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Barber AJ, Del Genio CL, Swain AB, Pizzi EM, Watson SC, Tapiavala VN, Zanazzi GJ, Gaur AB. Age, sex and Alzheimer's disease: a longitudinal study of 3xTg-AD mice reveals sex-specific disease trajectories and inflammatory responses mirrored in postmortem brains from Alzheimer's patients. Alzheimers Res Ther 2024; 16:134. [PMID: 38909241 PMCID: PMC11193202 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-024-01492-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aging and sex are major risk factors for developing late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Compared to men, women experience worse neuropathological burden and cognitive decline despite living longer with the disease. Similarly, male 3xTg-AD mice, developed to model Alzheimer's disease, no longer consistently exhibit standard Alzheimer's neuropathology yet experience higher rates of mortality - providing a unique opportunity to further elucidate this dichotomy. We hypothesized that sex differences in the biological aging process yield distinct pathological and molecular Alzheimer's disease signatures in males and females, which could be harnessed for therapeutic and biomarker development. METHODS We aged male and female, 3xTg-AD and B6129 control mice across their respective lifespans (n = 3-8 mice per sex, strain, and age group) and longitudinally assessed neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease, markers of hepatic inflammation, splenic mass and morphology, as well as plasma cytokine levels. We conducted RNA sequencing analysis on bulk brain tissue and examined differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between 3xTg-AD and B6129 samples and across ages in each sex. We also examined DEGs between clinical Alzheimer's and control parahippocampal gyrus brain tissue samples from the Mount Sinai Brain Bank study in each sex. RESULTS 3xTg-AD females significantly outlived 3xTg-AD males and exhibited progressive Alzheimer's neuropathology, while 3xTg-AD males demonstrated progressive hepatic inflammation, splenomegaly, circulating inflammatory proteins, and minimal Alzheimer's neuropathological hallmarks. Instead, 3xTg-AD males experienced an accelerated upregulation of immune-related gene expression in the brain relative to females. Our clinical investigations revealed that individuals with Alzheimer's disease develop similar sex-specific alterations in neuronal and immune function. In diseased males of both species, we observed greater upregulation of complement-related gene expression, and lipopolysaccharide was predicted as the top upstream regulator of DEGs. CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that chronic inflammation and complement activation are associated with increased mortality, indicating that age-related changes in immune response contribute to sex differences in Alzheimer's disease trajectories. We provide evidence that aging and transgene-driven disease progression trigger a widespread inflammatory response in 3xTg-AD males, which mimics the impact of lipopolysaccharide stimulation despite the absence of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia J Barber
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Carmen L Del Genio
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth M Pizzi
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - George J Zanazzi
- Department of Pathology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Arti B Gaur
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA.
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA.
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Pybus AF, Bitarafan S, Brothers RO, Rohrer A, Khaitan A, Moctezuma FR, Udeshi K, Davies B, Triplett S, Griffin MN, Dammer EB, Rangaraju S, Buckley EM, Wood LB. Profiling the neuroimmune cascade in 3xTg-AD mice exposed to successive mild traumatic brain injuries. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:156. [PMID: 38872143 PMCID: PMC11177462 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03128-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Repetitive mild traumatic brain injuries (rmTBI) sustained within a window of vulnerability can result in long term cognitive deficits, depression, and eventual neurodegeneration associated with tau pathology, amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, gliosis, and neuronal and functional loss. However, a comprehensive study relating acute changes in immune signaling and glial reactivity to neuronal changes and pathological markers after single and repetitive mTBIs is currently lacking. In the current study, we addressed the question of how repeated injuries affect the brain neuroimmune response in the acute phase of injury (< 24 h) by exposing the 3xTg-AD mouse model of tau and Aβ pathology to successive (1x-5x) once-daily weight drop closed-head injuries and quantifying immune markers, pathological markers, and transcriptional profiles at 30 min, 4 h, and 24 h after each injury. We used young adult 2-4 