Connexin45 interacts with zonula occludens-1 in osteoblastic cells

Characterization of the connexin45 carboxyl-terminal domain structure and interactions with molecular partners

Mechanisms underlying the initiation and persistence of lethal cardiac rhythms are of significant clinical and scientific interests. Gap junctions are principally involved in forming the electrical connections between myocytes, and changes in distribution, density, and properties are consistent characteristics in arrhythmic heart disease. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of gap junctions during normal and abnormal impulse propagation are essential in the control of arrhythmias. For example, Cx45 is predominately expressed in the specialized myocytes of the impulse generation and conduction system. In both ventricular and atrial human working myocytes, Cx45 is present in very low quantities. However, a reduction in Cx43 coupled with an increased Cx45 protein levels within the ventricles have been observed after myocardial infarction and end-stage heart failure. Cx45 may influence electrical and/or metabolic coupling as a result of pathophysiological overexpression. Our goal was to identify mechanisms that could cause cellular coupling to be different between the cardiac connexins. Based upon the conserved transmembrane and extracellular loop segments, our focus was on identifying features within the divergent cytoplasmic portions. Here, we biophysically characterize the carboxyl-terminal domain of Cx45 (Cx45CT). Purification revealed the possibility of oligomeric species, which was confirmed by analytical ultracentrifugation experiments. Sedimentation equilibrium and circular dichroism studies of different Cx45CT constructs identified one region of α-helical structure (A333-N361) that mediates CT dimerization through hydrophobic contacts. Interestingly, the binding affinity of Cx45CT dimerization is 1000-fold stronger than Cx43CT dimerization. Cx45CT resonance assignments were also used to identify the binding sites and affinities of molecular partners involved in the Cx45 regulation; although none disrupted dimerization, many of these proteins interacted within one intrinsically disordered region (P278-P285). This domain has similarities with other cardiac connexins, and we propose they constitute a master regulatory domain, which contains overlapping molecular partner binding, cis-trans proline isomerization, and phosphorylation sites.

Proteins and mechanisms regulating gap-junction assembly, internalization, and degradation

Gap junctions (GJs) are the only known cellular structures that allow a direct cell-to-cell transfer of signaling molecules by forming densely packed arrays or "plaques" of hydrophilic channels that bridge the apposing membranes of neighboring cells. The crucial role of GJ-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) for all aspects of multicellular life, including coordination of development, tissue function, and cell homeostasis, has been well documented. Assembly and degradation of these membrane channels is a complex process that includes biosynthesis of the connexin (Cx) subunit proteins (innexins in invertebrates) on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes, oligomerization of compatible subunits into hexameric hemichannels (connexons), delivery of the connexons to the plasma membrane (PM), head-on docking of compatible connexons in the extracellular space at distinct locations, arrangement of channels into dynamic spatially and temporally organized GJ channel plaques, as well as internalization of GJs into the cytoplasm followed by their degradation. Clearly, precise modulation of GJIC, biosynthesis, and degradation are crucial for accurate function, and much research currently addresses how these fundamental processes are regulated. Here, we review posttranslational protein modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and ubiquitination) and the binding of protein partners (e.g., the scaffolding protein ZO-1) known to regulate GJ biosynthesis, internalization, and degradation. We also look closely at the atomic resolution structure of a GJ channel, since the structure harbors vital cues relevant to GJ biosynthesis and turnover.

ZO-1 regulates Erk, Smad1/5/8, Smad2, and RhoA activities to modulate self-renewal and differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells

