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de Brito SG, Dias TS, Dos Santos Machado L, de Souza JB, da Cunha NC, de Almeida Pereira VL, Barreto ML, de Mello Figueiredo Cerqueira A, Neves FPG. Detection of Mycoplasma spp. in free-living seabirds. Braz J Microbiol 2024:10.1007/s42770-024-01409-8. [PMID: 38833117 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-024-01409-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the presence of Mycoplasma spp. and identify the species of mycoplasma isolates obtained from seabirds found on Brazilian coastal beaches. Tracheal and cloacal swab samples were collected from 50 seabirds rescued by three conservation and marine animal rehabilitation centers located in Brazil. The tracheal and cloacal samples were subjected to mycoplasma culture and the isolates were identified through PCR. A "Mollicutes-specific" 16S rRNA PCR reaction was employed for triage. Four species-specific PCR reactions were used to detect Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, Mycoplasma meleagridis, or M. gallinarum. The Mollicutes positive and species negative samples were submitted do 16S rRNA sequencing. Eighteen (36%) of 50 seabirds tested positive for mycoplasma by culture. In the PCR for the genus, 28 (56%) of 50 seabirds were positive for Mycoplasma spp., with 13 (26%) detected in the trachea, one (2%) in the cloaca, and 14 (28%) in both sites. In the species-specific PCR, M. gallisepticum was detected in 17.8%, and M. meleagridis in 17.8%. Both species were detected in 14.3%. Of the isolates not characterized at species level, we obtained ten sequences and they were divided into three clusters. The first cluster was closely related to M. meleagridis, the second to M. synoviae, and the third grouped M. tully, M. gallisepticum, and M. imitans. Four and five of nine species of seabirds studied had mycoplasma detected by culture or PCR, respectively. Mycoplasmas were found in the majority of the animals studied, with the highest prevalence proportionally found in Sula leucogaster, and the lowest in Fregata magnificens. The phylogenetic analysis identified Mycoplasma spp. adapted to aquatic birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samara Gomes de Brito
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu Em Microbiologia E Parasitologia Aplicadas (PPGMPA), da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Thomas Salles Dias
- Departamento de Saúde Coletiva Veterinária E Saúde Pública, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Leandro Dos Santos Machado
- Departamento de Saúde Coletiva Veterinária E Saúde Pública, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jenif Braga de Souza
- Instituto de Ciência E Tecnologia Em Biomodelos (ICTB), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nathalie Costa da Cunha
- Departamento de Saúde Coletiva Veterinária E Saúde Pública, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Virginia Léo de Almeida Pereira
- Departamento de Saúde Coletiva Veterinária E Saúde Pública, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Lúcia Barreto
- Departamento de Imunologia (GIM), Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Felipe Piedade Gonçalves Neves
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu Em Microbiologia E Parasitologia Aplicadas (PPGMPA), da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
- Departamento de Microbiologia E Parasitologia (MIP), Instituto Biomédico (CMB), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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Mwakibete L, Greening SS, Kalantar K, Ahyong V, Anis E, Miller EA, Needle DB, Oglesbee M, Thomas WK, Sevigny JL, Gordon LM, Nemeth NM, Ogbunugafor CB, Ayala AJ, Faith SA, Neff N, Detweiler AM, Baillargeon T, Tanguay S, Simpson SD, Murphy LA, Ellis JC, Tato CM, Gagne RB. Metagenomics for Pathogen Detection During a Mass Mortality Event in Songbirds. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:362-374. [PMID: 38345467 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Mass mortality events in wildlife can be indications of an emerging infectious disease. During the spring and summer of 2021, hundreds of dead passerines were reported across the eastern US. Birds exhibited a range of clinical signs including swollen conjunctiva, ocular discharge, ataxia, and nystagmus. As part of the diagnostic investigation, high-throughput metagenomic next-generation sequencing was performed across three molecular laboratories on samples from affected birds. Many potentially pathogenic microbes were detected, with bacteria forming the largest proportion; however, no singular agent was consistently identified, with many of the detected microbes also found in unaffected (control) birds and thus considered to be subclinical infections. Congruent results across laboratories have helped drive further investigation into alternative causes, including environmental contaminants and nutritional deficiencies. This work highlights the utility of metagenomic approaches in investigations of emerging diseases and provides a framework for future wildlife mortality events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sabrina S Greening
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
| | | | - Vida Ahyong
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Eman Anis
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
- Department of Pathobiology, PADLS New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
| | - Erica A Miller
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
| | - David B Needle
- New Hampshire Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Michael Oglesbee
- Infectious Diseases Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - W Kelley Thomas
- Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Joseph L Sevigny
- Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Lawrence M Gordon
- Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Nicole M Nemeth
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study and Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - C Brandon Ogbunugafor
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Andrea J Ayala
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Seth A Faith
- Infectious Diseases Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Norma Neff
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | | | - Tessa Baillargeon
- New Hampshire Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Stacy Tanguay
- New Hampshire Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Stephen D Simpson
- Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA
| | - Lisa A Murphy
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
- Department of Pathobiology, PADLS New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
| | - Julie C Ellis
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
| | - Cristina M Tato
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Roderick B Gagne
- Department of Pathobiology, Wildlife Futures Program, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA
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3
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Ernest HB, Tell LA, Bishop CA, González AM, Lumsdaine ER. Illuminating the Mysteries of the Smallest Birds: Hummingbird Population Health, Disease Ecology, and Genomics. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2024; 12:161-185. [PMID: 38358836 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-021022-044308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Hummingbirds share biologically distinctive traits: sustained hovering flight, the smallest bird body size, and high metabolic rates fueled partially by nectar feeding that provides pollination to plant species. Being insectivorous and sometimes serving as prey to larger birds, they fulfill additional important ecological roles. Hummingbird species evolved and radiated into nearly every habitat in the Americas, with a core of species diversity in South America. Population declines of some of their species are increasing their risk of extinction. Threats to population health and genetic diversity are just beginning to be identified, including diseases and hazards caused by humans. We review the disciplines of population health, disease ecology, and genomics as they relate to hummingbirds. We appraise knowledge gaps, causes of morbidity and mortality including disease, and threats to population viability. Finally, we highlight areas of research need and provide ideas for future studies aimed at facilitating hummingbird conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly B Ernest
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA;
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA; ,
| | - Lisa A Tell
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA; ,
| | - Christine A Bishop
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada; ,
| | - Ana M González
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada; ,
| | - Emily R Lumsdaine
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA; ,
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Klukowski N, Eden P, Uddin MJ, Sarker S. Virome of Australia's most endangered parrot in captivity evidenced of harboring hitherto unknown viruses. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0305223. [PMID: 38047696 PMCID: PMC10783009 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03052-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The impact of circulating viruses on the critically endangered, orange-bellied parrot (OBP) population can be devastating. The OBP already faces numerous threats to its survival in the wild, including habitat loss, predation, and small population impacts. Conservation of the wild OBP population is heavily reliant on supplementation using OBPs from a managed captive breeding program. These birds may act as a source for introduction of a novel disease agent to the wild population that may affect survival and reproduction. It is, therefore, essential to monitor and assess the health of OBPs and take appropriate measures to prevent and control the spread of viral infections. This requires knowledge of the existing virome to identify novel and emerging viruses and support development of appropriate measures to manage associated risk. By monitoring and protecting these animals from emerging viral diseases, we can help ensure their ongoing survival and preserve the biodiversity of our planet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Klukowski
- Department of Microbiology, Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul Eden
- Wildlife Conservation and Science, Zoos Victoria, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Muhammad Jasim Uddin
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- Center for Biosecurity and One Health, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Subir Sarker
- Department of Microbiology, Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Biomedical Sciences & Molecular Biology, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
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5
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Henschen AE, Vinkler M, Langager MM, Rowley AA, Dalloul RA, Hawley DM, Adelman JS. Rapid adaptation to a novel pathogen through disease tolerance in a wild songbird. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011408. [PMID: 37294834 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal hosts can adapt to emerging infectious disease through both disease resistance, which decreases pathogen numbers, and disease tolerance, which limits damage during infection without limiting pathogen replication. Both resistance and tolerance mechanisms can drive pathogen transmission dynamics. However, it is not well understood how quickly host tolerance evolves in response to novel pathogens or what physiological mechanisms underlie this defense. Using natural populations of house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) across the temporal invasion gradient of a recently emerged bacterial pathogen (Mycoplasma gallisepticum), we find rapid evolution of tolerance (<25 years). In particular, populations with a longer history of MG endemism have less pathology but similar pathogen loads compared with populations with a shorter history of MG endemism. Further, gene expression data reveal that more-targeted immune responses early in infection are associated with tolerance. These results suggest an important role for tolerance in host adaptation to emerging infectious diseases, a phenomenon with broad implications for pathogen spread and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amberleigh E Henschen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Memphis; Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University; Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Michal Vinkler
- Department of Zoology, Charles University; Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marissa M Langager
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech; Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Allison A Rowley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech; Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Rami A Dalloul
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia; Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech; Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - James S Adelman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Memphis; Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University; Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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6
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Reinoso-Pérez MT, Dhondt KV, Levitskiy AA, Dupont G, Tulman ER, Geary SJ, Dhondt AA. Are Purple Finches (Haemorhous purpureus) the Next Host for a Mycoplasmal Conjunctivitis Epidemic? Avian Dis 2023; 67:42-48. [PMID: 37140110 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-22-00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Ever since 1994, when the bacterial pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum jumped from poultry to wild birds, it has been assumed that the primary host species of this pathogen in wild North American birds was the house finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), in which disease prevalence was higher than in any other bird species. Here we tested two hypotheses to explain a recent increase in disease prevalence in purple finches (Haemorhous purpureus) around Ithaca, New York. Hypothesis 1 is that, as M. gallisepticum evolved and became more virulent, it has also become better adapted to other finches. If this is correct, early isolates of M. gallisepticum should cause less-severe eye lesions in purple finches than in house finches, while more-recent isolates should cause eye lesions of similar severity in the two species. Hypothesis 2 is that, as house finch abundance declined following the M. gallisepticum epidemic, purple finches around Ithaca increased in abundance relative to house finches and purple finches are thus more frequently exposed to M. gallisepticum-infected house finches. This would then lead to an increase in M. gallisepticum prevalence in purple finches. Following an experimental infection with an early and a more-recent M. gallisepticum isolate, eye lesions in purple finches were more severe than in house finches. This did not a support Hypothesis 1; similarly, an analysis of Project Feeder Watch data collected around Ithaca did not show differences in changes in purple and house finches' abundance since 2006, a result which does not support Hypothesis 2. We conclude that purple finch populations will, unlike those of house finches, not suffer a severe decline because of a M. gallisepticum epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keila V. Dhondt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | | | - Gates Dupont
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Princeton University Princeton NJ 08544
| | - Edan R. Tulman
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CN 06269
| | - Steven J. Geary
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CN 06269
| | - André A. Dhondt
- Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
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Lewis AC, Hughes C, Rogers TL. Living in human-modified landscapes narrows the dietary niche of a specialised mammalian scavenger. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3582. [PMID: 36869089 PMCID: PMC9984462 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30490-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic impacts on carnivores can be complex, posing numerous threats to many species, yet also benefits to those able to exploit certain resources. This balancing act is particularly precarious for those adapters that exploit dietary resources provided by humans, but still require other resources only available in native habitat. Here we measure the dietary niche of one such species, the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), a specialised mammalian scavenger, across an anthropogenic habitat gradient stretching from cleared pasture to undisturbed rainforest. Populations inhabiting areas of greater disturbance showed restricted dietary niches, suggesting that all individuals fed on similar food items, even within regenerated native forest. Populations in undisturbed rainforest habitats had comparatively broad diets and showed evidence of niche partitioning by body size, which may reduce intraspecific competition. Despite the potential benefits of reliable access to high-quality food items in anthropogenically-modified habitats, the constrained niches we observed may be harmful, indicating altered behaviours and potentially increasing the rate of fights between individuals over food. This is of particular concern for a species at risk of extinction due to a deadly cancer primarily transmitted through aggressive interactions. The lack of diversity in devil diets within regenerated native forest compared to those in old-growth rainforest also indicates the conservation value of the latter for both the devil and the species which they consume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Lewis
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
- The Carnivore Conservancy, Ulverstone, TAS, Australia.
