Results on acrylamide levels in food from monitoring years 2007-2009 and Exposure assessment

Dietary exposure to acrylamide among the Malaysian adult population

This study aimed to estimate the Malaysian adult population's current dietary exposure and margin of exposure (MOE) to the carcinogenic processing contaminant, acrylamide. A total of 448 samples from 11 types of processed foods were collected randomly throughout Malaysia in the year 2015 and 2016. Acrylamide was analysed in samples using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with a limit of detection (LOD) of 10 μg/kg and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 25 μg/kg. The highest average level of acrylamide (772 ± 752 μg/kg) was found in potato crisps, followed by French fries (415 ± 914 μg/kg) and biscuits (245 ± 195 μg/kg). The total acrylamide exposure for the adult Malaysian was 0.229 and 1.77 μg/kg body weight per day for average and high consumers, respectively. The MOE were 741 and 1875 for the average consumer based on cancer and non-cancer effects of acrylamide, respectively. Meanwhile, for high consumers, the MOE is 96 for cancer and 243 for non-cancer effects. These findings indicate potential carcinogenic risks from acrylamide exposure among Malaysian adults, especially in Malay and other Bumiputra groups compared to Chinese, Indian, and other ethnic groups, while non-cancer effects appeared less concerning.

Toxicity, formation, contamination, determination and mitigation of acrylamide in thermally processed plant-based foods and herbal medicines: A review

Thermal processing is one of the important techniques for most of the plant-based food and herb medicines before consumption and application in order to meet the specific requirement. The plant and herbs are rich in amino acids and reducing sugars, and thermal processing may lead to Maillard reaction, resulting as a high risk of acrylamide pollution. Acrylamide, an organic pollutant that can be absorbed by the body through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, skin and mucous membranes, has potential carcinogenicity, neurological, genetic, reproductive and developmental toxicity. Therefore, it is significant to conduct pollution determination and risk assessment for quality assurance and security of medication. This review demonstrates state-of-the-art research of acrylamide focusing on the toxicity, formation, contamination, determination, and mitigation in taking food and herb medicine, to provide reference for scientific processing and ensure the security of consumers.

Impact of Some Enzymatic Treatments on Acrylamide Content in Biscuits

Since its discovery in many heat-treatment foods in 2002, many efforts have been made to reduce acrylamide levels in foods. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels by reducing Maillard reaction products have been considered. However, baking cookies produces acrylamide, a carcinogenic compound. This study aimed to use a new quantitative index and formula for L-asparaginase, glucose oxidase, their 1:1 blending enzymes, baker’s yeast, and green tea powder (0.5 g/kg wheat flour) at a new proposed temperature of 37 °C for 30 min to reduce acrylamide production in biscuits and bakery products using new indicators such as asparagine reduction (%), the asparagine/acrylamide ratio, acrylamide reduction (%), and the asparagine/reducing sugar ratio. The highest acrylamide concentrations were reduced from 865 mg/kg in the blank sample (BT0) to 260 and 215 mg/kg in the mixed enzyme powder (1:1) (BT3)- and BT4-treated samples, respectively. The biscuit samples treated with 0.5 g/kg L-asparaginase reduced the acrylamide levels by approximately 67.63%, while the BT3 samples showed acrylamide levels of 69.94% and asparagine levels of 68.75% and 47%, respectively, compared with percentage in the untreated sample (blank), 95%. This percentage was 54.16% for the BT4 samples. The results showed that acrylamide was formed during baking, and all treatment samples inhibited its formation, making it possible to produce foods with low levels of acrylamide in starchy foods in the food industry at 37 °C for 30 min and preserving the quality and nutritional value of the final product. It can be used as a specialty food or functional food and protects school-agechildren, as well as youth on campus, from approximately 70–80% of their daily intake of acrylamide.

Dietary exposure to acrylamide of university students in Ningxia of Northwest China and the effect on their neurobehavioral performance and oxidative stress in serum

This study aims to investigate dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) and also make an assessment of its effect on the neurobehavioral performance and oxidative stress in the serum of university students in Ningxia. The place primarily consists of arid, dry desert, and wheat-based foods are the staple food there. A total of 803 university students in Ningxia participated in this cross-sectional study. Diet intake of AA was estimated with FFQ. The AA risk was calculated as margin of exposure (MOE) values. NCTB questionnaires were used to assess neurobehavioral performance. The serum oxidative stress levels of the university students were measured as GSH, MDA, and SOD. The mean for AA exposure of university students was 0.515 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1. The highest contributor was traditional Chinese grain products, representing 34.71% of the total daily AA intake. Followed were deep-fried potato products, traditional Western grain products, soft drinks, and nuts, which accounted for 23.87%, 16.59%, 11.15%, and 11%, respectively. The median AA exposure were 480 (BMDL₁₀ = 0.18 mg kg^-1 bw day^-1) and 827 (BMDL₁₀ = 0.31 mg kg^-1 bw day^-1), respectively. The results indicated that diet AA may have an effect on the emotional status and neurobehavior among this population. We observed no significant differences in oxidative stress under the three levels of AA exposure (p > .05). It suggests a health concern for university students in Northwest China that should get society's attention.