ZO-1/Tjp1 is a cytosolic adaptor that links tight junction (TJ) transmembrane proteins to the actin cytoskeleton and has also been implicated in regulating cell proliferation and differentiation by interacting with transcriptional regulators and signaling proteins. To explore possible roles for ZO-1 in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs), we inactivated the ZO-1 locus by homologous recombination. The lack of ZO-1 was found to affect mESC self-renewal and differentiation in the presence of leukemia-inhibiting factor (LIF) and Bmp4 or following removal of the growth factors. Our data suggest that ZO-1 suppresses Stat3 and Smad1/5/8 activities and sustains extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (Erk) activity to promote mESC differentiation. Interestingly, Smad2, critical for human but not mESC self-renewal, was hyperactivated in ZO-1(-/-) mESCs and RhoA protein levels were concomitantly enhanced, suggesting attenuation of the noncanonical transforming growth factor β (Tgfβ)/Activin/Nodal pathway that mediates ubiquitination and degradation of RhoA via the TJ proteins Occludin, Par6, and Smurf1 and activation of the canonical Smad2-dependent pathway. Furthermore, Bmp4-induced differentiation of mESCs in the absence of LIF was suppressed in ZO-1(-/-) mESCs, but differentiation down the neural or cardiac lineages was not disturbed. These findings reveal novel roles for ZO-1 in mESC self-renewal, pluripotency, and differentiation by influencing several signaling networks that regulate these processes. Possible implications for the differing relevance of Smad2 in mESC and human ESC self-renewal and how ZO-1 may connect to the different pathways are discussed.

Megakaryocytes regulate expression of Pyk2 isoforms and caspase-mediated cleavage of actin in osteoblasts

The proliferation and differentiation of osteoblast (OB) precursors are essential for elaborating the bone-forming activity of mature OBs. However, the mechanisms regulating OB proliferation and function are largely unknown. We reported that OB proliferation is enhanced by megakaryocytes (MKs) via a process that is regulated in part by integrin signaling. The tyrosine kinase Pyk2 has been shown to regulate cell proliferation and survival in a variety of cells. Pyk2 is also activated by integrin signaling and regulates actin remodeling in bone-resorbing osteoclasts. In this study, we examined the role of Pyk2 and actin in the MK-mediated increase in OB proliferation. Calvarial OBs were cultured in the presence of MKs for various times, and Pyk2 signaling cascades in OBs were examined by Western blotting, subcellular fractionation, and microscopy. We found that MKs regulate the temporal expression of Pyk2 and its subcellular localization. We also found that MKs regulate the expression of two alternatively spliced isoforms of Pyk2 in OBs, which may regulate OB differentiation and proliferation. MKs also induced cytoskeletal reorganization in OBs, which was associated with the caspase-mediated cleavage of actin, an increase in focal adhesions, and the formation of apical membrane ruffles. Moreover, BrdU incorporation in MK-stimulated OBs was blocked by the actin-polymerizing agent, jasplakinolide. Collectively, our studies reveal that Pyk2 and actin play an important role in MK-regulated signaling cascades that control OB proliferation and may be important for therapeutic interventions aimed at increasing bone formation in metabolic diseases of the skeleton.

Gap junctional channels are parts of multiprotein complexes

Gap junctional channels are a class of membrane channels composed of transmembrane channel-forming integral membrane proteins termed connexins, innexins or pannexins that mediate direct cell-to-cell or cell-to extracellular medium communication in almost all animal tissues. The activity of these channels is tightly regulated, particularly by intramolecular modifications as phosphorylations of proteins and via the formation of multiprotein complexes where pore-forming subunits bind to auxiliary channel subunits and associate with scaffolding proteins that play essential roles in channel localization and activity. Scaffolding proteins link signaling enzymes, substrates, and potential effectors (such as channels) into multiprotein signaling complexes that may be anchored to the cytoskeleton. Protein-protein interactions play essential roles in channel localization and activity and, besides their cell-to-cell channel-forming functions, gap junctional proteins now appear involved in different cellular functions (e.g. transcriptional and cytoskeletal regulations). The present review summarizes the recent progress regarding the proteins capable of interacting with junctional proteins and highlights the function of these protein-protein interactions in cell physiology and aberrant function in diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and functions.