month old 3xTg-AD mice to model the effects of rmTBI in the absence of significant tau and Aβ pathology. We identified pronounced sexual dimorphism in this model, with females eliciting more diverse changes after injury compared to males. Specifically, females showed: (1) a single injury caused a decrease in neuron-enriched genes inversely correlated with inflammatory protein expression and an increase in AD-related genes within 24 h, (2) each injury significantly increased a group of cortical cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-9, IL-13, IL-17, KC) and MAPK phospho-proteins (phospho-Atf2, phospho-Mek1), several of which co-labeled with neurons and correlated with phospho-tau, and (3) repetitive injury caused increased expression of genes associated with astrocyte reactivity and macrophage-associated immune function. Collectively our data suggest that neurons respond to a single injury within 24 h, while other cell types, including astrocytes, transition to inflammatory phenotypes within days of repetitive injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa F Pybus
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sara Bitarafan
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rowan O Brothers
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Alivia Rohrer
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Arushi Khaitan
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Felix Rivera Moctezuma
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kareena Udeshi
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Brae Davies
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sydney Triplett
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Martin N Griffin
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Eric B Dammer
- Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Srikant Rangaraju
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Erin M Buckley
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Levi B Wood
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Bostick JW, Connerly TJ, Thron T, Needham BD, de Castro Fonseca M, Kaddurah-Daouk R, Knight R, Mazmanian SK. The microbiome shapes immunity in a sex-specific manner in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.07.593011. [PMID: 38766238 PMCID: PMC11100721 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.07.593011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Preclinical studies reveal that the microbiome broadly affects immune responses and the deposition and/or clearance of amyloid-beta (Aβ) in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Whether the microbiome shapes central and peripheral immune profiles in AD models remains unknown. METHODS We examined adaptive immune responses in two mouse models containing AD-related genetic predispositions (3xTg and 5xFAD) in the presence or absence of the microbiome. RESULTS T and B cells were altered in brain-associated and systemic immune tissues between genetic models and wildtype mice, with earlier signs if inflammation in female mice. Systemic immune responses were modulated by the microbiome and differed by sex. Further, the absence of a microbiome in germ-free mice resulted in reduced cognitive deficits, primarily in female mice. DISCUSSION These data reveal sexual dimorphism in early signs of inflammation and the effects of the microbiome, and highlight a previously unrecognized interaction between sex and the microbiome in mouse models of AD. Research in Context Systemic review: We reviewed the literature related to Alzheimer's disease (AD), inflammation, and the microbiome using PubMed. We cite several studies that demonstrate the influence of the microbiome on inflammation and cognitive performance in both animal models and humans. However, the mechanisms linking immunity to AD are not well understood. Interpretation: Using two well-established mouse models of AD, we found that the microbiome does not strongly influence the onset of inflammation in brain-draining lymph nodes; rather, it largely modulates systemic immune responses, local cytokine production, and cognitive performance. Notably, the inflammatory state in mice was affected by sex, and this sex effect differed between local and systemic tissues and mice with or without a microbiome. Future directions: Our work identified a sex- and microbiome-mediated effect on inflammation and cognitive performance. Future studies may focus on microbiome-dependent mechanisms that intersect with sex hormone and immune responses to determine peripheral effects on AD outcomes. Highlights Adaptive immunity is activated at early ages and differentially by sex in mouse models of AD.Inflammation in 5xFAD mice is characterized by increased IL-17A-producing T cells.Inflammation in 3xTg mice is characterized by increased cytokine responses in males, but attenuated cytokine responses in female mice.Longitudinal immune responses differ between 3xTg mice and 5xFAD mice.Both 3xTg and 5xFAD female mice show improved learning and cognition in the absence of a microbiome.