Molecular imprinting technology and poly (ionic liquid)s: Promising tools with industrial application for the removal of acrylamide and furanic compounds from coffee and other foods

Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages in the world. Coffee provides to the consumer special sensorial characteristics, can help to prevent diseases, improves physical performance and increases focus. In contrast, coffee consumption supplies a significant source of substances with carcinogenic and genotoxic potential such as furan, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural (F), and acrylamide (AA). The present review addresses the issues around the presence of such toxic substances formed in Maillard reaction (MR) during thermal treatments in food processing, from chemical and, toxicological perspectives, occurrences in coffee and other foods processed by heating. In addition, current strategies advantages and disadvantages are presented along with application of molecular imprinting technology (MIT) and poly (ionic liquid) s (PIL) as an alternative to reduce the furan, HMF, F and AA content in coffee and other foods.

Assessing the combinatorial cytotoxicity of the exogenous contamination with BDE-209, bisphenol A, and acrylamide via high-content analysis

Food is often exposed to multiple types of contaminants, and the coexistence of contaminants may have antagonistic, additive or synergistic effects. This study investigated the combinatorial toxicity of the three most widespread exogenous contaminants, decabrominated diphenyl ether (BDE-209), bisphenol A (BPA), and acrylamide (ACR) to HepG2 cells. A mathematical model (Chou-Talalay) and high-content analysis (HCA) were used to probe the nature of the contaminants' interactions and their cytotoxicity mechanisms, respectively. The results highlighted that for the individual pollutants, the cytotoxicity order was BDE-209> BPA > ACR, and varying combinations of contaminants exhibited additive/synergistic effects. In general, combining multiple contaminants significantly increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca²⁺ flux, DNA damage and Caspase-3, and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and nucleus roundness, indicating that the additive or synergistic mechanism of the combined contaminations was disturbance to multiple organelles. This study emphasizes the complexity of human exposure to food contaminants and provides a scientific basis for formulating strict regulatory standards.

Negative Association between Acrylamide Exposure and Metabolic Syndrome Markers in Adult Population

Metabolic syndrome encompasses multiple conditions that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, and exposure to environmental chemicals can cause metabolic syndrome. This cross-sectional study analyzed data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2003-2006) on 4318 adult participants to assess the association between acrylamide (AA) exposure and metabolic syndrome. Concentrations of hemoglobin-adducted AA (HbAA) and hemoglobin-adducted glycidamide (HbGA) were evaluated. Metabolic syndrome markers related to HbAA and HbGA and the effect of exposure to AA and GA on the prevalence of metabolic syndrome were studied by ANOVA and multivariate logistic regression analyses, respectively. HbAA concentration inversely correlated with the number of metabolic syndrome markers (p < 0.05). An increased HbAA concentration was noted with reduced high triglyceride and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the adjusted model (p < 0.05). High fasting plasma glucose level significantly correlated with HbGA concentration in the adjusted model. In conclusion, AA exposure alters metabolic syndrome markers in adults. Additional clinical and animal studies will clarify the role of AA exposure at different stages in the progression of metabolic syndrome-related diseases.

Investigations on the formation of Maillard reaction products in sweet cookies made of different cereals

In this study, the content of Maillard reaction products from its initial, intermediate and final stage (5-hydroxymethylfurfural, α-dicarbonyl compounds, furosine, N-ε-carboxymethyllysine and N-ε-carboxyethyllysine) was measured in sweet cookies made of wholegrain flour of eight genotypes of small-grain cereals (bread wheat, durum wheat, soft wheat, hard wheat, triticale, rye, hulless barley and hulless oat) and four corn genotypes (white-, yellow- and red-colored standard seeded corn and blue-colored popping corn). Furthermore, the effect of the initial content of sugars, total proteins, free and total lysine in flour on the formation of Maillard reaction products was investigated using the principle component analysis. 3-deoxyglucosone was the predominant α-dicarbonyl compound in all cereal cookies and the highest content was measured in those made from flour of different colored corn genotypes (on average, 98.35, 151.28 and 172.85 mg/kg after baking for 7, 10 and 13 min, respectively). Heating dough at 180 °C for 7, 10 and 13 min differently affected the content of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and α-dicarbonyl compounds in the cereal cookies. The 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content gradually increased, while a reduction in 3-deoxyglucosone content was observed in the cookies baked for 13 min except for those made from soft wheat, hulless oat, red- and blue-colored corn. After 7 min of heating, the content of furosine measured in the cereal cookies reached its maximum (from 320.9 mg/kg in yellow-colored corn-based cookies to 585.7 mg/kg in hulless oat-based cookies), while N-ε-carboxymethyllysine and N-ε-carboxyethyllysine showed the opposite trend. The highest content of advanced glycation end products was detected in cookies also made from hulless oat flour rich in proteins (16.80%) and total lysine (10670.3 mg/kg). The interrelationship analysis showed that the initial content of sugars in flour of cereals affected 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and 3-deoxyglucosone formation in the cookies. In addition, a high correlation between protein-bound Maillard reaction products in the cookies and the total proteins and the total lysine content in the flours was found.

