billions of platelets are produced daily from megakaryocytes (platelet precursors). Despite this high production, the number of circulating platelets is stable and, under resting conditions, they maintain their typical discoid shape thanks to cytoskeleton proteins. The activation of platelets is associated with dynamic and rapid changes in the cytoskeleton. Two cytoskeletal polymer systems exist in megakaryocytes and platelets: actin filaments and microtubules, based on actin, and α- and β-tubulin heterodimers, respectively. Herein, we will focus on platelet-specific tubulins and their alterations and role of the microtubules skeleton in platelet formation (thrombopoiesis). During this process, microtubules mediate elongation of the megakaryocyte extensions (proplatelet) and granule trafficking from megakaryocytes to nascent platelets. In platelets, microtubules form a subcortical ring, the so-called marginal band, which confers the typical platelet discoid shape and is also responsible for changes in platelet morphology upon activation. Molecular alterations in the gene encoding β1 tubulin and microtubules post-translational modifications may result in quantitative or qualitative changes in tubulin, leading to altered cytoskeleton reorganization that may induce changes in the platelet number (thrombocytopenia), morphology or function. Consequently, β1-tubulin modifications may participate in pathological and physiological processes, such as development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto José Cuenca-Zamora
- Servicio de Hematología y Oncología Médica, Centro Regional de Hemodonación, Hospital Universitario Morales Meseguer, IMIB-Arrixaca, Red CIBERER CB15/00055, 30003 Murcia, Spain
| | - Francisca Ferrer-Marín
- Servicio de Hematología y Oncología Médica, Centro Regional de Hemodonación, Hospital Universitario Morales Meseguer, IMIB-Arrixaca, Red CIBERER CB15/00055, 30003 Murcia, Spain.
- Grado de Medicina, Universidad Católica San Antonio (UCAM), Campus de los Jerónimos, 30107 Murcia, Spain.
| | - José Rivera
- Servicio de Hematología y Oncología Médica, Centro Regional de Hemodonación, Hospital Universitario Morales Meseguer, IMIB-Arrixaca, Red CIBERER CB15/00055, 30003 Murcia, Spain
| | - Raúl Teruel-Montoya
- Servicio de Hematología y Oncología Médica, Centro Regional de Hemodonación, Hospital Universitario Morales Meseguer, IMIB-Arrixaca, Red CIBERER CB15/00055, 30003 Murcia, Spain
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34
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Bergendahl LT, Gerasimavicius L, Miles J, Macdonald L, Wells JN, Welburn JPI, Marsh JA. The role of protein complexes in human genetic disease. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1400-1411. [PMID: 31219644 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Many human genetic disorders are caused by mutations in protein-coding regions of DNA. Taking protein structure into account has therefore provided key insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying human genetic disease. Although most studies have focused on the intramolecular effects of mutations, the critical role of the assembly of proteins into complexes is being increasingly recognized. Here, we review multiple ways in which consideration of protein complexes can help us to understand and explain the effects of pathogenic mutations. First, we discuss disorders caused by mutations that perturb intersubunit interactions in homomeric and heteromeric complexes. Second, we address how protein complex assembly can facilitate a dominant-negative mechanism, whereby mutated subunits can disrupt the activity of wild-type protein. Third, we show how mutations that change protein expression levels can lead to damaging stoichiometric imbalances. Finally, we review how mutations affecting different subunits of the same heteromeric complex often cause similar diseases, whereas mutations in different interfaces of the same subunit can cause distinct phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Therese Bergendahl
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Lukas Gerasimavicius
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Jamilla Miles
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis Macdonald
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan N Wells
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850
| | - Julie P I Welburn
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph A Marsh
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
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