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Barber AJ, del Genio CL, Swain AB, Pizzi EM, Watson SC, Tapiavala VN, Zanazzi GJ, Gaur AB. Age, Sex and Alzheimer's disease: A longitudinal study of 3xTg-AD mice reveals sex-specific disease trajectories and inflammatory responses mirrored in postmortem brains from Alzheimer's patients. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.23.573209. [PMID: 38187539 PMCID: PMC10769453 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.23.573209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Background Aging and sex are major risk factors for developing late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Compared to men, women are not only nearly twice as likely to develop Alzheimer's, but they also experience worse neuropathological burden and cognitive decline despite living longer with the disease. It remains unclear how and when sex differences in biological aging emerge and contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. We hypothesized that these differences lead to distinct pathological and molecular Alzheimer's disease signatures in males and females, which could be harnessed for therapeutic and biomarker development. Methods We aged male and female, 3xTg-AD and B6129 (WT) control mice across their respective lifespans while longitudinally collecting brain, liver, spleen, and plasma samples (n=3-8 mice per sex, strain, and age group). We performed histological analyses on all tissues and assessed neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease, markers of hepatic inflammation, as well as splenic mass and morphology. Additionally, we measured concentrations of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors in the plasma. We conducted RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis on bulk brain tissue and examined differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between 3xTg-AD and WT samples and across ages in each sex. We also examined DEGs between clinical Alzheimer's and control parahippocampal gyrus brain tissue samples from the Mount Sinai Brain Bank (MSBB) study in each sex. Results 3xTg-AD females significantly outlived 3xTg-AD males and exhibited progressive Alzheimer's neuropathology, while 3xTg-AD males demonstrated progressive hepatic inflammation, splenomegaly, circulating inflammatory proteins, and next to no Alzheimer's neuropathological hallmarks. Instead, 3xTg-AD males experienced an accelerated upregulation of immune-related gene expression in the brain relative to females, further suggesting distinct inflammatory disease trajectories between the sexes. Clinical investigations revealed that 3xTg-AD brain aging phenotypes are not an artifact of the animal model, and individuals with Alzheimer's disease develop similar sex-specific alterations in canonical pathways related to neuronal signaling and immune function. Interestingly, we observed greater upregulation of complement-related gene expression, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was predicted as the top upstream regulator of DEGs in diseased males of both species. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that chronic inflammation and complement activation are associated with increased mortality, revealing that age-related changes in immune response act as a primary driver of sex differences in Alzheimer's disease trajectories. We propose a model of disease pathogenesis in 3xTg-AD males in which aging and transgene-driven disease progression trigger an inflammatory response, mimicking the effects of LPS stimulation despite the absence of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia J. Barber
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Carmen L. del Genio
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth M. Pizzi
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - George J. Zanazzi
- Department of Pathology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Arti B. Gaur
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
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Tian S, Ye T, Cheng X. The behavioral, pathological and therapeutic features of the triple transgenic Alzheimer's disease (3 × Tg-AD) mouse model strain. Exp Neurol 2023; 368:114505. [PMID: 37597764 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
As a classic animal model of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the 3 × Tg-AD mouse not only recapitulates most of anatomical hallmarks observed in AD pathology but also displays cognitive alterations in memory and learning tasks. The 3 × Tg-AD can better show the two characteristics of AD, amyloid β (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). Therefore, 3 × Tg-AD strain is widely used in AD pathogenesis research and new drug development of AD. In this paper, the construction methods, pathological changes, and treatment characteristics of 3 × Tg-AD mouse models commonly used in AD research are summarized and commented, hoping to provide reference for researchers to choose and establish experimental patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Tian
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macao 999078, PR China; Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250300, China
| | - Tianyuan Ye
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250300, China
| | - Xiaorui Cheng
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macao 999078, PR China; Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250300, China.
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Zhao J, Zhang Z, Lai KC, Lai L. Administration of recombinant FOXN1 protein attenuates Alzheimer's pathology in mice. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 113:341-352. [PMID: 37541395 PMCID: PMC10528256 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in older adults and characterized by progressive loss of memory and cognitive functions that are associated with amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Immune cells play an important role in the clearance of Aβ deposits and neurofibrillary tangles. T cells are the major component of the immune system. The thymus is the primary organ for T cell generation. T cell development in the thymus depends on thymic epithelial cells (TECs). However, TECs undergo both qualitative and quantitative loss over time. We have previously reported that a recombinant (r) protein containing FOXN1 and a protein transduction domain can increase the number of TECs and subsequently increases the number of T cells in mice. In this study we determined the ability of rFOXN1 to affect cognitive performance and AD pathology in mice. METHODS Aged 3xTg-AD and APP/PS1 AD mice were injected with rFOXN1 or control protein. Cognitive performance, AD pathology, the thymic microenvironment and immune cells were then analyzed. RESULTS Administration of rFOXN1 into AD mice improves cognitive performance and reduces Aβ plaque load and phosphorylated tau in the brain. This is related to rejuvenating the aged thymic microenvironment, which results in enhanced T cell generation in the thymus, leading to increased number of T cells, especially IFNγ-producing T cells, in the spleen and the choroid plexus (CP), enhanced expression of immune cell trafficking molecules in the CP, and increased migration of monocyte-derived macrophages into the brain. Furthermore, the production of anti-Aβ antibodies in the serum and the brain, and the macrophage phagocytosis of Aβ are enhanced in rFOXN1-treated AD mice. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that rFOXN1 protein has the potential to provide a novel approach to treat AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhao
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Zhenzhen Zhang
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Kuan Chen Lai
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Laijun Lai
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA; University of Connecticut Stem Cell Institute, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA.