Progress on reducing acrylamide levels in potato crisps in Europe, 2002 to 2019

European Snacks Association (ESA) data on acrylamide in potato crisps from 2002 to 2019 (99704 observations) were analysed. Acrylamide levels have plateaued since 2011, although the lowest mean so far was attained in 2018 at 353 ± 2.7 ng g^-1: a 54% reduction since 2002. The 85^th, 90^th and 95^th quantiles did show evidence of continued downward progress, the 90^th quantile being lower than the 750 ng g^-1 European Benchmark Level from 2017 to 2019. A smaller dataset from the European Food Safety Authority (2124 observations) for 2011-2018 was also analysed. The yearly means were higher than those of the ESA data but showed a fall in average acrylamide from 715 ± 40.5 ng g^-1 in 2015 to 505 ± 28.5 ng g^-1 in 2018, as well as steep falls in the 85^th, 90^th and 95^th quantiles. Nevertheless, even the 85^th quantile remained above the 750 ng g^-1 Benchmark Level. The ESA data showed a reduction in the proportion of samples with acrylamide exceeding 750 ng g^-1, from over 40% in 2002 to 7.75% in 2019. Seasonality was evident, with highest acrylamide levels from November to May. Crisp type had little effect except that thicker types had a higher proportion of samples containing >750 ng g^-1 acrylamide. Analysis of the region of origin in Europe of the final product revealed improvements in the east and north. Geographical factors combined with seasonality continued to be problematic but was also an aspect in which progress was most evident. The findings show that improvements have been made in reducing the number of samples with very high levels of acrylamide, but do not suggest that mean acrylamide levels could be reduced substantially below where they have been since 2011, or that levels could be kept consistently below the current Benchmark Level.

Intestinal microbiota alterations by dietary exposure to chemicals from food cooking and processing. Application of data science for risk prediction

Diet is one of the main sources of exposure to toxic chemicals with carcinogenic potential, some of which are generated during food processing, depending on the type of food (primarily meat, fish, bread and potatoes), cooking methods and temperature. Although demonstrated in animal models at high doses, an unequivocal link between dietary exposure to these compounds with disease has not been proven in humans. A major difficulty in assessing the actual intake of these toxic compounds is the lack of standardised and harmonised protocols for collecting and analysing dietary information. The intestinal microbiota (IM) has a great influence on health and is altered in some diseases such as colorectal cancer (CRC). Diet influences the composition and activity of the IM, and the net exposure to genotoxicity of potential dietary carcinogens in the gut depends on the interaction among these compounds, IM and diet. This review analyses critically the difficulties and challenges in the study of interactions among these three actors on the onset of CRC. Machine Learning (ML) of data obtained in subclinical and precancerous stages would help to establish risk thresholds for the intake of toxic compounds generated during food processing as related to diet and IM profiles, whereas Semantic Web could improve data accessibility and usability from different studies, as well as helping to elucidate novel interactions among those chemicals, IM and diet.

Acrylamide assessment of wheat bread incorporating chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) by LC-MS/MS

We examined the acrylamide content in samples of wheat bread with chia seeds added at different concentrations (2%, 5%, 7%, 10%) and cooked at predefined conditions (20 min at 200°C) by a validated LC-MS/M method after QuEChERS extraction. The acrylamide contents of the bread samples with added chia seeds were compared with control wheat bread samples. The highest acrylamide values were found in bread with 5% chia seeds, showing a mean value of 156.5 ± 115.4 µg/kg, followed by bread with 10% chia seeds (150.2 ± 103.8 µg/kg). About 6% of the bread samples with added chia seeds reached acrylamide levels above the benchmark level set by the EU Regulation. No significant differences in acrylamide values were found between control samples and bread with different percentages of chia seeds (p > .05). The results obtained provide a first report on the possible contribution of chia to the increase of acrylamide formation in bread.

Association of asparagine concentration in wheat with cultivar, location, fertilizer, and their interaction

The need to produce wheat with low asparagine concentration is of great importance as a measure to mitigate acrylamide concentration in wheat-based products. The association of asparagine concentration in Canadian bread wheat with cultivar, growing location, fertilizer and their interaction were investigated. Wheat cultivars (8) were grown in 2 locations under 4 fertilizer treatments in triplicate (which consisted of two nitrogen rates (90 or 120 lbs/acre) with or without 15 lbs sulphur per acre). The asparagine concentration ranged from 168.9 to 1050 µg/g and was significantly affected by cultivar, location, and their interaction but not fertilizer treatment. Location and cultivar were responsible for 80% and 14% of the variation, respectively. Some cultivars were not affected by location and maintained their low asparagine accumulation trait. Thus, breeding strategies should aim to identify cultivars that are low asparagine accumulating and are stable across different growing environments.

Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide and Associated Health Risks for the Korean Population

The aim of the study was to estimate the dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) from the consumption of various processed food and to assess the associated health risks in different age groups in Korea. Potato crisps and French fries presented the highest mean levels of AA (546 and 372 μg/kg, respectively) followed by coffee (353 μg/kg) and tea products (245 μg/kg). The mean AA dietary exposure values for toddlers (≤2 years), children (3-6 years), children (7-12 years), adolescents (13-19 years), adults (20-64 years), and seniors (≥65 years) were estimated to be 0.15, 0.13, 0.06, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.06 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively. Based on the benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL10) of 0.18 and 0.31 mg/kg BW/day, the calculated mean and 95th percentile values for the margin of exposure were below 10,000 for the all age groups suggesting possible health concern for Koreans. Biscuits, crisps, and coffee were the primary foods contributing to dietary AA exposure among these in the Korean populations. In children, considering the health risk of AA dietary exposure, especially from biscuits and crisps, there is a need to further control and modify dietary habits to ensure lower AA exposure.

Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acrylamide Formation in Foods

Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and the influence of microwave radiation on the acrylamide formation in food. In addition, conventional and microwave heating were compared, especially the way they affect the AA formation in food. Available studies demonstrate differences in the mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. These differences may be beneficial or detrimental depending on different processes. The published studies showed that microwave heating at a high power level can cause greater AA formation in products than conventional food heat treatment. The higher content of acrylamide in microwave-heated foods may be due to differences in its formation during microwave heating and conventional methods. At the same time, short exposure to microwaves (during blanching and thawing) at low power may even limit the formation of acrylamide during the final heat treatment. Considering the possible harmful effects of microwave heating on food quality (e.g., intensive formation of acrylamide), further research in this direction should be carried out.

Survey for acrylamide in processed foods from Korean market and individual exposure estimation using a non-parametric probabilistic model

Acrylamide, a known carcinogen, is formed during preparation of food containing reducing sugar and asparagine. Because acrylamide exposure of the population is primarily through food, the maximum levels of acrylamide in food were set by the European Commission in 2017. Moreover, in the 2016 Korean Total Diet study, acrylamide showed the lowest margin of exposure among 23 food-processing-related chemicals, necessitating risk reduction options. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the variation of acrylamide content in different food items and identify the food categories, to provide options for risk management. Acrylamide was analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry in more than 1,000 processed food items. To estimate acrylamide exposure, the analytical data obtained herein and the food consumption data of Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2013 to 2017 were used. A non-parametric technique of a probabilistic model was used for exposure estimation. Confectioneries (here this category includes potato and similar savoury snacks) contained a wide range of acrylamide content. Particularly, the highest acrylamide content was detected in a tea made of Jerusalem artichoke. The presence of acrylamide in turmeric along with the Jerusalem artichoke was reported in this study for the first time. The main contributors of dietary acrylamide exposure were confectioneries for youths aged 3-18 years and coffee for adults aged 19-80 years. Therefore, risk management in confectionery and coffee could help reduce acrylamide exposure for Koreans. In addition, the mitigation strategies for food containing high acrylamide content, such as Jerusalem artichoke tea, are needed to reduce acrylamide exposure to loyal consumers.

Acrylamide in food: Progress in and prospects for genetic and agronomic solutions

Acrylamide is a processing contaminant and Group 2a carcinogen that was discovered in foodstuffs in 2002. Its presence in a range of popular foods has become one of the most difficult problems facing the food industry and its supply chain. Wheat, rye and potato products are major sources of dietary acrylamide, with biscuits, breakfast cereals, bread (particularly toasted), crispbread, batter, cakes, pies, French fries, crisps and snack products all affected. Here we briefly review the history of the issue, detection methods, the levels of acrylamide in popular foods and the risk that dietary acrylamide poses to human health. The pathways for acrylamide formation from free (non-protein) asparagine are described, including the role of reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose and maltose and the Maillard reaction. The evolving regulatory situation in the European Union and elsewhere is discussed, noting that food businesses and their suppliers must plan to comply not only with current regulations but with possible future regulatory scenarios. The main focus of the review is on the genetic and agronomic approaches being developed to reduce the acrylamide-forming potential of potatoes and cereals and these are described in detail, including variety selection, plant breeding, biotechnology and crop management. Obvious targets for genetic interventions include asparagine synthetase genes, and the asparagine synthetase gene families of different crop species are compared. Current knowledge on crop management best practice is described, including maintaining optimum storage conditions for potatoes and ensuring sulphur sufficiency and disease control for wheat.

Acrylamide-Formation Potential of Cereals: What Role Does the Agronomic Management System Play?

As bakery products contribute considerably to the daily intake of the carcinogen acting substance acrylamide (AA), the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the management system (conventional vs. organic farming) on AA precursor levels of free asparagine (Asn) across different cultivars of the cereal species, namely winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), winter spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) and winter rye (Secale cereale) with simultaneous consideration of gained grain yields and flour qualities. For this purpose, orthogonal field trials were established at two sites in Southwest Germany over two growing seasons (2006–2007 and 2007–2008). The results indicated a significant impact of the management system on free Asn contents in white flour. Across all species, free Asn contents in the white flour was 26% lower under organic compared to conventional farming. The impact of the management system on individual cultivars was obvious with a maximum reduction in free Asn contents of 50% in wheat cultivars if organically produced (e.g., for cultivars Ludwig, Privileg, Capo). For spelt, a significant impact of the management system was only found in 2008 with a reduction in free Asn of up to 25% if organically produced. Across both cropping systems, cultivar Franckenkorn reached the lowest levels of free Asn. For rye, a significant impact of the management system was observed only in 2007 with 33% higher Asn amounts in the conventional management system. Independent of the cropping system, rye reached the highest levels of free Asn followed by wheat and spelt. Depending on species, there was also an impact of the two systems on crude protein. The organically cropped wheat had a significantly lower level, but this was not observed for spelt and for rye only in 2007. The possible reason for the low free Asn content in the organically produced wheat flour could partially be the lower crude protein amount. Furthermore, the results indicated that lower AA contents in bakery products can be achieved by proper selection of species (e.g., 66% lower if rye is replaced by wheat) and cultivars. With an appropriate choice of the cultivar, a reduction of up to 65% was possible within wheat, along with a reduction of 44% within spelt and 12.5% within rye. In summary, the results indicated that organically produced wheat especially offers the opportunity to significantly lower the AA potential of bread and bread rolls by the choice of raw materials low in free Asn.

Carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks of acrylamide consumed through caffeinated beverages among the lebanese population

The present study aims to quantify acrylamide in caffeinated beverages including American coffee, Lebanese coffee, espresso, instant coffee and hot chocolate, and to determine their carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks. A survey was carried for this purpose whereby 78% of the Lebanese population was found to consume at least one type of caffeinated beverages. Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry analysis revealed that the average acrylamide level in caffeinated beverages is 29,176 μg/kg sample. The daily consumption of acrylamide from Lebanese coffee (10.9 μg/kg-bw/day), hot chocolate (1.2 μg/kg-bw/day) and Espresso (7.4 μg/kg-bw/day) was found to be higher than the risk intake for carcinogenicity and neurotoxicity as set by World Health Organization (WHO; 0.3-2 μg/kg-bw/day) at both the mean (average consumers) and high (high consumers) dietary exposures. On the other hand, American coffee (0.37 μg/kg-bw/day) was shown to pose no carcinogenic or neurotoxic risks among the Lebanese community for consumers with a mean dietary exposure. The study shows alarming results that call for regulating the caffeinated product industry by setting legislations and standard protocols for product preparation in order to limit the acrylamide content and protect consumers. In order to avoid carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks, we propose that WHO/FAO set acrylamide levels in caffeinated beverages to 7000 μg acrylamide/kg sample, a value which is 4-folds lower than the average acrylamide levels of 29,176 μg/kg sample found in caffeinated beverages sold in the Lebanese market. Alternatively, consumers of caffeinated products, especially Lebanese coffee and espresso, would have to lower their daily consumption to 0.3-0.4 cups/day.

Monitoring of acrylamide carcinogen in selected heat-treated foods from Saudi Arabia

The present study reports the outcomes of assessment on acrylamide levels in selected heat-treated foods of diverse brands and origins from Saudi Arabia. In chips, acrylamide level was detected from 28 to 954 µg/kg, sample 7 (salted) contained higher amount (954 μg/kg) whereas, sample 8 (labneh and mint) comparatively produced lower amount (28 μg/kg). Nuts and dried fruits have generated acrylamide from 2 to 93 µg/kg, salted peanut of Indian origin produced higher amount (93 μg/kg) while apricot (plain) relatively generated lower amount (2 μg/kg). The levels of acrylamide in biscuits, pastry, cacao, chocolate, olive, cheese, corn, oat and wheat flakes, and bread were found from 26 to 234 µg/kg. Biscuits generated high concentration (234 μg/kg) while corn flakes fairly generated lower amount (26 μg/kg). The obtained results have shown a great variation of acrylamide content and reason might be due to foods type, cooking ingredients and, cooking methods, time and temperature.

Simultaneous determination of acrylamide and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone in baby food by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of acrylamide and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone (HDMF) in baby food. The sample preparation involves acetonitrile-based extraction combined with dispersive primary secondary amine (PSA) cleanup and cation-exchange solid-phase extraction (SPE), which promotes efficient removal of matrix interferences. Analytical selectivity and sensitivity were achieved for the quantification of acrylamide and HDMF in complex matrices such as fruit, cereal and milk-based baby foods; furthermore, adequate linearity (range 10-300μgkg^-1) in solvent and matrix-matched calibration curves, and appropriate recoveries (94-110%) and precision (RSD≤10%), under repeatability and within-laboratory reproducibility conditions, were also obtained. Expanded measurement uncertainty was estimated at the 20μgkg^-1 level (limit of quantification) on the basis of data obtained from in-house validation, with values of 25.5 and 16.5% for acrylamide and HDMF, respectively. The fitness for purpose of developed method was verified by analyzing 15 commercial baby foods available in the Brazilian market. Acrylamide was detected in one plum-based baby food (35μgkg^-1) while HDMF in 67% of the samples analyzed (levels between 25 and 262μgkg^-1).

Effects of variety, year of cultivation and sulphur supply on the accumulation of free asparagine in the grain of commercial wheat varieties

•

Widely differing free asparagine concentration in wheat from two harvest years.

•

Wide range of acrylamide-forming potential (AFP) in 73 commercial wheat varieties.

•

Eight varieties identified with consistently low AFP, seven of them soft types, but benefit of using a low AFP variety is lost if sulphur supply is inadequate.

•

Selecting varieties for low AFP solely on the basis of them being soft would be simplistic.

•

Information on free asparagine concentration should be available at variety launch.

Free asparagine concentration, which is the determining factor for acrylamide-forming potential in cereals, was measured in grain from wheat grown in field trials in the United Kingdom in 2011–2012 and 2012–2013. There were 25 varieties in 2012 and 59 in 2013, with eleven present in both trials. The trials were split-plot, with half of each plot supplied with sulphur and the other half not. The varietal means (mmol per kg) for free asparagine in the sulphur-fed wheat ranged from 1.521 to 2.687 in 2011–2012 and 0.708 to 11.29 in 2012–2013. Eight varieties were identified as having consistently low free asparagine concentration. There was a differential response of varieties to sulphur, and much higher levels of free asparagine in 2012–2013 versus 2011–2012. Given the short commercial lifespan of some wheat varieties, it is concluded that information on free asparagine concentration should be made available when a variety is launched.