| | - Channing Hughes
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- The Carnivore Conservancy, Ulverstone, TAS, Australia
| | - Tracey L Rogers
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Marine Science and Innovation, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Simonis MC, Hartzler LK, Turner GG, Scafini MR, Johnson JS, Rúa MA. Long‐term exposure to an invasive fungal pathogen decreases
Eptesicus fuscus
body mass with increasing latitude. Ecosphere 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Molly C. Simonis
- Department of Biology University of Oklahoma Norman Oklahoma USA
- Environmental Sciences PhD Program Wright State University Dayton Ohio USA
| | - Lynn K. Hartzler
- Environmental Sciences PhD Program Wright State University Dayton Ohio USA
- Department of Biological Sciences Wright State University Dayton Ohio USA
| | - Gregory G. Turner
- Bureau of Wildlife Management Pennsylvania Game Commission Harrisburg Pennsylvania USA
| | - Michael R. Scafini
- Bureau of Wildlife Management Pennsylvania Game Commission Harrisburg Pennsylvania USA
| | - Joseph S. Johnson
- School of Information Technology University of Cincinnati Cincinnati Ohio USA
| | - Megan A. Rúa
- Environmental Sciences PhD Program Wright State University Dayton Ohio USA
- Department of Biological Sciences Wright State University Dayton Ohio USA
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CHANGES IN TISSUE TROPISM OF MYCOPLASMA GALLISEPTICUM FOLLOWING HOST JUMP. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:716-724. [PMID: 36302353 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, a pathogen of worldwide economic importance in poultry, is recovered in chickens, especially from the respiratory tract. Some strains, however, are specialized to other tissues and because it jumps from poultry to wild birds, the new strains also cause severe conjunctivitis in new hosts. Nevertheless, most studies of M. gallisepticum in wild birds use choanal swabs or combine choanal and conjunctival swabs to quantify bacterial load. Because the clinical signs associated with M. gallisepticum infection differ markedly between poultry and House Finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), we compared the bacterial load in choanal and conjunctival samples following experimental inoculation of House Finches with M. gallisepticum isolates originating from poultry or from House Finches. This allowed us to test two hypotheses: M. gallisepticum changed tissue tropism, or M. gallisepticum simply expanded its within-host niche. By comparing bacterial loads from choanal and conjunctival swabs in birds inoculated with one of a suite of M. gallisepticum isolates, we found support for hypothesis 2. The choanal loads in House Finches did not differ between isolates, while the conjunctival loads of birds inoculated with poultry isolates were lower than in birds inoculated with House Finch isolates. When measuring the bacterial load of M. gallisepticum in birds, it is important to sample and analyze separately choanal and conjunctival swabs, as quantifying bacterial loads in pooled samples may not provide reliable information on differences in virulence.
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The Ring-Necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Industry within the United Kingdom and the Threat Posed by Mycoplasma gallisepticum: A Review. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9080391. [PMID: 36006306 PMCID: PMC9413133 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9080391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection is frequently associated with infectious sinusitis. This condition causes swelling of the infraorbital sinuses, upper respiratory distress, depression and variable levels of mortality, and is considered one of the most important clinical and economic diseases of pheasants. This review provides a brief overview of the structure of the UK pheasant industry, with reference to the various stages within the supply chain, common diseases and challenges facing the industry. The current understanding of MG transmission, prevalence, clinical expression, diagnosis and control strategies in pheasants is subsequently summarised. In addition, this review aims to assess the current gaps in knowledge relating specifically to MG in pheasants, with reference and extrapolation where appropriate to data gathered from other species. This review will be of particular interest to clinicians in the field when planning MG control or treatment strategies in pheasants. It may also be of academic interest as it provides a summary of poorly studied areas. Abstract In ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection is frequently associated with infectious sinusitis. This condition causes swelling of the infraorbital sinuses, upper respiratory distress, depression and variable levels of mortality, and is considered one of the most important clinical and economic diseases of pheasants. This review provides a brief overview of the structure of the UK pheasant industry, with reference to the various stages within the supply chain, common diseases and challenges facing the industry. The current understanding of MG transmission, prevalence, clinical expression, diagnosis and control strategies in pheasants is subsequently summarised. In addition, this review aims to assess the current gaps in knowledge relating specifically to MG in pheasants, with reference and extrapolation where appropriate to data gathered from other species.
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Dawood A, Algharib SA, Zhao G, Zhu T, Qi M, Delai K, Hao Z, Marawan MA, Shirani I, Guo A. Mycoplasmas as Host Pantropic and Specific Pathogens: Clinical Implications, Gene Transfer, Virulence Factors, and Future Perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:855731. [PMID: 35646746 PMCID: PMC9137434 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.855731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas as economically important and pantropic pathogens can cause similar clinical diseases in different hosts by eluding host defense and establishing their niches despite their limited metabolic capacities. Besides, enormous undiscovered virulence has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of pathogenic mycoplasmas. On the other hand, they are host-specific pathogens with some highly pathogenic members that can colonize a vast number of habitats. Reshuffling mycoplasmas genetic information and evolving rapidly is a way to avoid their host's immune system. However, currently, only a few control measures exist against some mycoplasmosis which are far from satisfaction. This review aimed to provide an updated insight into the state of mycoplasmas as pathogens by summarizing and analyzing the comprehensive progress, current challenge, and future perspectives of mycoplasmas. It covers clinical implications of mycoplasmas in humans and domestic and wild animals, virulence-related factors, the process of gene transfer and its crucial prospects, the current application and future perspectives of nanotechnology for diagnosing and curing mycoplasmosis, Mycoplasma vaccination, and protective immunity. Several questions remain unanswered and are recommended to pay close attention to. The findings would be helpful to develop new strategies for basic and applied research on mycoplasmas and facilitate the control of mycoplasmosis for humans and various species of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Dawood
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, Egypt
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Samah Attia Algharib
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, HZAU, Wuhan, China
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
| | - Gang Zhao
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tingting Zhu
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mingpu Qi
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Kong Delai
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhiyu Hao
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Marawan A. Marawan
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
| | - Ihsanullah Shirani
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- Para-Clinic Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jalalabad, Afghanistan
| | - Aizhen Guo
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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12
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Ipoutcha T, Gourgues G, Lartigue C, Blanchard A, Sirand-Pugnet P. Genome Engineering in Mycoplasma gallisepticum Using Exogenous Recombination Systems. ACS Synth Biol 2022; 11:1060-1067. [PMID: 35167277 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.1c00541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mgal) is a common pathogen of poultry worldwide that has recently spread to North American house finches after a single host shift in 1994. The molecular determinants of Mgal virulence and host specificity are still largely unknown, mostly due to the absence of efficient methods for functional genomics. After evaluating two exogenous recombination systems derived from phages found in the phylogenetically related Spiroplasma phoeniceum and the more distant Bacillus subtilis, the RecET-like system from B. subtilis was successfully used for gene inactivation and targeted replacement in Mgal. In a second step, the Cre-lox recombination system was used for the removal of the antibiotic resistance marker in recombinant mutants. This study therefore describes the first genetic tool for targeted genome engineering of Mgal and demonstrates the efficiency of heterologous recombination systems in minimal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Ipoutcha
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Géraldine Gourgues
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Carole Lartigue
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Alain Blanchard
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Pascal Sirand-Pugnet
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332, F-33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France
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13
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Weitzman CL, Ceja G, Leon AE, Hawley DM. Protection Generated by Prior Exposure to Pathogens Depends on both Priming and Challenge Dose. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0053721. [PMID: 35041488 PMCID: PMC8929379 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00537-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-living hosts encounter pathogens at a wide range of frequencies and concentrations, including low doses that are largely aclinical, creating a varied landscape of exposure history and reinfection likelihood. While several studies show that higher priming doses result in stronger immunological protection against reinfection, it remains unknown how the reinfection challenge dose and priming dose interact to determine the likelihood and severity of reinfection. We manipulated both priming and challenge doses of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which causes mycoplasmal conjunctivitis, in captive house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), to assess reinfection probability and severity. We found a significant interaction between priming and challenge doses on reinfection probability, with the likelihood of reinfection by a high but not a low challenge dose decreasing exponentially at higher priming doses. While this interaction was likely driven by lower average infection probabilities for low-dose versus high-dose challenges, even the highest priming dose provided only negligible protection against reinfection from low-dose challenges. Similarly, pathogen loads during reinfection were significantly reduced with increasing priming doses only for birds reinfected at high but not low doses. We hypothesize that these interactions arise to some degree from fundamental differences in host immune responses across doses, with single low doses only weakly triggering host immune responses. Importantly, our results also demonstrate that reinfections can occur from a variety of exposure doses and across diverse degrees of standing immunity in this system. Overall, our study highlights the importance of considering both initial and subsequent exposure doses where repeated exposure to a pathogen is common in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chava L. Weitzman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Guadalupe Ceja