Discovering the molecular components of intercellular junctions--a historical view

The organization of metazoa is based on the formation of tissues and on tissue-typical functions and these in turn are based on cell-cell connecting structures. In vertebrates, four major forms of cell junctions have been classified and the molecular composition of which has been elucidated in the past three decades: Desmosomes, which connect epithelial and some other cell types, and the almost ubiquitous adherens junctions are based on closely cis-packed glycoproteins, cadherins, which are associated head-to-head with those of the hemi-junction domain of an adjacent cell, whereas their cytoplasmic regions assemble sizable plaques of special proteins anchoring cytoskeletal filaments. In contrast, the tight junctions (TJs) and gap junctions (GJs) are formed by tetraspan proteins (claudins and occludins, or connexins) arranged head-to-head as TJ seal bands or as paracrystalline connexin channels, allowing intercellular exchange of small molecules. The by and large parallel discoveries of the junction protein families are reported.

Identification of novel cyclooxygenase-2-dependent genes in Helicobacter pylori infection in vivo

BACKGROUND

Helicobacter pylori is a crucial determining factor in the pathogenesis of benign and neoplastic gastric diseases. Cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) is the inducible key enzyme of arachidonic acid metabolism and is a central mediator in inflammation and cancer. Expression of the Cox-2 gene is up-regulated in the gastric mucosa during H. pylori infection but the pathobiological consequences of this enhanced Cox-2 expression are not yet characterized. The aim of this study was to identify novel genes down-stream of Cox-2 in an in vivo model, thereby identifying potential targets for the study of the role of Cox- 2 in H. pylori pathogenesis and the initiation of pre- cancerous changes.

RESULTS

Gene expression profiles in the gastric mucosa of mice treated with a specific Cox-2 inhibitor (NS398) or vehicle were analysed at different time points (6, 13 and 19 wk) after H. pylori infection. H. pylori infection affected the expression of 385 genes over the experimental period, including regulators of gastric physiology, proliferation, apoptosis and mucosal defence. Under conditions of Cox-2 inhibition, 160 target genes were regulated as a result of H. pylori infection. The Cox-2 dependent subset included those influencing gastric physiology (Gastrin, Galr1), epithelial barrier function (Tjp1, connexin45, Aqp5), inflammation (Icam1), apoptosis (Clu) and proliferation (Gdf3, Igf2). Treatment with NS398 alone caused differential expression of 140 genes, 97 of which were unique, indicating that these genes are regulated under conditions of basal Cox-2 expression.

CONCLUSION

This study has identified a panel of novel Cox-2 dependent genes influenced under both normal and the inflammatory conditions induced by H. pylori infection. These data provide important new links between Cox-2 and inflammatory processes, epithelial repair and integrity.

The role of the cytoskeleton in the formation of gap junctions by Connexin 30

Mutations in the genes that encode Connexin 26 (GJB2) and Connexin 30 (GJB6) are the most common known cause of hereditary nonsyndromic sensorineural deafness. Cx26 and Cx30 share a similar protein structure, as well as the same expression distribution pattern in the cochlea. Cx26 has different intracellular trafficking properties compared to those of Cx43 and Cx32, whose trafficking manner is consistent with the classical membrane protein secretory pathway. Until now, however, the trafficking patterns of Cx30 have not been studied. By means of an immunofluorescence staining approach, we found that the targeting of Cx30 to gap junctions in transfected HeLa cells is not affected by brefeldin A, suggesting a Golgi-independent feature, similar to Cx26. Nocodazole had a minimal effect on assembly and distribution of Cx30 gap junctions. Cytochalasin B-induced actin filament depolymerization, however, affected both the pattern and the distribution of Cx30 gap junctions. Co-localization with and/or interaction between Cx30 and microtubules and cortical actin filaments, but not with the tight/adherens junction protein ZO-1, was confirmed by immunofluorescence and/or immunoprecipitation methods. The results suggest that the cytoskeleton, and especially actin filaments, are important components in the processes of assembly, trafficking and stabilization of Cx30 gap junctions.