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7
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Pybus AF, Bitarafan S, Brothers RO, Rohrer A, Khaitan A, Moctezuma FR, Udeshi K, Davies B, Triplett S, Dammer E, Rangaraju S, Buckley EM, Wood LB. Profiling the neuroimmune cascade in 3xTg mice exposed to successive mild traumatic brain injuries. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.13.544838. [PMID: 37397993 PMCID: PMC10312742 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.13.544838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Repetitive mild traumatic brain injuries (rmTBI) sustained within a window of vulnerability can result in long term cognitive deficits, depression, and eventual neurodegeneration associated with tau pathology, amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, gliosis, and neuronal and functional loss. However, we have limited understanding of how successive injuries acutely affect the brain to result in these devastating long-term consequences. In the current study, we addressed the question of how repeated injuries affect the brain in the acute phase of injury (<24hr) by exposing the 3xTg-AD mouse model of tau and Aβ pathology to successive (1x, 3x, 5x) once-daily weight drop closed-head injuries and quantifying immune markers, pathological markers, and transcriptional profiles at 30min, 4hr, and 24hr after each injury. We used young adult mice (2-4 months old) to model the effects of rmTBI relevant to young adult athletes, and in the absence of significant tau and Aβ pathology. Importantly, we identified pronounced sexual dimorphism, with females eliciting more differentially expressed proteins after injury compared to males. Specifically, females showed: 1) a single injury caused a decrease in neuron-enriched genes inversely correlated with inflammatory protein expression as well as an increase in AD-related genes within 24hr, 2) each injury significantly increased expression of a group of cortical cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-9, IL-13, IL-17, KC) and MAPK phospho-proteins (phospho-Atf2, phospho-Mek1), several of which were co-labeled with neurons and correlated with phospho-tau, and 3) repetitive injury caused increased expression of genes associated with astrocyte reactivity and immune function. Collectively our data suggest that neurons respond to a single injury within 24h, while other cell types including astrocytes transition to inflammatory phenotypes within days of repetitive injury.
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8
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Baeta-Corral R, De la Fuente M, Giménez-Llort L. Sex-dependent worsening of NMDA-induced responses, anxiety, hypercortisolemia, and organometry of early peripheral immunoendocrine impairment in adult 3xTg-AD mice and their long-lasting ontogenic modulation by neonatal handling. Behav Brain Res 2023; 438:114189. [PMID: 36343697 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The neuroimmunomodulation hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease (AD) postulates that alterations in the innate immune system triggered by damage signals result in adverse effects on neuronal functions. The peripheral immune system and neuroimmunoendocrine communication are also impaired. Here we provide further evidence using a longitudinal design that also studied the long-lasting effects of an early life sensorial intervention (neonatal handling, from postnatal day 1-21) in 6-month-old (early stages of the disease) male and female 3xTg-AD mice compared to age- and sex-matched non-transgenic (NTg) mice with normal aging. The behavioral patterns elicited by the direct exposure to an open field, and the motor depression response evoked by NMDA (25 mg/kg, i.p) were found correlated to the organometry of peripheral immune-endocrine organs (thymus involution, splenomegaly, and adrenal glands' hypertrophy) and increased corticosterone levels, suggesting their potential value for diagnostic and biomonitoring.The NMDA-induced immediate and depressant motor activity and endocrine (corticosterone) responses were sensitive to sex and AD-genotype, suggesting worse endogenous susceptibility/neuroprotective response to glutamatergic excitotoxicity in males and in the AD-genotype. 3xTg-AD females showed a reduced immediate response, whereas the NTg showed higher responsiveness to subsequent NMDA-induced depressant effect than their male counterparts. The long-lasting ontogenic modulation by handling was shown as a potentiation of NMDA-depressant effect in NTg males and females, while sex × treatment effects were found in 3xTg-AD mice. Finally, NMDA-induced corticosterone showed sex, genotype and interaction effects with sexual dimorphism enhanced in the AD-genotype, suggesting different endogenous vulnerability/neuroprotective capacities and modulation of the neuroimmunoendocrine system.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Baeta-Corral
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M De la Fuente
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - L Giménez-Llort
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