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Ariel E. Leon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Dana M. Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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14
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Fischer L, Liebing J, Völker I, Baudler L, Gethöffer F, Voigt U, Heffels-Redmann U, Wohlsein P, Siebert U, Lierz M. Occurrence and relevance of Mycoplasma spp. in free-ranging pheasants from northwestern Germany. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-021-01557-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSince 2008/2009, the population of free-ranging ring-necked pheasants was recorded to decrease all over Germany. Various Mycoplasma (M.) spp. are causing severe respiratory signs in captive game bird species. Furthermore, M. gallisepticum is responsible for massive die-offs in consequence to severe conjunctivitis in house finches in the USA. Therefore, the prevalence of mycoplasmas in free-ranging pheasants was investigated and a potential impact on the population decline of pheasants discussed. Within this study, 150 free-ranging pheasants were sampled via tracheal swabs and tissue samples of the trachea and the periorbital skin, as the latter displayed inflammatory alterations in previous studies. In total, 177 samples were investigated for the presence of mycoplasmas using cultural and molecular biological methods. In 76 birds, necropsy was performed additionally. In total, 73.7% (51/76) of the examined pheasants had periorbital skin alterations. Furthermore, 64.4% (114/177) of the samples tested positive for mycoplasmas via PCR. Overall, 102/177 samples (57.6%, 78/105 tracheal swabs, 19/51 skin tissue, 5/21 trachea tissue) tested positive for mycoplasmas via culture. Mycoplasma gallinaceum (n = 50), M. pullorum (n = 45), M. glycophilum (n = 43), M. iners (n = 11), and M. gallinarum (n = 5) were frequently isolated. In 45 cases (45.9%), multiple Mycoplasma spp. were isolated from one sample. All examined samples tested negative for M. gallisepticum. Of 51 skin samples investigated for mycoplasmas, 24 (47.1%) showed inflammatory skin alterations in histology, and 58.3% (14/24) of these samples tested positive for Mycoplasma spp. additionally. Overall, there was a significant correlation between inflammatory altered skin samples and the detection of mycoplasmas in periorbital skin samples. Based on the present results, the isolated Mycoplasma spp. may play a role as facultative agents for the observed inflammatory skin alterations. However, additional investigation is needed to confirm this presumption.
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15
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Le Gall-Ladevèze C, Nouvel LX, Souvestre M, Croville G, Hygonenq MC, Guérin JL, Le Loc'h G. Detection of a novel enterotropic Mycoplasma gallisepticum-like in European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) around poultry farms in France. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e883-e894. [PMID: 34738732 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza in southwest France have raised questions regarding the role of commensal wild birds in the introduction and dissemination of pathogens between poultry farms. To assess possible infectious contacts at the wild-domestic bird interface, the presence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) was studied in the two sympatric compartments in southwest France. Among various peridomestic wild birds (n = 385), standard PCR primers targeting the 16S rRNA of MG showed a high apparent prevalence (up to 45%) in cloacal swabs of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris, n = 108), while the MG-specific mgc2 gene was not detected. No tracheal swab of these birds tested positive, and no clinical sign was observed in positive birds, suggesting commensalism in the digestive tract of starlings. A mycoplasma strain was then isolated from a starling swab and its whole genome was sequenced using both Illumina and Nanopore technologies. Phylogenetic analysis showed that it was closely related to MG and M. tullyi, although it was a distinct species. A pair of specific PCR primers targeting the mgc2-like gene of this MG-like strain was designed and used to screen again the same avian populations and a wintering urban population of starlings (n = 50). Previous PCR results obtained in starlings were confirmed to be mostly due to this strain (20/22 positive pools). In contrast, the strain was not detected in fresh faeces of urban starlings. Furthermore, it was detected in one cloacal pool of white wagtails, suggesting infectious transmissions between synanthropic birds with similar feeding behaviour. As the new Starling mycoplasma was not detected in free-range ducks (n = 80) in close contact with positive starlings, nor in backyard (n = 320) and free-range commercial (n = 720) chickens of the area, it might not infect poultry. However, it could be involved in mycoplasma gene transfer in such multi-species contexts.
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16
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Sawicka-Durkalec A, Kursa O, Bednarz Ł, Tomczyk G. Occurrence of Mycoplasma spp. in wild birds: phylogenetic analysis and potential factors affecting distribution. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17065. [PMID: 34426624 PMCID: PMC8382738 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96577-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Different Mycoplasma species have been reported in avian hosts. However, the majority of studies focus on one particular species of Mycoplasma or one host. In our research, we screened a total of 1141 wild birds representing 55 species, 26 families, and 15 orders for the presence of mycoplasmas by conventional PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Selected PCR products were sequenced to perform the phylogenetic analysis. All mycoplasma-positive samples were tested for M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae, which are considered the major pathogens of commercial poultry. We also verified the influence of ecological characteristics of the tested bird species including feeding habits, habitat types, and movement patterns. The presence of Mycoplasma spp. was confirmed in 498 birds of 29 species, but none of the tested birds were positive for M. gallisepticum or M. synoviae. We found possible associations between the presence of Mycoplasma spp. and all investigated ecological factors. The phylogenetic analysis showed a high variability of Mycoplasma spp.; however, some clustering of sequences was observed regarding particular bird species. We found that wild migratory waterfowl, particularly the white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) and mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) could be reservoirs and vectors of mycoplasmas pathogenic to commercial waterfowl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Sawicka-Durkalec
- grid.419811.4Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Aleja Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Olimpia Kursa
- grid.419811.4Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Aleja Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Łukasz Bednarz
- Bird Horizons Foundation, Spółdzielcza 34, 24-220 Niedrzwica Duża, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Tomczyk
- grid.419811.4Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Aleja Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
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17
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Feberwee A, de Wit S, Dijkman R. Clinical expression, epidemiology and monitoring of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae: an update. Avian Pathol 2021; 51:2-18. [PMID: 34142880 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2021.1944605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) are of clinical and economic importance for the global poultry industry. Many countries and integrations are involved in monitoring programs to control both mycoplasma species. This review provides an extensive historic overview of the last seven decades on the development of the knowledge regarding the factors that influence the clinical expression of the disease, the epidemiology and monitoring of both MG and MS. This includes the detection of new virulent strains, studies unravelling the transmission routes, survival characteristics and the role of other avian hosts. Also the role of molecular typing tests in unravelling epidemiology, and factors that complicate the interpretation of test results such as heterologous mycoplasma infections, use of heterologous oil-emulsion vaccines, use of antibiotic treatments, occurrence of MG and MS strains with low virulence, and last but not least the use of live and/or inactivated MG and MS vaccines are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sjaak de Wit
- Royal GD, Deventer, the Netherlands.,Department of Farm Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
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18
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Gates DE, Staley M, Tardy L, Giraudeau M, Hill GE, McGraw KJ, Bonneaud C. Levels of pathogen virulence and host resistance both shape the antibody response to an emerging bacterial disease. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8209. [PMID: 33859241 PMCID: PMC8050079 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87464-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying variation in the ability to fight infection among free-living hosts is challenging and often constrained to one or a few measures of immune activity. While such measures are typically taken to reflect host resistance, they can also be shaped by pathogen effects, for example, if more virulent strains trigger more robust immune responses. Here, we test the extent to which pathogen-specific antibody levels, a commonly used measure of immunocompetence, reflect variation in host resistance versus pathogen virulence, and whether these antibodies effectively clear infection. House finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) from resistant and susceptible populations were inoculated with > 50 isolates of their novel Mycoplasma gallisepticum pathogen collected over a 20-year period during which virulence increased. Serum antibody levels were higher in finches from resistant populations and increased with year of pathogen sampling. Higher antibody levels, however, did not subsequently give rise to greater reductions in pathogen load. Our results show that antibody responses can be shaped by levels of host resistance and pathogen virulence, and do not necessarily signal immune clearance ability. While the generality of this novel finding remains unclear, particularly outside of mycoplasmas, it cautions against using antibody levels as implicit proxies for immunocompetence and/or host resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisy E Gates
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Molly Staley
- Department Biological Science, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849-5414, USA.,Biology Department, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60660-1537, USA
| | - Luc Tardy
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Mathieu Giraudeau
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.,School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, USA.,Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Research On Cancer, UMR CNRS/IRD/UM 5290 MIVEGEC, 34394, Montpellier, France
| | - Geoffrey E Hill
- Department Biological Science, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849-5414, USA
| | - Kevin J McGraw
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, USA
| | - Camille Bonneaud
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
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19