Occurrence of acrylamide carcinogen in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea from Saudi Arabian market

The present work describes the outcomes of the assessment on acrylamide contents in a number of thermally treated foods (Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea) obtained from the Saudi Arabian markets. A total of 56 food samples of different brands and origin were studied, the amounts of acrylamide in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea were obtained in the range of 10 to 682 μg kg-1. In comparison to coffee (152-682 μg kg-1), the Arabic coffee Qahwa (73-108 μg kg-1) and tea (10-97 μg kg-1) contain lower amounts of acrylamide. Among the analyzed samples, the green tea contained low amounts of acrylamide ranged from 10 to 18 μg kg-1, and thus the green tea could be considered as a healthier hot drink. A great variation of acrylamide formation has been observed in these food products. This divergence may be due to the initial concentration of amino acids especially asparagines and reducing sugars in food products, in addition to roasting temperature and time, pH and water activity. The obtained data can also be used in epidemiological investigation to estimate the acrylamide exposure from nutritional survey.

Dietary acrylamide and the risk of pancreatic cancer in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4)

Background

Occupational exposure to acrylamide was associated with excess mortality from pancreatic cancer, though in the absence of dose-risk relationship. Few epidemiological studies have examined the association between acrylamide from diet and pancreatic cancer risk.

Patients and methods

We considered this issue in a combined set of 1975 cases of pancreatic cancer and 4239 controls enrolled in six studies of the Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4). We calculated pooled odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) by estimating study-specific ORs through multivariate unconditional logistic regression models and pooling the obtained estimates using random-effects models.

Results

Compared with the lowest level of estimated dietary acrylamide intake, the pooled ORs were 0.97 (95% CI, 0.79-1.19) for the second, 0.91 (95% CI, 0.71-1.16) for the third, and 0.92 (95% CI, 0.66-1.28) for the fourth (highest) quartile of intake. For an increase of 10 µg/day of acrylamide intake, the pooled OR was 0.96 (95% CI, 0.87-1.06), with heterogeneity between estimates (I2 = 67%). Results were similar across various subgroups, and were confirmed when using a one-stage modelling approach.

Conclusions

This PanC4 pooled-analysis found no association between dietary acrylamide and pancreatic cancer.

Evidence of acrylamide- and glycidamide-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in Leydig and Sertoli cells

Acrylamide (AA) is a common chemical, produced during food processing and widely used in various industries and laboratory processes. Thus, AA causes a significant risk for human and animal health. Recently published studies have suggested that reproductive toxicity of AA and glycidamide (GA) was mainly due to the oxidative stress which can lead to cell apoptosis. The present experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of oxidative stress on the apoptosis of mouse Leydig (TM3) and Sertoli (TM4) cells induced by AA and its metabolite GA. TM3 and TM4 cells were exposed to AA (10 µM and 1 mM) and GA (1 µM and 0.5 mM) for 24 h. Following the exposure time, the Leydig and Sertoli cells were evaluated for measurement of cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase activity, lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide levels, apoptosis/necrosis rate, and mRNA expression levels of apoptotic genes (caspase3, Bcl-2, Bax, and p53). The present study showed that AA and GA exposure caused decrease in cell viability and increase in excessive oxidative stress and apoptosis in both cell types. In conclusion, our in vitro results demonstrate that oxidative stress probably plays a major role in AA- and GA-induced apoptosis of Leydig and Sertoli cells.

Genomic, Biochemical, and Modeling Analyses of Asparagine Synthetases from Wheat

Asparagine synthetase activity in cereals has become an important issue with the discovery that free asparagine concentration determines the potential for formation of acrylamide, a probably carcinogenic processing contaminant, in baked cereal products. Asparagine synthetase catalyses the ATP-dependent transfer of the amino group of glutamine to a molecule of aspartate to generate glutamate and asparagine. Here, asparagine synthetase-encoding polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products were amplified from wheat (Triticum aestivum) cv. Spark cDNA. The encoded proteins were assigned the names TaASN1, TaASN2, and TaASN3 on the basis of comparisons with other wheat and cereal asparagine synthetases. Although very similar to each other they differed slightly in size, with molecular masses of 65.49, 65.06, and 66.24 kDa, respectively. Chromosomal positions and scaffold references were established for TaASN1, TaASN2, and TaASN3, and a fourth, more recently identified gene, TaASN4. TaASN1, TaASN2, and TaASN4 were all found to be single copy genes, located on chromosomes 5, 3, and 4, respectively, of each genome (A, B, and D), although variety Chinese Spring lacked a TaASN2 gene in the B genome. Two copies of TaASN3 were found on chromosome 1 of each genome, and these were given the names TaASN3.1 and TaASN3.2. The TaASN1, TaASN2, and TaASN3 PCR products were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli (TaASN4 was not investigated in this part of the study). Western blot analysis identified two monoclonal antibodies that recognized the three proteins, but did not distinguish between them, despite being raised to epitopes SKKPRMIEVAAP and GGSNKPGVMNTV in the variable C-terminal regions of the proteins. The heterologously expressed TaASN1 and TaASN2 proteins were found to be active asparagine synthetases, producing asparagine and glutamate from glutamine and aspartate. The asparagine synthetase reaction was modeled using SNOOPY^® software and information from the BRENDA database to generate differential equations to describe the reaction stages, based on mass action kinetics. Experimental data from the reactions catalyzed by TaASN1 and TaASN2 were entered into the model using Copasi, enabling values to be determined for kinetic parameters. Both the reaction data and the modeling showed that the enzymes continued to produce glutamate even when the synthesis of asparagine had ceased due to a lack of aspartate.