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Liu W, Fan M, Lu W, Zhu W, Meng L, Lu S. Emerging Roles of T Helper Cells in Non-Infectious Neuroinflammation: Savior or Sinner. Front Immunol 2022; 13:872167. [PMID: 35844577 PMCID: PMC9280647 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.872167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4+ T cells, also known as T helper (Th) cells, contribute to the adaptive immunity both in the periphery and in the central nervous system (CNS). At least seven subsets of Th cells along with their signature cytokines have been identified nowadays. Neuroinflammation denotes the brain’s immune response to inflammatory conditions. In recent years, various CNS disorders have been related to the dysregulation of adaptive immunity, especially the process concerning Th cells and their cytokines. However, as the functions of Th cells are being discovered, it’s also found that their roles in different neuroinflammatory conditions, or even the participation of a specific Th subset in one CNS disorder may differ, and sometimes contrast. Based on those recent and contradictory evidence, the conflicting roles of Th cells in multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, traumatic brain injury as well as some typical mental disorders will be reviewed herein. Research progress, limitations and novel approaches concerning different neuroinflammatory conditions will also be mentioned and compared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbin Liu
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Meiyang Fan
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | - Wen Lu
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Wenhua Zhu
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
- National Joint Engineering Research Center of Biodiagnostics and Biotherapy, Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Wenhua Zhu, ; Liesu Meng,
| | - Liesu Meng
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
- National Joint Engineering Research Center of Biodiagnostics and Biotherapy, Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Wenhua Zhu, ; Liesu Meng,
| | - Shemin Lu
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
- National Joint Engineering Research Center of Biodiagnostics and Biotherapy, Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi’an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education, Xi’an, China
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Abdollahi M, Fahnestock M. Nurr1 Is Not an Essential Regulator of BDNF in Mouse Cortical Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6853. [PMID: 35743300 PMCID: PMC9224520 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nurr1 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) play major roles in cognition. Nurr1 regulates BDNF in midbrain dopaminergic neurons and cerebellar granule cells. Nurr1 and BDNF are also highly expressed in the cerebral cortex, a brain area important in cognition. Due to Nurr1 and BDNF tissue specificity, the regulatory effect of Nurr1 on BDNF in different brain areas cannot be generalized. The relationship between Nurr1 and BDNF in the cortex has not been investigated previously. Therefore, we examined Nurr1-mediated BDNF regulation in cortical neurons in activity-dependent and activity-independent states. Mouse primary cortical neurons were treated with the Nurr1 agonist, amodiaquine (AQ). Membrane depolarization was induced by KCl or veratridine and reversed by nimodipine. AQ and membrane depolarization significantly increased Nurr1 (p < 0.001) and BDNF (pAQ < 0.001, pKCl < 0.01) as assessed by real-time qRT-PCR. However, Nurr1 knockdown did not affect BDNF gene expression in resting or depolarized neurons. Accordingly, the positive correlation between Nurr1 and BDNF expression in AQ and membrane depolarization experiments does not imply co-regulation because Nurr1 knockdown did not affect BDNF gene expression in resting or depolarized cortical neurons. Therefore, in contrast to midbrain dopaminergic neurons and cerebellar granule cells, Nurr1 does not regulate BDNF in cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Abdollahi
- Medical Sciences Graduate Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
| | - Margaret Fahnestock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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Frame G, Schuller A, Smith MA, Crish SD, Dengler-Crish CM. Alterations in Retinal Signaling Across Age and Sex in 3xTg Alzheimer’s Disease Mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 88:471-492. [PMID: 35599482 PMCID: PMC9398084 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Background: Visual disturbances often precede cognitive dysfunction in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and may coincide with early accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) protein in the retina. These findings have inspired critical research on in vivo ophthalmic Aβ imaging for disease biomarker detection but have not fully answered mechanistic questions on how retinal pathology affects visual signaling between the eye and brain. Objective: The goal of this study was to provide a functional and structural assessment of eye-brain communication between retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their primary projection target, the superior colliculus, in female and male 3xTg-AD mice across disease stages. Methods: Retinal electrophysiology, axonal transport, and immunofluorescence were used to determine RGC projection integrity, and retinal and collicular Aβ levels were assessed with advanced protein quantitation techniques. Results: 3xTg mice exhibited nuanced deficits in RGC electrical signaling, axonal transport, and synaptic integrity that exceeded normal age-related decrements in RGC function in age- and sex-matched healthy control mice. These deficits presented in sex-specific patterns among 3xTg mice, differing in the timing and severity of changes. Conclusion: These data support the premise that retinal Aβ is not just a benign biomarker in the eye, but may contribute to subtle, nuanced visual processing deficits. Such disruptions might enhance the biomarker potential of ocular amyloid and differentiate patients with incipient AD from patients experiencing normal age-related decrements in visual function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle Frame