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Hochachka WM, Dobson AP, Hawley DM, Dhondt AA. Host population dynamics in the face of an evolving pathogen. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:1480-1491. [PMID: 33821505 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between hosts and pathogens are dynamic at both ecological and evolutionary levels. In the resultant 'eco-evolutionary dynamics' ecological and evolutionary processes affect each other. For example, the house finch Haemorhous mexicanus and its recently emerged pathogen, the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum, form a system in which evidence suggests that changes in bacterial virulence through time enhance levels of host immunity in ways that drive the evolution of virulence in an arms race. We use data from two associated citizen science projects in order to determine whether this arms race has had any detectable effect at the population level in the north-eastern United States. We used data from two citizen science projects, based on observations of birds at bird feeders, which provide information on the long-term changes in sizes of aggregations of house finches (host population density), and the probabilities that these house finches have observable disease (disease prevalence). The initial emergence of M. gallisepticum caused a rapid halving of house finch densities; this was then followed by house finch populations remaining stable or slowly declining. Disease prevalence also decreased sharply after the initial emergence and has remained low, although with fluctuations through time. Surprisingly, while initially higher local disease prevalence was found at sites with higher local densities of finches, this relationship has reversed over time. The ability of a vertebrate host species, with a generation time of at least 1 year, to maintain stable populations in the face of evolved higher virulence of a bacterium, with generation times measurable in minutes, suggests that genetic changes in the host are insufficient to explain the observed population-level patterns. We suggest that acquired immunity plays an important role in the observed interaction between house finches and M. gallisepticum.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew P Dobson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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20
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Pflaum K, Tulman ER, Canter J, Dhondt KV, Reinoso-Perez MT, Dhondt AA, Geary SJ. The influence of host tissue on M. gallisepticum vlhA gene expression. Vet Microbiol 2020; 251:108891. [PMID: 33120088 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, a significant poultry pathogen, has evolved rapidly in its new passerine host since its first reported isolation from house finches in the US in 1994. In poultry, M. gallisepticum infects the upper respiratory tract, causing tracheal mucosal thickening and inflammation, in addition to inflammation of the reproductive tract. However, in house finches M. gallisepticum primarily causes inflammation of the conjunctiva. Given that different tissues are primarily affected by the same pathogen in different hosts, we have compared the early changes in gene expression of the phase-variable lipoproteins (vlhA) gene family of M. gallisepticum collected directly from target tissues in both hosts. Previous data have demonstrated that vlhA genes may be related to virulence, exhibiting changes in expression in a non-stochastic, temporal progression and we hypothesize that this may be influenced by differences in the target host tissue. If this is true, we would expect M. gallisepticum to display a different vlhA gene expression pattern in the chicken trachea compared to its expression pattern in house finch conjunctiva. Here we report significant differences in vlhA gene expression patterns between M. gallisepticum collected from chicken tracheas compared to those collected from house finch conjunctiva. While many of the predominant vlhA genes expressed in the input population showed an increase in expression in the chicken trachea at day one postinfection, those same vlhA genes decreased in expression in the house finch. These data suggest that discrete suites of vlhA genes may be involved in M. gallisepticum pathogenesis and tropism for unique tissues in two disparate avian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Pflaum
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - E R Tulman
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - J Canter
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - K V Dhondt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, United States
| | - M T Reinoso-Perez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, United States; Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, United States
| | - A A Dhondt
- Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, United States
| | - S J Geary
- Center of Excellence for Vaccine Research, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States.
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21
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Ayala AJ, Yabsley MJ, Hernandez SM. A Review of Pathogen Transmission at the Backyard Chicken-Wild Bird Interface. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:539925. [PMID: 33195512 PMCID: PMC7541960 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.539925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Habitat conversion and the expansion of domesticated, invasive species into native habitats are increasingly recognized as drivers of pathogen emergence at the agricultural-wildlife interface. Poultry agriculture is one of the largest subsets of this interface, and pathogen spillover events between backyard chickens and wild birds are becoming more commonly reported. Native wild bird species are under numerous anthropogenic pressures, but the risks of pathogen spillover from domestic chickens have been historically underappreciated as a threat to wild birds. Now that the backyard chicken industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world, it is imperative that the principles of biosecurity, specifically bioexclusion and biocontainment, are legislated and implemented. We reviewed the literature on spillover events of pathogens historically associated with poultry into wild birds. We also reviewed the reasons for biosecurity failures in backyard flocks that lead to those spillover events and provide recommendations for current and future backyard flock owners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J. Ayala
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Sonia M. Hernandez
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Athens, GA, United States
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22
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Heylen DJ, Reinoso-Pérez MT, Goodman L, Dhondt KV, Dhondt AA. Ectoparasitism during an avian disease outbreak: An experiment with Mycoplasma-infected house finches and ticks. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2020; 12:53-63. [PMID: 32426219 PMCID: PMC7225381 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2020.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hosts are typically co-parasitized by multiple species. Parasites can benefit or suffer from the presence of other parasites, which can reduce or increase the overall virulence due to competition or facilitation. Outcomes of new multi-parasite systems are seldom predictable. In 1994 the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum jumped from poultry to songbirds in which it caused an epidemic throughout North America. Songbirds are often parasitized by hard ticks, and can act as reservoirs for tick-borne pathogens. We tested the hypothesis that Mycoplasma infection in house finches influences North America's most important tick vector Ixodes scapularis, by affecting the tick's feeding success, detachment behaviour and survival to the next stage. Most ticks detached during the daylight hours irrespective of the bird's disease status and time since infestation. Birds incrementally invested in anti-tick resistance mechanisms over the course of the experiment; this investment was made earlier in the Mycoplasma-infected birds. At higher tick densities, the feeding success on birds with more severe conjunctivitis was lower than in the uninfected birds. Throughout the experiment we found positive density dependent effects on the tick's feeding success. More diseased hosts suffered more from the tick infestations, as shown by reduced haematocrits. Three Mycoplasma-infected birds died during the weeks following the experiment, although all birds were kept in optimal housing conditions. Mycoplasma made the bird a less accessible and valuable host for ticks, which is an example of ecological interference. Therefore, Mycoplasma has the potential to ultimately reduce transmission outcomes of tick-borne pathogens via songbird hosts. Songbird hosts show signs of acquired immunological resistance against ticks. Resistance acquisition was accelerated under the influence of Mycoplasma. Mycoplasma infection had no strong effects on diurnal detachments. Mycoplasma made birds a less accessible and valuable host for ticks. Virulence increased under co-parasitism on the same host tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter J.A. Heylen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
- Eco-Epidemiology Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
- Corresponding author. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - María Teresa Reinoso-Pérez
- Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Laura Goodman
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Keila V. Dhondt
- Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - André A. Dhondt
- Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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23
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Reinoso‐Pérez MT, Dhondt KV, Sydenstricker AV, Heylen D, Dhondt AA. Complex interactions between bacteria and haemosporidia in coinfected hosts: An experiment. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:5801-5814. [PMID: 32607191 PMCID: PMC7319152 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Hosts are typically coinfected by multiple parasite species whose interactions might be synergetic or antagonistic, producing unpredictable physiological and pathological impacts on the host. This study shows the interaction between Plasmodium spp. and Leucocytozoon spp. in birds experimentally infected or not infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum.In 1994, the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum jumped from poultry to wild birds in which it caused a major epidemic in North America. Birds infected with M. gallisepticum show conjunctivitis as well as increased levels of corticosterone.Malaria and other haemosporidia are widespread in birds, and chronic infections become apparent with the detectable presence of the parasite in peripheral blood in response to elevated levels of natural or experimental corticosterone levels.Knowing the immunosuppressive effect of corticosterone on the avian immune system, we tested the hypothesis that chronic infections of Plasmodium spp. and Leucocytozoon spp. in house finches would respond to experimental inoculation with M. gallisepticum as corticosterone levels are known to increase following inoculation. Plasmodium spp. infection intensity increased within days of M. gallisepticum inoculation as shown both by the appearance of infected erythrocytes and by the increase in the number and the intensity of positive PCR tests. Leucocytozoon spp. infection intensity increased when Plasmodium spp. infection intensity increased, but not in response to M. gallisepticum inoculation. Leucocytozoon spp. and Plasmodium spp. seemed to compete in the host as shown by a negative correlation between the changes in their PCR score when both pathogens were present in the same individual.Host responses to coinfection with multiple pathogens measured by the hematocrit and white blood cell count depended on the haemosporidian community composition. Host investment in the leukocyte response was higher in the single-haemosporidia-infected groups when birds were infected with M. gallisepticum.A trade-off was observed between the immune control of the chronic infection (Plasmodium spp./Leucocytozoon spp.) and the immune response to the novel bacterial infection (M. gallisepticum).