Effects of Fungicide Treatment on Free Amino Acid Concentration and Acrylamide-Forming Potential in Wheat

Acrylamide forms from free asparagine and reducing sugars during frying, baking, roasting, or high-temperature processing, and cereal products are major contributors to dietary acrylamide intake. Free asparagine concentration is the determining factor for acrylamide-forming potential in cereals, and this study investigated the effect of fungicide application on free asparagine accumulation in wheat grain. Free amino acid concentrations were measured in flour from 47 varieties of wheat grown in a field trial in 2011-2012. The wheat had been supplied with nitrogen and sulfur and treated with growth regulators and fungicides. Acrylamide formation was measured after the flour had been heated at 180 °C for 20 min. Flour was also analyzed from 24 (of the 47) varieties grown in adjacent plots that were treated in identical fashion except that no fungicide was applied, resulting in visible infection by Septoria tritici, yellow rust, and brown rust. Free asparagine concentration in the fungicide-treated wheat ranged from 1.596 to 3.987 mmol kg^-1, with a significant (p < 0.001 to p = 0.006, F test) effect of variety for not only free asparagine but all of the free amino acids apart from cysteine and ornithine. There was also a significant (p < 0.001, F test) effect of variety on acrylamide formation, which ranged from 134 to 992 μg kg^-1. There was a significant (p < 0.001, F test) correlation between free asparagine concentration and acrylamide formation. Both free asparagine concentration and acrylamide formation increased in response to a lack of fungicide treatment, the increases in acrylamide ranging from 2.7 to 370%. Free aspartic acid concentration also increased, whereas free glutamic acid concentration increased in some varieties but decreased in others, and free proline concentration decreased. The study showed disease control by fungicide application to be an important crop management measure for mitigating the problem of acrylamide formation in wheat products.

Acrylamide-forming potential of potatoes grown at different locations, and the ratio of free asparagine to reducing sugars at which free asparagine becomes a limiting factor for acrylamide formation

•

Location of cultivation affects potato composition and acrylamide-forming potential.

•

Effects of variety and storage interact with those of location.

•

Dramatic differences in free asparagine concentration in potatoes grown at two sites.

•

Concentration of reducing sugars is the primary determinant of acrylamide formation.

•

Ratio of free asparagine to reducing sugars determines whether free asparagine affects acrylamide formation.

Acrylamide is produced from free asparagine and reducing sugars during high-temperature cooking and food processing, and potato products are major contributors to dietary acrylamide intake. The present study analysed twenty varieties of potatoes grown at two sites (Doncaster and Woburn) in the United Kingdom to assess the effect of location of cultivation on acrylamide-forming potential. Analysis of variance revealed a full site by variety nested within type (French fry, boiling and crisping) by storage interaction for acrylamide (p < 0.003, F-test), reducing sugars and total sugars (p < 0.001, F-test). There was much greater free asparagine in potatoes grown at the Doncaster site compared with the Woburn site. Modelling of the relationship between the ratio of free asparagine to reducing sugars and the levels of acrylamide identified a value of 2.257 ± 0.149 as the tipping point in the ratio below which free asparagine concentration could affect acrylamide formation.

Acrylamide mitigation strategies: critical appraisal of the FoodDrinkEurope toolbox

Not all the strategies proposed in FoodDrinkEurope toolbox have equal value in terms of efficacy and cost/benefit ratio.

Effects of water availability on free amino acids, sugars, and acrylamide-forming potential in potato

Irrigation is used frequently in potato cultivation to maximize yield, but water availability may also affect the composition of the crop, with implications for processing properties and food safety. Five varieties of potatoes, including drought-tolerant and -sensitive types, which had been grown with and without irrigation, were analyzed to show the effect of water supply on concentrations of free asparagine, other free amino acids, and sugars and on the acrylamide-forming potential of the tubers. Two varieties were also analyzed under more severe drought stress in a glasshouse. Water availability had profound effects on tuber free amino acid and sugar concentrations, and it was concluded that potato farmers should irrigate only if necessary to maintain the health and yield of the crop, because irrigation may increase the acrylamide-forming potential of potatoes. Even mild drought stress caused significant changes in composition, but these differed from those caused by more extreme drought stress. Free proline concentration, for example, increased in the field-grown potatoes of one variety from 7.02 mmol/kg with irrigation to 104.58 mmol/kg without irrigation, whereas free asparagine concentration was not affected significantly in the field but almost doubled from 132.03 to 242.26 mmol/kg in response to more severe drought stress in the glasshouse. Furthermore, the different genotypes were affected in dissimilar fashion by the same treatment, indicating that there is no single, unifying potato tuber drought stress response.

Effects of abiotic stress and crop management on cereal grain composition: implications for food quality and safety

The effects of abiotic stresses and crop management on cereal grain composition are reviewed, focusing on phytochemicals, vitamins, fibre, protein, free amino acids, sugars, and oils. These effects are discussed in the context of nutritional and processing quality and the potential for formation of processing contaminants, such as acrylamide, furan, hydroxymethylfurfuryl, and trans fatty acids. The implications of climate change for cereal grain quality and food safety are considered. It is concluded that the identification of specific environmental stresses that affect grain composition in ways that have implications for food quality and safety and how these stresses interact with genetic factors and will be affected by climate change needs more investigation. Plant researchers and breeders are encouraged to address the issue of processing contaminants or risk appearing out of touch with major end-users in the food industry, and not to overlook the effects of environmental stresses and crop management on crop composition, quality, and safety as they strive to increase yield.