Connexins: a myriad of functions extending beyond assembly of gap junction channels

Connexins constitute a large family of trans-membrane proteins that allow intercellular communication and the transfer of ions and small signaling molecules between cells. Recent studies have revealed complex translational and post-translational mechanisms that regulate connexin synthesis, maturation, membrane transport and degradation that in turn modulate gap junction intercellular communication. With the growing myriad of connexin interacting proteins, including cytoskeletal elements, junctional proteins, and enzymes, gap junctions are now perceived, not only as channels between neighboring cells, but as signaling complexes that regulate cell function and transformation. Connexins have also been shown to form functional hemichannels and have roles altogether independent of channel functions, where they exert their effects on proliferation and other aspects of life and death of the cell through mostly-undefined mechanisms. This review provides an updated overview of current knowledge of connexins and their interacting proteins, and it describes connexin modulation in disease and tumorigenesis.

Reciprocal influence of connexins and apical junction proteins on their expressions and functions

Membranes of adjacent cells form intercellular junctional complexes to mechanically anchor neighbour cells (anchoring junctions), to seal the paracellular space and to prevent diffusion of integral proteins within the plasma membrane (tight junctions) and to allow cell-to-cell diffusion of small ions and molecules (gap junctions). These different types of specialised plasma membrane microdomains, sharing common adaptor molecules, particularly zonula occludens proteins, frequently present intermingled relationships where the different proteins co-assemble into macromolecular complexes and their expressions are co-ordinately regulated. Proteins forming gap junction channels (connexins, particularly) and proteins fulfilling cell attachment or forming tight junction strands mutually influence expression and functions of one another.

Gap junctional complexes: From partners to functions

Gap junctions (GJ), specialised membrane structures that mediate cell-to-cell communication in almost all animal tissues, are composed of intercellular channel-forming integral membrane proteins termed connexins (Cxs), innexins or pannexins. The activity of these channels is closely regulated, particularly by intramolecular modifications as phosphorylation of proteins, via the formation of multiprotein complexes where pore-forming subunits bind to auxiliary channel subunits and associate with scaffolding proteins that play essential roles in channel localization and activity. Scaffolding proteins link signalling enzymes, substrates, and potential effectors (such as channels) into multiprotein signalling complexes that may be anchored to the cytoskeleton. Protein-protein interactions play essential roles in channel localization and activity and, besides their cell-to-cell channel-forming functions, gap junctional proteins now appear involved in different cellular functions (e.g. transcriptional and cytoskeletal regulation). The present review summarizes the recent progress regarding the proteins capable of interacting with junctional proteins and their functional importance.

Diminished zonula occludens-1 expression in the failing human heart

BACKGROUND

Reduced expression of the major gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx43) in the failing human heart may lead to arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Cx43 interacts with the actin binding protein, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), and it has recently been demonstrated that ZO-1 regulates the formation and function of Cx43 gap junctions. We hypothesize that normal expression of ZO-1 and its interaction with Cx43 are required for appropriate assembly and function of Cx43 gap junctions in the heart. Here, we determined whether expression of ZO-1 is altered in patients with heart failure.

METHODS

We examined ventricular myocardium from hearts of patients in end-stage heart failure, obtained at transplant, for ZO-1 expression by immunohistochemistry. We also subjected lysates made from this tissue to immunoblotting to determine the level of ZO-1 expression.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

ZO-1 was found at 96% of the intercalated discs in nonfailing control human hearts, where it colocalized with Cx43. In contrast, there was ZO-1 immunostaining at 5% of intercalated discs in failing hearts, coincident with a reduction in Cx43 staining in intercalated discs. Immunoblotting analysis showed that there was a 95% reduction in ZO-1 expression in human heart failure. Loss of ZO-1 at intercalated discs in heart failure may play a critical role in remodeling of Cx43 gap junctions, which may contribute to abnormal impulse propagation and arrhythmogenesis, thereby predisposing patients in heart failure to sudden cardiac death.