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Adam Schuller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
| | - Matthew A. Smith
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
- Rebecca D. Considine Research Institute, Akron Children’s Hospital, Akron, OH, USA
| | - Samuel D. Crish
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
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12
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Fagan SG, Bechet S, Dev KK. Fingolimod Rescues Memory and Improves Pathological Hallmarks in the 3xTg-AD Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:1882-1895. [PMID: 35031916 PMCID: PMC8882098 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02613-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) have largely focused on the regulation of amyloid pathology while those targeting tau pathology, and inflammatory mechanisms are less explored. In this regard, drugs with multimodal and concurrent targeting of Aβ, tau, and inflammatory processes may offer advantages. Here, we investigate one such candidate drug in the triple transgenic 3xTg-AD mouse model of AD, namely the disease-modifying oral neuroimmunomodulatory therapeutic used in patients with multiple sclerosis, called fingolimod. In this study, administration of fingolimod was initiated after behavioral symptoms are known to emerge, at 6 months of age. Treatment continued to 12 months when behavioral tests were performed and thereafter histological and biochemical analysis was conducted on postmortem tissue. The results demonstrate that fingolimod reverses deficits in spatial working memory at 8 and 12 months of age as measured by novel object location and Morris water maze tests. Inflammation in the brain is alleviated as demonstrated by reduced Iba1-positive and CD3-positive cell number, less ramified microglial morphology, and improved cytokine profile. Finally, treatment with fingolimod was shown to reduce phosphorylated tau and APP levels in the hippocampus and cortex. These results highlight the potential of fingolimod as a multimodal therapeutic for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Fagan
- Drug Development, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Sibylle Bechet
- Drug Development, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kumlesh K Dev
- Drug Development, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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13
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Nava Catorce M, Acero G, Gevorkian G. Age- and sex-dependent alterations in the peripheral immune system in the 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease: Increased proportion of CD3+CD4-CD8- double-negative T cells in the blood. J Neuroimmunol 2021; 360:577720. [PMID: 34543880 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2021.577720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
It is well documented that sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease and considered to be a result of several pathological events, both in the periphery and in the brain. The role of the peripheral immune system in the etiology and/or progression of the disease is not fully understood yet, and the results in humans are contradictory so far. Several animal models of AD have been generated and thoroughly characterized to elucidate disease mechanisms and evaluate numerous therapeutic strategies in preclinical studies. In the present study, we carried out a longitudinal evaluation of blood lymphocytes from male and female 3xTg-AD mice to document important immunological abnormalities in the periphery. We documented the age-dependent decrease in the percentage of CD3+ and CD4+ lymphocytes and an increase in the percentage CD3+CD4-CD8- (DN T) cells in the blood of 3xTg-AD mice compared with non-transgenic animals. Severe splenomegaly was observed in 3xTg-AD mice in contrast to wild-type animals. Importantly, all these abnormalities in the peripheral immune system appeared earlier and were more pronounced in males compared with females of the same age, which may account for the shorter lifespan of male mice. We suggest that future research should include the measurement of CD3+ and DN T cells as a potential immunological marker of disease progression in AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miryam Nava Catorce
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70228, Cuidad Universitaria, CDMX, CP 04510, Mexico
| | - Gonzalo Acero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70228, Cuidad Universitaria, CDMX, CP 04510, Mexico
| | - Goar Gevorkian
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70228, Cuidad Universitaria, CDMX, CP 04510, Mexico.