Prediction of acrylamide formation in biscuits based on fingerprint data generated by ambient ionization mass spectrometry employing direct analysis in real time (DART) ion source

The objective of this study is the evaluation of the potential of high-throughput direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) fingerprinting and multivariate regression analysis in prediction of the extent of acrylamide formation in biscuit samples prepared by various recipes and baking conditions. Information-rich mass spectral fingerprints were obtained by analysis of biscuit extracts for preparation of which aqueous methanol was used. The principal component analysis (PCA) of the acquired data revealed an apparent clustering of samples according to the extent of heat-treatment applied during the baking of the biscuits. The regression model for prediction of acrylamide in biscuits was obtained by partial least square regression (PLSR) analysis of the data matrix representing combined positive and negative ionization mode fingerprints. The model provided a least root mean square error of cross validation (RMSECV) equal to an acrylamide concentration of 5.4 μg kg(-1) and standard error of prediction (SEP) of 14.8 μg kg(-1). The results obtained indicate that this strategy can be used to accurately predict the amounts of acrylamide formed during baking of biscuits. Such rapid estimation of acrylamide concentration can become a useful tool in evaluation of the effectivity of processes aiming at mitigation of this food processing contaminant. However, the robustness this approach with respect to variability in the chemical composition of ingredients used for preparation of biscuits should be tested further.

TDS exposure project: relevance of the total diet study approach for different groups of substances

A method to validate the relevance of the Total Diet Study (TDS) approach for different types of substances is described. As a first step, a list of >2800 chemicals classified into eight main groups of relevance for food safety (natural components, environmental contaminants, substances intentionally added to foods, residues, naturally occurring contaminants, process contaminants, contaminants from packaging and food contact materials, other substances) has been established. The appropriateness of the TDS approach for the different substance groups has then been considered with regard to the three essential principles of a TDS: representativeness of the whole diet, pooling of foods and food analyzed as consumed. Four criteria were considered for that purpose (i) the substance has to be present in a significant part of the diet or predominantly present in specific food groups, (ii) a robust analytical method has to be available to determine it in potential contributors to the dietary exposure of the population, and (iii) the dilution impact of pooling and (iv) the impact of everyday food preparation methods on the concentration of the substance are assessed. For most of the substances the TDS approach appeared to be relevant and any precautions to be taken are outlined.

Reducing the potential for processing contaminant formation in cereal products

Processing contaminants may be defined as substances that are produced in a food when it is cooked or processed, are not present or are present at much lower concentrations in the raw, unprocessed food, and are undesirable either because they have an adverse effect on product quality or because they are potentially harmful. The presence of very low levels of processing contaminants in common foods is becoming an increasingly important issue for the food industry, as developments in analytical techniques and equipment bring foods under closer and closer scrutiny. This review considers the formation of lipid oxidation products, hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to prevent lipid oxidation and the associated risk of trans fatty acid formation. The formation of acrylamide in the Maillard reaction is described, as well as the genetic and agronomic approaches being taken to reduce the acrylamide-forming potential of cereal grain. The multiple routes for the formation of furan and associated chemicals, including hydroxymethylfurfuryl, are also described. The evolving regulatory and public perception situations for these processing contaminants and their implications for the cereal supply chain are discussed, emphasising the need for cereal breeders to engage with the contaminants issue.

Photosynthetic assimilation of ¹⁴C into amino acids in potato (Solanum tuberosum) and asparagine in the tubers

Asparagine is the predominant free amino acid in potato tubers and the present study aimed to establish whether it is imported from the leaves or synthesised in situ. Free amino acid concentrations are important quality determinants for potato tubers because they react with reducing sugars at high temperatures in the Maillard reaction. This reaction produces melanoidin pigments and a host of aroma and flavour volatiles, but if free asparagine participates in the final stages, it results in the production of acrylamide, an undesirable contaminant. ¹⁴CO₂ was supplied to a leaf or leaves of potato plants (cv. Saturna) in the light and radioactivity incorporated into amino acids was determined in the leaves, stems, stolons and tubers. Radioactivity was found in free amino acids, including asparagine, in all tissues, but the amount incorporated in asparagine transported to the tubers and stolons was much less than that in glutamate, glutamine, serine and alanine. The study showed that free asparagine does not play an important role in the transport of nitrogen from leaf to tuber in potato, and that the high concentrations of free asparagine that accumulate in potato tubers arise from synthesis in situ. This indicates that genetic interventions to reduce free asparagine concentration in potato tubers will have to target asparagine metabolism in the tuber.

Evidence for the complex relationship between free amino acid and sugar concentrations and acrylamide-forming potential in potato

Free amino acids and reducing sugars participate in the Maillard reaction during high-temperature cooking and processing. This results not only in the formation of colour, aroma and flavour compounds, but also undesirable contaminants, including acrylamide, which forms when the amino acid that participates in the reaction is asparagine. In this study, tubers of 13 varieties of potato (Solanum tuberosum), which had been produced in a field trial in 2010 and sampled immediately after harvest or after storage for 6 months, were analysed to show the relationship between the concentrations of free asparagine, other free amino acids, sugars and acrylamide-forming potential. The varieties comprised five that are normally used for crisping, seven that are used for French fry production and one that is used for boiling. Acrylamide formation was measured in heated flour, and correlated with glucose and fructose concentration. In French fry varieties, which contain higher concentrations of sugars, acrylamide formation also correlated with free asparagine concentration, demonstrating the complex relationship between precursor concentration and acrylamide-forming potential in potato. Storage of the potatoes for 6 months at 9°C had a significant, variety-dependent impact on sugar and amino acid concentrations and acrylamide-forming potential.