Interaction of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) with alpha-actinin-4: application of functional proteomics for identification of PDZ domain-associated proteins

The use of recombinant "bait" proteins to capture protein-binding partners, followed by identification of protein interaction networks by mass spectrometry (MS), has gained popularity and widespread acceptance. We have developed an approach using recombinant PDZ protein interaction modules of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) to pull-down and screen for proteins that interact with these modules via their PDZ domain binding motifs. Identification of proteins by MS of pull-down material was achieved using a vacuum-based chromatography sample preparation device designed for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) MS. MS analysis of tryptic fragments in pull-down material revealed a number of potential ZO-1 interacting candidates, including the presence of peptides corresponding to the cortical membrane scaffolding protein alpha-actinin-4. Interaction of alpha-actinin-4 with ZO-1 was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation of these two proteins from cultured cells, as well as from brain, liver, and heart, and by immunoblot detection of alpha-actinin-4 after pull-down with the first PDZ domain of ZO-1. In contrast, the highly homologous alpha-actinin family member, alpha-actinin-1, displayed no association with ZO-1. Immunofluorescence showed colocalization of alpha-actinin-4 with ZO-1 in cultured HeLa and C6 glioma cells, as well as in a variety of tissues in vivo, including brain, heart, liver, and lung. This study demonstrates the utility of MS-based functional proteomics for identifying cellular components of the ZO-1 scaffolding network. Our finding of the interaction of ZO-1 with alpha-actinin-4 provides a mechanism for linking the known protein recruitment and signaling activities of ZO-1 with alpha-actinin-4-associated plasma membrane proteins that have regulatory activities at cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix contacts.

Expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and the transcription factor ZO-1-associated nucleic acid-binding protein (ZONAB)-MsY3 in glial cells and colocalization at oligodendrocyte and astrocyte gap junctions in mouse brain

The PDZ domain-containing protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) interacts with several members of the connexin (Cx) family of gap junction-forming proteins and has been localized to gap junctions, including those containing Cx47 in oligodendrocytes. We now provide evidence for ZO-1 expression in astrocytes in vivo and association with astrocytic connexins by confocal immunofluorescence demonstration of ZO-1 colocalization with astrocytic Cx30 and Cx43, and by ZO-1 coimmunoprecipitation with Cx30 and Cx43. Evidence for direct interaction of Cx30 with ZO-1 was obtained by pull-down assays that indicated binding of Cx30 to the second of the three PDZ domains in ZO-1. Further, we investigated mouse Y-box transcription factor MsY3, the canine ortholog of which has been termed ZO-1-associated nucleic acid-binding protein (ZONAB) and previously reported to interact with ZO-1. By immunofluorescence using specific antimouse ZONAB antibody, ZONAB was found to be associated with oligodendrocytes throughout mouse brain and spinal cord, and to be colocalized with oligodendrocytic Cx47 and Cx32 as well as with astrocytic Cx43. Our results extend the CNS cell types that express the multifunctional protein ZO-1, demonstrate an additional connexin (Cx30) that directly interacts with ZO-1, and show for the first time the association of a transcription factor (ZONAB) with ZO-1 localized to oligodendrocyte and astrocyte gap junctions. Given previous observations that ZONAB and ZO-1 in combination regulate gene expression, our results suggest roles of glial gap junction-mediated anchoring of signalling molecules in a wide variety of glial homeostatic processes.

Functional interaction between CFTR and Cx45 gap junction channels expressed in oocytes

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride (Cl(-)) channel known to influence the function of other channels, including connexin channels. To further study potential functional interactions between CFTR and gap junction channels, we have co-expressed CFTR and connexin45 (Cx45) in Xenopus oocytes and monitored junctional conductance and voltage sensitivity by dual voltage clamp electrophysiology. In single oocytes expressing CFTR, an increase in cAMP caused by forskolin application induced a Cl(-) current and increased membrane conductance; application of diphenylamine carboxylic acid (CFTR blocker) readily blocked the Cl(-) current. With co-expression of CFTR and Cx45, application of forskolin to paired oocytes induced a typical outward current and increased junctional conductance (G(j)). In addition, the presence of CFTR reduced the transjunctional voltage sensitivity of Cx45 channels without affecting the kinetics of junctional current inactivation. The drop in voltage sensitivity was further enhanced by forskolin application. The data indicate that CFTR influences cell-to-cell coupling mediated by Cx45 channels.