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Affiliation(s)
- María Teresa Reinoso‐Pérez
- Department of Natural ResourcesCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
- Laboratory of OrnithologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
| | - Keila V. Dhondt
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
| | | | - Dieter Heylen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyPrinceton UniversityPrincetonNew Jersey
- Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and statistical BioinformaticsHasselt UniversityDiepenbeekBelgium
| | - André A. Dhondt
- Laboratory of OrnithologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
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24
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Ayala AJ, Hernandez SM, Olivier TL, Welch CN, Dimitrov KM, Goraichuk IV, Afonso CL, Miller PJ. Experimental Infection and Transmission of Newcastle Disease Vaccine Virus in Four Wild Passerines. Avian Dis 2020; 63:389-399. [PMID: 31967421 DOI: 10.1637/11980-092918-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Our prior work has shown that live poultry vaccines have been intermittently isolated from wild birds sampled during field surveillance studies for Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Thus, we experimentally investigated the susceptibility of four native agriculturally associated wild bird species to the NDV LaSota vaccine and evaluated the shedding dynamics, potential transmission from chickens, and humoral antibody responses. To test susceptibility, we inoculated wild-caught, immunologically NDV-naïve house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus; n = 16), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater; n = 9), northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis; n = 6), and American goldfinches (Spinus tristis; n = 12) with 0.1 ml (106.7 mean embryo infectious doses [EID50/ml]) of NDV LaSota vaccine via the oculo-nasal route. To test transmission between chickens and wild birds, adult specific-pathogen-free white leghorn chickens were inoculated similarly and cohoused in separate isolators with two to five wild birds of the species listed above. This design resulted in three treatments: wild bird direct inoculation (five groups) and wild bird exposure to one (two groups) or two inoculated chickens (six groups), respectively. Blood and oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected before and after infection with the live vaccine. All wild birds that were directly inoculated with the LaSota vaccine shed virus as demonstrated by virus isolation (VI). Cardinals were the most susceptible species based on shedding viruses from 1 to 11 days postinoculation (dpi) with titers up to 104.9 EID50/ml. Although LaSota viruses were shed by all inoculated chickens and were present in the drinking water, most noninoculated wild birds cohoused with these chickens remained uninfected for 14 days as evidenced by VI. However, one American goldfinch tested positive for vaccine transmission by VI at 7 dpi and one house finch tested positive for vaccine transmission by real-time reverse-transcription PCR at 13 dpi. Only one directly inoculated cowbird (out of three) and two cardinals (out of two) developed NDV-specific hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers of 16, 16, and 128, respectively. No clinical signs were detected in the chickens or the wild birds postinoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Ayala
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.,These authors contributed equally
| | - Sonia M Hernandez
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.,Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.,These authors contributed equally
| | - Timothy L Olivier
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Catharine N Welch
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.,Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Kiril M Dimitrov
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Iryna V Goraichuk
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Claudio L Afonso
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Patti J Miller
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605.,Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602,
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25
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Dowling AJ, Hill GE, Bonneaud C. Multiple differences in pathogen-host cell interactions following a bacterial host shift. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6779. [PMID: 32322086 PMCID: PMC7176683 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-63714-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel disease emergence is often associated with changes in pathogen traits that enable pathogen colonisation, persistence and transmission in the novel host environment. While understanding the mechanisms underlying disease emergence is likely to have critical implications for preventing infectious outbreaks, such knowledge is often based on studies of viral pathogens, despite the fact that bacterial pathogens may exhibit very different life histories. Here, we investigate the ability of epizootic outbreak strains of the bacterial pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which jumped from poultry into North American house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), to interact with model avian cells. We found that house finch epizootic outbreak strains of M. gallisepticum displayed a greater ability to adhere to, invade, persist within and exit from cultured chicken embryonic fibroblasts, than the reference virulent (R_low) and attenuated (R_high) poultry strains. Furthermore, unlike the poultry strains, the house finch epizootic outbreak strain HF_1994 displayed a striking lack of cytotoxicity, even exerting a cytoprotective effect on avian cells. Our results suggest that, at epizootic outbreak in house finches, M. gallisepticum was particularly adept at using the intra-cellular environment, which may have facilitated colonisation, dissemination and immune evasion within the novel finch host. Whether this high-invasion phenotype is similarly displayed in interactions with house finch cells, and whether it contributed to the success of the host shift, remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Dowling
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Science, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
| | - Geoffrey E Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL36849-5414, USA
| | - Camille Bonneaud
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Science, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
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26
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Occurrence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in wild birds: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231545. [PMID: 32298318 PMCID: PMC7162529 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum is one of the most important poultry pathogens that can also infect wild birds, but knowledge of potential non-poultry hosts that could be reservoirs of M. gallisepticum is limited. For the paper presented here, we screened three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and the Web of Knowledge) to find articles on the occurrence of M. gallisepticum in different wild bird species that were published between 1951 and 2018. Among 314 studies found, we selected and included 50 original articles that met the pre-established criteria. From those publications we extracted the following information: name of the first author, year of publication, year of sample isolation, country, region, number of birds sampled, number of birds tested by each method, number of positive samples, diagnostic criteria, and if birds were wild or captive. Because different detection techniques were used to confirm the presence of M. gallisepticum in one animal, we decided to perform the meta analyses separately for each method. The estimated prevalence of M. gallisepticum in wild birds was different by each method of detection. Our summary revealed that M. gallisepticum was present in 56 species of bird belonging to 11 different orders, of which 21 species were reported suffering both past and current infection. Our work provides information on wild bird species that could be considered potential reservoirs or carriers of M. gallisepticum and could be helpful to set the direction for future research on the spread and phylogeny of M. gallisepticum in different hosts.
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Lee C, Tell LA, Hilfer T, Vannette RL. Microbial communities in hummingbird feeders are distinct from floral nectar and influenced by bird visitation. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182295. [PMID: 30836877 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human provisioning can shape resource availability for wildlife, but consequences for microbiota availability and exchange remain relatively unexplored. Here, we characterized microbial communities on bills and faecal material of hummingbirds and their food resources, including feeders and floral nectar. We experimentally manipulated bird visitation to feeders and examined effects on sucrose solution microbial communities. Birds, feeders and flowers hosted distinct bacterial and fungal communities. Proteobacteria comprised over 80% of nectar bacteria but feeder solutions contained a high relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. Hummingbirds hosted bacterial taxa commonly found in other birds and novel genera including Zymobacter [Proteobacteria] and Ascomycete fungi. For feeders, bird-visited and unvisited solutions both accumulated abundant microbial populations that changed solution pH, but microbial composition was largely determined by visitation treatment. Our results reveal that feeders host abundant microbial populations, including some bird-associated microbial taxa. Microbial taxa in feeders were primarily non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi but differed substantially from those in floral nectar. These results demonstrate that human provisioning influences microbial intake by free-ranging hummingbirds; however, it is unknown how these changes impact hummingbird gastrointestinal flora or health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casie Lee
- 1 Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Lisa A Tell
- 1 Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Tiffany Hilfer
- 1 Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Rachel L Vannette
- 2 Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California , Davis, CA , USA
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28
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Circella E, Camarda A, Bano L, Marzano G, Lombardi R, D’Onghia F, Greco G. Botulism in Wild Birds and Changes in Environmental Habitat: A Relationship to be Considered. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9121034. [PMID: 31779284 PMCID: PMC6940729 DOI: 10.3390/ani9121034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple summary Human activities, even those aimed at improving a natural area, can interfere with wildlife and their environment, potentially leading to some changes. In this paper, a botulism outbreak which occurred in waterfowls in a nature reserve after a conservative action is reported. In particular, an artificial pond was created in order to improve the environment of waterfowls, but gray mullets (Mugil cephalus) settled in the pond and proliferated. Fish mortality was observed during summer, leading to an accumulation of decaying organic material, thus creating the optimal conditions for Clostridium botulin growth and toxin production. In the same period, the botulism outbreak with flaccid paralysis and sudden mortality rapidly occurred in waterfowls. The toxin mosaic type C/D was identified as responsible for the disease outbreak. The outbreak rapidly resolved after the removal of the fish carcasses, highlighting the importance of a correct management for any action in natural contexts. In conclusion, before considering any activity in wildlife habitats, it is important to assess first its possible impact on wildlife. Abstract Any human activity, even if aimed at the improvement of a natural area, can potentially affect wildlife, leading to possible short-term or long-term changes due to the human–wildlife interaction. In this study, a botulism outbreak which occurred in waterfowl in a nature reserve after a conservative environmental action is reported. More than 180 different species of wild birds, including seventy waterfowl species, live in the area. The wildlife reserve rangers built an artificial pond equipped with draining canals in the wetland in order to improve the environment of waterfowl species and to facilitate their supply of food. Then, presumably due to tidal rides, gray mullets (Mugil cephalus) arrived from the sea and settled in the pond. The number of fishes gradually increased, and several fishes died with a peak of mortality in the summer of 2017, creating a great amount of decaying organic material and the optimal conditions for Clostridium botulinum growth and toxin production. A botulism outbreak then occurred rapidly and was characterised by flaccid paralysis and sudden mortality of the birds. Seven mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos), 4 common teals (Anas crecca), 1 garganey (Anas querquedula), 2 wood sandpipers (Tringa glareola), 1 little egret (Egretta garzetta), 1 little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 4 Eurasian coots (Fulica atra) were found dead. Interestingly, the toxin identified as responsible for the disease outbreak was the mosaic of type C and D toxins (C/D type). The prompt removal of the fish carcasses led to a rapid resolution of the outbreak of the disease, highlighting the relevance of a correct management for any action in environmental contexts. The conclusion is that any human activity in wildlife habitats should be carefully considered in order to assess the possible impacts and to quickly identify the possible risks of changes in wildlife population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Circella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano BA, Italy; (A.C.); (R.L.); (F.D.); (G.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +39-080-467-9910
| | - Antonio Camarda
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano BA, Italy; (A.C.); (R.L.); (F.D.); (G.G.)
| | - Luca Bano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 31100 Treviso, Italy;
| | - Giacomo Marzano
- Wildlife Nature Reserve “Torre Guaceto”, BR 72012 Carovigno, Italy;
| | - Roberto Lombardi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano BA, Italy; (A.C.); (R.L.); (F.D.); (G.G.)
| | - Francesco D’Onghia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano BA, Italy; (A.C.); (R.L.); (F.D.); (G.G.)
| | - Grazia Greco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano BA, Italy; (A.C.); (R.L.); (F.D.); (G.G.)