Up-regulated expression of zonula occludens protein-1 in human melanoma associates with N-cadherin and contributes to invasion and adhesion

During the process of malignant transformation, nascent melanoma cells escape keratinocyte control through down-regulation of E-cadherin and instead communicate among themselves and with fibroblasts via N-cadherin-based cell-cell contacts. The zonula occludens (ZO) protein-1 is a membrane-associated component of both the tight and adherens junctions found at sites of cell-cell contact. In most cancers, levels of ZO-1 are typically down-regulated, leading to increased motility. Here we report the novel observation that ZO-1 expression is up-regulated in melanoma cells and is located at adherens junctions between melanoma cells and fibroblasts. Immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation studies showed co-localization of ZO-1 with N-cadherin. Down-regulation of ZO-1 in melanoma cells through RNA interference produced marked changes in cell morphology--leading to a less-dendritic, more rounded phenotype. Consistent with a role in N-cadherin-based adhesion, RNAi-treated melanoma cells were less adherent and invasive when grown in a collagen gel. These data provide the first evidence that increased ZO-1 expression in melanoma contributes to the oncogenic behavior of this tumor and further illustrate that protein products of genes, such as ZO-1, can function in either a pro- or anti-oncogenic manner when expressed in different cellular contexts.

Association of connexin36 with zonula occludens-1 in HeLa cells, betaTC-3 cells, pancreas, and adrenal gland

The PDZ domain-containing protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), a well-established component of tight junctions, has recently been shown to interact with various connexin proteins that form gap junctions. We investigated the association of connexin36 (Cx36) with ZO-1 in various cultured cells and tissues. Punctate immunofluorescence labeling for Cx36 was detected in Cx36-transfected HeLa cells, betaTC-3 cells, pancreatic islets, and adrenal medulla. Immunofluorescence for ZO-1 was also punctate in cells and tissues, and was colocalized with Cx36 at points of cell-cell contact. Immunoprecipitation of either Cx36 or ZO-1 from cell lysates and tissue homogenates resulted in immunoblot detection of ZO-1 or Cx36, respectively, in immunoprecipitates. A 14-amino acid peptide corresponding to the carboxy-terminus of Cx36 showed binding capacity to the PDZ1 domain of ZO-1, which was eliminated after removal of the last 4 carboxy-terminus amino acids. Low micromolar concentrations of the 14-amino acid peptide produced up to 85% inhibition of Cx36 interaction with the PDZ1 domain of ZO-1. These results provide evidence for molecular interaction between Cx36 and ZO-1 in vitro, and in vivo, and suggest that the interference with Cx36/ZO-1 interaction by short carboxy-terminus peptides of Cx36 may be of value for functional studies of this interaction.

Diversity in protein–protein interactions of connexins: emerging roles

Gap junctions, specialised membrane structures that mediate cell-to-cell communication in almost all tissues, are composed of channel-forming integral membrane proteins termed connexins. The activity of these intercellular channels is closely regulated, particularly by intramolecular modifications as phosphorylations of proteins by protein kinases, which appear to regulate the gap junction at several levels, including assembly of channels in the plasma membrane, connexin turnover as well as directly affecting the opening and closure ("gating") of channels. The regulation of membrane channels by protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation processes commonly requires the formation of a multiprotein complex, where pore-forming subunits bind to auxiliary proteins (e.g. scaffolding proteins, catalytic and regulatory subunits), that play essential roles in channel localisation and activity, linking signalling enzymes, substrates and effectors into a structure frequently anchored to the cytoskeleton. The present review summarises the up-to-date progress regarding the proteins capable of interacting or at least of co-localising with connexins and their functional importance.