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29
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Staley M, Bonneaud C, McGraw KJ, Vleck CM, Hill GE. Detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in House Finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus) from Arizona. Avian Dis 2019; 62:14-17. [PMID: 29620468 DOI: 10.1637/11610-021317-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In 1994, an endemic poultry pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), was identified as the causative agent of a novel disease in house finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus). After an initial outbreak in Maryland, MG spread rapidly throughout eastern North American populations of house finches. Subsequently, MG spread slowly through the northern interior of North America and then into the Pacific Northwest, finally reaching California in 2006. Until 2009, there were no reports of MG in the southwestern United States east of California. In August 2011, after reports of house finches displaying conjunctivitis characteristic of MG infection in Arizona, we trapped house finches at bird feeders in central Arizona (Tempe) and southern Arizona (Tucson and Green Valley) to assay for MG infection. Upon capture, we noted whether birds exhibited conjunctivitis, and we collected choanal swabs to test for the presence of MG DNA using PCR. We detected MG in finches captured from Green Valley (in ∼12% of birds captured), but not in finches from Tucson or Tempe. Based on resampling of house finches at these sites in July 2014, we suggest that central Arizona finches likely remain unexposed to MG. We also suggest that low urban connectivity between arid habitats of southern and central Arizona or a reduction in the prevalence of MG after its initial arrival in Arizona may be limiting the spread of MG from south to north in Arizona. In addition, the observed conjunctivitis-like signs in house finches that were negative for MG by PCR may be caused primarily by avian pox virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Staley
- A Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.,B Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, IL 60513
| | - Camille Bonneaud
- D Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EF, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J McGraw
- E School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Carol M Vleck
- F Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011
| | - Geoffrey E Hill
- A Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849
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30
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Bonneaud C, Tardy L, Giraudeau M, Hill GE, McGraw KJ, Wilson AJ. Evolution of both host resistance and tolerance to an emerging bacterial pathogen. Evol Lett 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/evl3.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Camille Bonneaud
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Penryn Cornwall TR10 9FE United Kingdom
| | - Luc Tardy
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Penryn Cornwall TR10 9FE United Kingdom
| | - Mathieu Giraudeau
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Penryn Cornwall TR10 9FE United Kingdom
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona 85287
- Current address: Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Research on Cancer; UMR CNRS/IRD/UM 5290 MIVEGEC; 34394 Montpellier France
| | - Geoffrey E. Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn Alabama 36849
| | - Kevin J. McGraw
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona 85287
| | - Alastair J. Wilson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Penryn Cornwall TR10 9FE United Kingdom
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31
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Bonneaud C, Weinert LA, Kuijper B. Understanding the emergence of bacterial pathogens in novel hosts. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180328. [PMID: 31401968 PMCID: PMC6711297 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of the ecological and evolutionary context of novel infections is largely based on viral diseases, even though bacterial pathogens may display key differences in the processes underlying their emergence. For instance, host-shift speciation, in which the jump of a pathogen into a novel host species is followed by the specialization on that host and the loss of infectivity of previous host(s), is commonly observed in viruses, but less often in bacteria. Here, we suggest that the extent to which pathogens evolve host generalism or specialism following a jump into a novel host will depend on their level of adaptation to dealing with different environments, their rates of molecular evolution and their ability to recombine. We then explore these hypotheses using a formal model and show that the high levels of phenotypic plasticity, low rates of evolution and the ability to recombine typical of bacterial pathogens should reduce their propensity to specialize on novel hosts. Novel bacterial infections may therefore be more likely to result in transient spillovers or increased host ranges than in host shifts. Finally, consistent with our predictions, we show that, in two unusual cases of contemporary bacterial host shifts, the bacterial pathogens both have small genomes and rapid rates of substitution. Further tests are required across a greater number of emerging pathogens to assess the validity of our hypotheses. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Dynamic and integrative approaches to understanding pathogen spillover’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Bonneaud
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Lucy A Weinert
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Bram Kuijper
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
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32
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Dhondt AA, Dhondt KV, Hochachka WM, Ley DH, Hawley DM. Response of House Finches Recovered from Mycoplasma gallisepticum to Reinfection with a Heterologous Strain. Avian Dis 2019; 61:437-441. [PMID: 29337614 DOI: 10.1637/11571-122016-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
After recovery, house finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus) reinfected with the same Mycoplasma gallisepticum strain remain partially resistant to reinfection for at least 14 mo in that they recover from reinfection much more rapidly than do Mycoplasma gallisepticum-naïve birds. To test the response of birds to reinfection with a heterologous strain we performed two experiments. In a first experiment we exposed birds to one of three strains that differed in virulence. After they had recovered all were reinfected with the most virulent-strain available at the time of the experiment. In a second experiment we infected and later reinfected house finches with one of two Mycoplasma gallisepticum strains whereby we switched the order of the strain used. In both experiments, disease in birds reinfected with a more-virulent strain caused more-severe disease. Our data suggest that the observed increase in Mycoplasma gallisepticum virulence, once the disease has become endemic in free-ranging house finches is-in part-driven by increased resistance of recovered birds to strains of equal or lower virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- André A Dhondt
- A Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - Keila V Dhondt
- B Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | | | - David H Ley
- C Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607
| | - Dana M Hawley
- D Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
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33
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Moyers SC, Adelman JS, Farine DR, Thomason CA, Hawley DM. Feeder density enhances house finch disease transmission in experimental epidemics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019. [PMID: 29531145 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic food provisioning of wildlife can alter the frequency of contacts among hosts and between hosts and environmental sources of pathogens. Despite the popularity of garden bird feeding, few studies have addressed how feeders influence host contact rates and disease dynamics. We experimentally manipulated feeder density in replicate aviaries containing captive, pathogen-naive, groups of house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) and continuously tracked behaviours at feeders using radio-frequency identification devices. We then inoculated one bird per group with Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg), a common bacterial pathogen for which feeders are fomites of transmission, and assessed effects of feeder density on house finch behaviour and pathogen transmission. We found that pathogen transmission was significantly higher in groups with the highest density of bird feeders, despite a significantly lower rate of intraspecific aggressive interactions relative to the low feeder density groups. Conversely, among naive group members that never showed signs of disease, we saw significantly higher concentrations of Mg-specific antibodies in low feeder density groups, suggesting that birds in low feeder density treatments had exposure to subclinical doses of Mg. We discuss ways in which the density of garden bird feeders could play an important role in mediating the intensity of Mg epidemics.This article is part of the theme issue 'Anthropogenic resource subsidies and host-parasite dynamics in wildlife'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahnzi C Moyers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Derring Hall Room 2125, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA
| | - James S Adelman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Derring Hall Room 2125, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA.,Natural Resource Ecology and Management Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Damien R Farine
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK.,Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Konstanz 78464, Germany.,Chair of Biodiversity and Collective Behaviour, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
| | - Courtney A Thomason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Derring Hall Room 2125, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Derring Hall Room 2125, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA
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34
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Becker DJ, Hall RJ, Forbes KM, Plowright RK, Altizer S. Anthropogenic resource subsidies and host-parasite dynamics in wildlife. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019. [PMID: 29531141 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Becker
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA .,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Richard J Hall
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Kristian M Forbes
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Raina K Plowright
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Gates DE, Valletta JJ, Bonneaud C, Recker M. Quantitative host resistance drives the evolution of increased virulence in an emerging pathogen. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1704-1714. [PMID: 30107064 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Emergent infectious diseases can have a devastating impact on host populations. The high selective pressures on both the hosts and the pathogens frequently lead to rapid adaptations not only in pathogen virulence but also host resistance following an initial outbreak. However, it is often unclear whether hosts will evolve to avoid infection-associated fitness costs by preventing the establishment of infection (here referred to as qualitative resistance) or by limiting its deleterious effects through immune functioning (here referred to as quantitative resistance). Equally, the evolutionary repercussions these different resistance mechanisms have for the pathogen are often unknown. Here, we investigate the co-evolutionary dynamics of pathogen virulence and host resistance following the epizootic outbreak of the highly pathogenic bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum in North American house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). Using an evolutionary modelling approach and with a specific emphasis on the evolved resistance trait, we demonstrate that the rapid increase in the frequency of resistant birds following the outbreak is indicative of strong selection pressure to reduce infection-associated mortality. This, in turn, created the ecological conditions that selected for increased bacterial virulence. Our results thus suggest that quantitative host resistance was the key factor underlying the evolutionary interactions in this natural host-pathogen system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Joseph Valletta
- Centre for Mathematics & the Environment, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | | | - Mario Recker
- Centre for Mathematics & the Environment, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
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Bacterial Pathogen Emergence Requires More than Direct Contact with a Novel Passerine Host. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00863-17. [PMID: 29311238 PMCID: PMC5820954 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00863-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
While direct contact may sometimes be sufficient to allow a pathogen to jump into a new host species, in other cases, fortuitously adaptive mutations that arise in the original donor host are also necessary. Viruses have been the focus of most host shift studies, so less is known about the importance of ecological versus evolutionary processes to successful bacterial host shifts. Here we tested whether direct contact with the novel host was sufficient to enable the mid-1990s jump of the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum from domestic poultry to house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). We experimentally inoculated house finches with two genetically distinct M. gallisepticum strains obtained either from poultry (Rlow) or from house finches (HF1995) during an epizootic outbreak. All 15 house finches inoculated with HF1995 became infected, whereas Rlow successfully infected 12 of 15 (80%) inoculated house finches. Comparisons among infected birds showed that, relative to HF1995, Rlow achieved substantially lower bacterial loads in the host respiratory mucosa and was cleared faster. Furthermore, Rlow-infected finches were less likely to develop clinical symptoms than HF1995-infected birds and, when they did, displayed milder conjunctivitis. The lower infection success of Rlow relative to HF1995 was not, however, due to a heightened host antibody response to Rlow. Taken together, our results indicate that contact between infected poultry and house finches was not, by itself, sufficient to explain the jump of M. gallisepticum to house finches. Instead, mutations arising in the original poultry host would have been necessary for successful pathogen emergence in the novel finch host.
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OCULAR FINDINGS AND SELECT OPHTHALMIC DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN CAPTIVE AMERICAN WHITE PELICANS (PELECANUS ERYTHRORHYNCHOS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2017; 48:675-682. [PMID: 28920779 DOI: 10.1638/2016-0256.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to establish normal ophthalmic parameters for select diagnostic tests in American white pelicans (Pelecanuserythrorhynchos). Twenty-one zoo-housed American white pelicans were manually restrained for noninvasive ocular diagnostic testing and complete ophthalmic examination. Tear production quantification using the phenol red thread test (PRTT), fluorescein staining, and intraocular pressure (IOP) evaluation were performed. In addition, conjunctival aerobic bacterial culture and culture-independent 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing were performed on select eyes. Normal variations and ocular abnormalities detected during complete ophthalmic examination were documented and photographed. Direct pupillary light reflex, menace response, and palpebral reflex were present in all birds. The value (mean ± SD) for PRRT and IOP was 14.9 ± 7.84 mm/15 sec and 9.0 ± 1.41 mm Hg oculus uterque, respectively. Conjunctival culture in nine birds revealed no growth for six birds and Staphylococcus aureus growth in three birds. A high relative abundance of Mycoplasma sp. was detected in all samples based on 16S rRNA sequencing. The normal pelican eye was found to have relative conjunctival hyperemia, absent filoplumes, iris color ranging from light blue to brown, and a subcircular vertically elongated pupil. Ophthalmic abnormalities were noted in 10 of 21 birds. Common findings included corneal fibrosis, cataracts, and asteroid hyalosis. The most common ophthalmic abnormality in this species was cataracts.
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38
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Attenuated Phenotype of a Recent House Finch-Associated Mycoplasma gallisepticum Isolate in Domestic Poultry. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00185-17. [PMID: 28396323 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00185-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, known primarily as a respiratory pathogen of domestic poultry, has emerged since 1994 as a significant pathogen of the house finch (Haemorhousmexicanus) causing severe conjunctivitis and mortality. House finch-associated M. gallisepticum (HFMG) spread rapidly and increased in virulence for the finch host in the eastern United States. In the current study, we assessed virulence in domestic poultry with two temporally distant, and yet geographically consistent, HFMG isolates which differ in virulence for house finches-Virginia 1994 (VA1994), the index isolate of the epidemic, and Virginia 2013 (VA2013), a recent isolate of increased house finch virulence. Here we report a significant difference between VA1994 and VA2013 in their levels of virulence for chickens; notably, this difference correlated inversely to the difference in their levels of virulence for house finches. VA1994, while moderately virulent in house finches, displayed significant virulence in the chicken respiratory tract. VA2013, while highly virulent in the house finch, was significantly attenuated in chickens relative to VA1994, displaying less-severe pathological lesions in, and reduced bacterial recovery from, the respiratory tract. Overall, these data indicate that a recent isolate of HFMG is greatly attenuated in the chicken host relative to the index isolate, notably demonstrating a virulence phenotype in chickens inversely related to that in the finch host.
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39
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Samanta I, Bandyopadhyay S. Infectious Diseases. PET BIRD DISEASES AND CARE 2017. [PMCID: PMC7121861 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-3674-3_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds. The chapter includes history, etiology, susceptible hosts, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, lesion, diagnosis, zoonosis, Treatment and control strategy of Tuberculosis, Salmonellosis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacteriosis, Lyme disease, other bacterial infection, Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza infection, West Nile Virus infection, Usutu virus infection, Avian Borna Virus infection, Beak and feather disease, other viral infection, Toxoplasmosis, Giardiasis, Cryptosporidiosis, other parasitic infection, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis, Other fungal infections.
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40
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Adelman JS, Moyers SC, Farine DR, Hawley DM. Feeder use predicts both acquisition and transmission of a contagious pathogen in a North American songbird. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:rspb.2015.1429. [PMID: 26378215 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.1429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual heterogeneity can influence the dynamics of infectious diseases in wildlife and humans alike. Thus, recent work has sought to identify behavioural characteristics that contribute disproportionately to individual variation in pathogen acquisition (super-receiving) or transmission (super-spreading). However, it remains unknown whether the same behaviours enhance both acquisition and transmission, a scenario likely to result in explosive epidemics. Here, we examined this possibility in an ecologically relevant host-pathogen system: house finches and their bacterial pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which causes severe conjunctivitis. We examined behaviours likely to influence disease acquisition (feeder use, aggression, social network affiliations) in an observational field study, finding that the time an individual spends on bird feeders best predicted the risk of conjunctivitis. To test whether this behaviour also influences the likelihood of transmitting M. gallisepticum, we experimentally inoculated individuals based on feeding behaviour and tracked epidemics within captive flocks. As predicted, transmission was fastest when birds that spent the most time on feeders initiated the epidemic. Our results suggest that the same behaviour underlies both pathogen acquisition and transmission in this system and potentially others. Identifying individuals that exhibit such behaviours is critical for disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Adelman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA Natural Resource Ecology and Management Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Sahnzi C Moyers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Derring Hall Room 2125, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA
| | - Damien R Farine
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK Department of Anthropology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, USA
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Evans T, Kumschick S, Blackburn TM. Application of the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT) to a global assessment of alien bird impacts. DIVERS DISTRIB 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Evans
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment; University College London; Gower Street London WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Sabrina Kumschick
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Centre for Invasion Biology; Stellenbosch University; Private Bag X1 Matieland 7602 South Africa
- Invasive Species Programme; South African National Biodiversity Institute; Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens; Claremont 7735 South Africa
| | - Tim M. Blackburn
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment; University College London; Gower Street London WC1E 6BT UK
- Institute of Zoology; ZSL; Regent’s Park; London NW1 4RY UK
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42
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Möller Palau-Ribes F, Enderlein D, Hagen N, Herbst W, Hafez HM, Lierz M. Description and prevalence of Mycoplasma ciconiae sp. nov. isolated from white stork nestlings (Ciconia ciconia). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2016; 66:3477-3484. [PMID: 27266728 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.001220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycoplasma strain ST 57T was isolated from the trachea of a clinically healthy, free-ranging white stork nestling in Nielitz, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. Strain ST 57T grew in fried-egg-shaped colonies on mycoplasma (SP4) agar plates and was dependent on sterol for growth. The organism fermented glucose and did not hydrolyse arginine or urea. The optimal growth temperature was 37 °C, with a temperature range from 23 to 44 °C. Strain ST 57Tcould not be identified as a representative of any of the currently described mycoplasma species by alignment of the 16S rRNA gene sequence or 16S-23S intergenic transcribed spacer region, or by immunobinding assays. Thus, this organism appears to be a representative of a novel species, for which the name Mycoplasma ciconiae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is ST 57T (=ATCC BAA-2401T=DSM 25251T). Four further strains of this species are included in this description (ST 24=DSM 29908, ST 56 Clone 1=DSM 29054, ST 99=DSM 29909, ST 102=DSM 29010). The prevalence of this mycoplasma species in clinically healthy, white stork nestlings in northern Germany was determined. Our species-specific PCR detected 57.8 % (48/83) of the samples positive for M. ciconiae sp. nov. As this species appears to be widespread in the healthy free-ranging white stork population, we conclude that this species is either apathogenic or an opportunistic pathogen in white storks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dirk Enderlein
- Clinic for Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fish, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Nils Hagen
- Institute for Poultry Diseases, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Werner Herbst
- Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | | | - Michael Lierz
- Clinic for Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fish, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Rudd J, Stephenson N, Clifford DL, Konde L, Villepique JT, Foley J. Utilizing citizen science to document a mange epidemic in western gray squirrels in California. WILDLIFE SOC B 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Rudd
- Wildlife Investigations Laboratory; California Department of Fish and Wildlife; Rancho Cordova CA 95670 USA
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - Nicole Stephenson
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - Deana L. Clifford
- Wildlife Investigations Laboratory; California Department of Fish and Wildlife; Rancho Cordova CA 95670 USA
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - Lora Konde
- Wildlife Investigations Laboratory; California Department of Fish and Wildlife; Rancho Cordova CA 95670 USA
| | - Jeffrey T. Villepique
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife; P.O. Box 3222; Big Bear City CA 92314 USA
| | - Janet Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis CA 95616 USA
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44
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Catania S, Gobbo F, Ramirez AS, Guadagnini D, Baldasso E, Moronato ML, Nicholas RAJ. Laboratory investigations into the origin of Mycoplasma synoviae isolated from a lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:52. [PMID: 26968657 PMCID: PMC4788927 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0680-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The role of wild birds in the transmission and spread of mycoplasmas is not clear. Up to now different Mycoplasma species have been isolated from wild birds many of which are not considered pathogens sensu stricto for domestic flocks. This report describes the first isolation of Mycoplasma synoviae in a captive lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) held in a zoo in Italy and the laboratory investigations performed to elucidate its origin. Results showed that the strain was similar to the MS-H vaccine strain using the vlhA methods although no vaccination with this product was used in the zoo. Case presentation This paper describes investigations into a case in which 10 of 12 adult lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) died after having recently been moved from the Netherlands to a new zoo in Northern Italy. While most of the birds appeared to have died from the stress of movement and poor adaptation to their new environment, Mycoplasma synoviae, an important poultry pathogen in the layer and meat industry, was isolated for the first time from the trachea of one animal presenting catarrhal tracheitis and fibrinous airsacculitis. Genetic analysis of the conserved region of the vlhA was not able to differentiate the flamingo strain from the MS-H vaccine strain. However differences in the sequences of the obg gene of the flamingo and vaccine strain were detected. A test for temperature-sensitivity (ts) gave a ts− phenotype for the flamingo strain, in contrast to the ts+ status of the MS-H strain. Based on this information and knowing that the flamingos were not vaccinated against M. synoviae, it is highly likely that the flamingo was infected with a genetically similar wild strain by contact with infected birds. Conclusions This case provides evidence for the potential role of international trade of ornamental birds as a possible route of introduction of new mycoplasma strains between countries, and moreover highlight that vlhA gene sequencing was not sufficient to discriminate the wild strain isolated from the flamingo from the MS-H vaccine strain. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0680-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Catania
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'Universita' 10, Legnaro, 35020, Padova, Italy.
| | - Federica Gobbo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'Universita' 10, Legnaro, 35020, Padova, Italy.,Università degli Studi di Padova, Dipartimento di Medicina Animale, Produzioni e Salute (MAPS), Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Ana S Ramirez
- Unidad de Epidemiología y Medicina Preventiva, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, C/Trasmontala s/n, Arucas, 35413, Islas Canarias, Spain
| | | | - Elisa Baldasso
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'Universita' 10, Legnaro, 35020, Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Moronato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'Universita' 10, Legnaro, 35020, Padova, Italy.,Università degli Studi di Padova, Dipartimento di Medicina Animale, Produzioni e Salute (MAPS), Legnaro, Padova, Italy
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Silva L, Santos S, Rameh-de-Albuquerque L, Siqueira D, Amorim M, Almeida J, Oliveira A, Mota R. Detecção molecular e isolamento de Mycoplasma spp. em psitacídeos no estado de Pernambuco, Brasil. ARQ BRAS MED VET ZOO 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-4162-8387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objetivou-se com este estudo investigar a ocorrência de Mycoplasma spp., Mycoplasma galissepticum (MG) e Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) em psitacídeos de cativeiro localizado no estado de Pernambuco, Brasil. Foram estudadas 85 aves provenientes do Parque Estadual Dois Irmãos, localizado no estado do Pernambuco, Brasil. De cada psitacídeo analisado foram obtidas três amostras por meio de swabs da cloaca, palato e conjuntiva totalizando 255 amostras. As amostras coletadas foram submetidas à extração de DNA e à reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), sendo as positivas submetidas ao isolamento em ágar Frey. O DNA de Mycoplasma spp. foi detectado em 16,47% (14/85) dos psitacídeos estudados. Das 255 amostras analisadas, 6,66% (17/255) foram positivas para a presença de Mycoplasma spp., sendo 41,18% (7/17) provenientes da conjuntiva, 35,29% (6/17) do palato e 23,53% (4/17) da cloaca. Nenhuma amostra foi positiva para MG ou MS na PCR. Os resultados obtidos permitem confirmar a presença do DNA de Mycoplasma spp. em conjuntiva, palato e cloaca nas aves estudadas. Foram detectadas colônias semelhantes a membros da classe Mollicutes em 17,64% das amostras (3/17). Esse é o primeiro relato da presença de Mycoplasma spp. em psitacídeos de cativeiro no Nordeste do Brasil.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - R.A. Mota
- Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco
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46
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Staley M, Bonneaud C. Immune responses of wild birds to emerging infectious diseases. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:242-54. [PMID: 25847450 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Over the past several decades, outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) in wild birds have attracted worldwide media attention, either because of their extreme virulence or because of alarming spillovers into agricultural animals or humans. The pathogens involved have been found to infect a variety of bird hosts ranging from relatively few species (e.g. Trichomonas gallinae) to hundreds of species (e.g. West Nile Virus). Here we review and contrast the immune responses that wild birds are able to mount against these novel pathogens. We discuss the extent to which these responses are associated with reduced clinical symptoms, pathogen load and mortality, or conversely, how they can be linked to worsened pathology and reduced survival. We then investigate how immune responses to EIDs can evolve over time in response to pathogen-driven selection using the illustrative case study of the epizootic outbreak of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in wild North American house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). We highlight the need for future work to take advantage of the substantial inter- and intraspecific variation in disease progression and outcome following infections with EID to elucidate the extent to which immune responses confer increased resistance through pathogen clearance or may instead heighten pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Staley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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47
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Dhondt AA, Dhondt KV, Hochachka WM. Response of black-capped chickadees to house finch Mycoplasma gallisepticum. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0124820. [PMID: 25880849 PMCID: PMC4400008 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tests for the presence of pathogen DNA or antibodies are routinely used to survey for current or past infections. In diseases that emerge following a host jump estimates of infection rate might be under- or overestimated. We here examine whether observed rates of infection are biased for a non-focal host species in a model system. The bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a widespread pathogen in house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), a fringillid finch, but an unknown proportion of individuals of other songbird species are also infected. Our goal is to determine the extent to which detection of M. gallisepticum DNA or antibodies against the bacteria in a non-fringillid bird species is over- or underestimated using black-capped chickadees Poecile atricapillus, a species in which antibodies against M. gallisepticum are frequently detected in free-living individuals. After keeping black-capped chickadees in captivity for 12 weeks, during which period the birds remained negative for M. gallisepticum, four were inoculated with M. gallisepticum and four were sham inoculated in both eyes to serve as negative controls. Simultaneously we inoculated six house finches with the same isolate of M. gallisepticum as a positive control. All inoculated birds of both species developed infections detectable by qPCR in the conjunctiva. For the 6 weeks following inoculation we detected antibodies in all M. gallisepticum-inoculated house finches but in only three of the four M. gallisepticum-inoculated black-capped chickadees. All house finches developed severe eye lesions but none of the black-capped chickadees did. Modeling the Rapid Plate Agglutination test results of black-capped chickadees shows that the rate of false-positive tests would be not more than 3.2%, while the estimated rate of false negatives is 55%. We conclude that the proportion of wild-caught individuals in which we detect M. gallisepticum-specific antibodies using Rapid Plate Agglutination is, if anything, substantially underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- André A. Dhondt
- Bird Population Studies, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Keila V. Dhondt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Wesley M. Hochachka
- Bird Population Studies, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850, United States of America
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Springborn MR, Keller RP, Elwood S, Romagosa CM, Zambrana‐Torrelio C, Daszak P. Integrating invasion and disease in the risk assessment of live bird trade. DIVERS DISTRIB 2015; 21:101-110. [PMID: 32313433 PMCID: PMC7163611 DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM International trade in plants and animals generates significant economic benefits. It also leads to substantial unintended impacts when introduced species become invasive, causing environmental disturbance or transmitting diseases that affect people, livestock, other wildlife or the environment. Policy responses are usually only implemented after these species become established and damages are already incurred. International agreements to control trade are likewise usually based on selection of species with known impacts. We aim to further develop quantitative invasive species risk assessment for bird imports and extend the tool to explicitly address disease threats. LOCATION United States of America. METHODS We use a two-step approach for rapid risk assessment based on the expected biological risks due to both the environmental and health impact of a potentially invasive wildlife species in trade. We assess establishment probability based on a model informed by historical observations and then construct a model of emerging infectious disease threat based on economic and ecological characteristics of the exporting country. RESULTS We illustrate how our rapid assessment tool can be used to identify high-priority species for regulation based on a combination of the threat they pose for becoming established and vectoring emerging infectious diseases. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our approach can be executed for a species in a matter of days and is nested in an economic decision-making framework for determining whether the biological risk is justified by trade benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Springborn
- Department of Environmental Science and PolicyUniversity of California2104 Wickson HallOne Shields Ave.DavisCA95616USA
| | - Reuben P. Keller
- Institute of Environmental SustainabilityLoyola University Chicago1032 W. Sheridan Rd.ChicagoIL60660USA
| | - Sarah Elwood
- EcoHealth Alliance460 W. 34th St.New YorkNY10001USA
| | - Christina M. Romagosa
- Center for Forest SustainabilitySchool of Forestry and Wildlife SciencesAuburn University602 Duncan Dr.AuburnAL36849USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and ConservationUniversity of Florida110 Newins‐Ziegler HallGainesvilleFL 32611
| | | | - Peter Daszak
- EcoHealth Alliance460 W. 34th St.New YorkNY10001USA
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Ley DH, Moresco A, Frasca S. Conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and sinusitis in cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) found in association with Mycoplasma sturni infection and cryptosporidiosis. Avian Pathol 2014; 41:395-401. [PMID: 22834555 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2012.697624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Fledgling cliff swallows were cared for at a rehabilitation facility when clinical signs of ocular disease, characterized by conjunctivitis, epiphora, and hyperaemia of palpebrae and nictitans, were recognized. Treatment consisted of topical and oral antibiotic therapy and one topical steroid administration. However, one cliff swallow died and three were killed due to poor therapeutic response. Conjunctival swabs were obtained ante-mortem from the three cliff swallows and were submitted for mycoplasma culture and molecular diagnostics. Heads of the three birds were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and submitted for histopathologic examination of oculonasal tissues. Mycoplasma cultures and molecular evaluation of isolates identified Mycoplasma sturni, but not Mycoplasma gallisepticum, from each specimen. Histopathologic examination revealed lymphoplasmacytic conjunctivitis, rhinitis and infraorbital sinusitis with follicular lymphoid hyperplasia, epithelial hyperplasia, and protozoal stages compatible with Cryptosporidium spp. arranged in and along the apical surfaces of epithelial cells. Identification of concurrent M. sturni and Cryptosporidium spp. infections in these cliff swallows demonstrates an alternative infectious condition that can produce gross and microscopic lesions comparable with those commonly observed in M. gallisepticum infections of house finches and other passerine species. Conjunctivitis associated with M. sturni and Cryptosporidium spp. in cliff swallows may represent an emerging disease risk to a naïve, high-density and colonial species such as colony-nesting cliff swallows.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Ley
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA.
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Dhondt AA, DeCoste JC, Ley DH, Hochachka WM. Diverse wild bird host range of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in eastern North America. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103553. [PMID: 25061684 PMCID: PMC4111589 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases often result from pathogens jumping to novel hosts. Identifying possibilities and constraints on host transfer is therefore an important facet of research in disease ecology. Host transfers can be studied for the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum, predominantly a pathogen of poultry until its 1994 appearance and subsequent epidemic spread in a wild songbird, the house finch Haemorhous mexicanus and some other wild birds. We screened a broad range of potential host species for evidence of infection by M. gallisepticum in order to answer 3 questions: (1) is there a host phylogenetic constraint on the likelihood of host infection (house finches compared to other bird species); (2) does opportunity for close proximity (visiting bird feeders) increase the likelihood of a potential host being infected; and (3) is there seasonal variation in opportunity for host jumping (winter resident versus summer resident species). We tested for pathogen exposure both by using PCR to test for the presence of M. gallisepticum DNA and by rapid plate agglutination to test for the presence of antibodies. We examined 1,941 individual birds of 53 species from 19 avian families. In 27 species (15 families) there was evidence for exposure with M. gallisepticum although conjunctivitis was very rare in non-finches. There was no difference in detection rate between summer and winter residents, nor between feeder birds and species that do not come to feeders. Evidence of M. gallisepticum infection was found in all species for which at least 20 individuals had been sampled. Combining the present results with those of previous studies shows that a diverse range of wild bird species may carry or have been exposed to M. gallisepticum in the USA as well as in Europe and Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- André A. Dhondt
- Bird Population Studies, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Jonathan C. DeCoste
- Bird Population Studies, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - David H. Ley
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Wesley M. Hochachka
- Bird Population Studies, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
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