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14
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Fung ITH, Zhang Y, Shin DS, Sankar P, Sun X, D'Souza SS, Song R, Kuentzel ML, Chittur SV, Zuloaga KL, Yang Q. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells are numerically and functionally deficient in the triple transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:152. [PMID: 34229727 PMCID: PMC8261980 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02202-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The immune pathways in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remain incompletely understood. Our recent study indicates that tissue-resident group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) accumulate in the brain barriers of aged mice and that their activation alleviates aging-associated cognitive decline. The regulation and function of ILC2 in AD, however, remain unknown. Methods In this study, we examined the numbers and functional capability of ILC2 from the triple transgenic AD mice (3xTg-AD) and control wild-type mice. We investigated the effects of treatment with IL-5, a cytokine produced by ILC2, on the cognitive function of 3xTg-AD mice. Results We demonstrate that brain-associated ILC2 are numerically and functionally defective in the triple transgenic AD mouse model (3xTg-AD). The numbers of brain-associated ILC2 were greatly reduced in 7-month-old 3xTg-AD mice of both sexes, compared to those in age- and sex-matched control wild-type mice. The remaining ILC2 in 3xTg-AD mice failed to efficiently produce the type 2 cytokine IL-5 but gained the capability to express a number of proinflammatory genes. Administration of IL-5, a cytokine produced by ILC2, transiently improved spatial recognition and learning in 3xTg-AD mice. Conclusion Our results collectively indicate that numerical and functional deficiency of ILC2 might contribute to the cognitive impairment of 3xTg-AD mice. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02202-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Ting Hin Fung
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Yuanyue Zhang
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Damian S Shin
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Poornima Sankar
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Xiangwan Sun
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Shanti S D'Souza
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Renjie Song
- Biochemistry & Immunology Core Facility at Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Marcy L Kuentzel
- Center for Functional Genomics, University at Albany-SUNY, Rensselaer, NY, 12144, USA
| | - Sridar V Chittur
- Center for Functional Genomics, University at Albany-SUNY, Rensselaer, NY, 12144, USA
| | - Kristen L Zuloaga
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Qi Yang
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
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15
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Bretland KA, Lin L, Bretland KM, Smith MA, Fleming SM, Dengler-Crish CM. Irisin treatment lowers levels of phosphorylated tau in the hippocampus of pre-symptomatic female but not male htau mice. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2021; 47:967-978. [PMID: 33768561 PMCID: PMC9292848 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Irisin is a hormone cleaved from fibronectin type-III domain-containing protein 5 in response to exercise and may be therapeutic in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Irisin is shown to repair damage caused by midlife cardiometabolic risk factors for AD (i.e., diabetes mellitus; hypertension), prevent neural amyloid beta aggregation and reduce neuroinflammation. However, there are no investigations of irisin's effect on AD-associated tauopathy in the brain. This study begins to address this gap in knowledge. METHODS Transgenic htau mice that selectively develop age-related tauopathy were treated with recombinant irisin (100 µg/kg weekly i.p.) beginning at a pre-symptomatic age (4 months) to determine if irisin could prevent emergence of early neuropathology. One month later, mice were sacrificed to collect brain tissue and serum. Protein levels of ptau (serine 202), inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and FNDC5 were quantified using capillary-based western blotting (Wes). RESULTS Our data show that irisin treatment significantly reduced ptau and TNFα in the hippocampus and serum of female htau mice compared to vehicle-treated controls. Irisin treatment did not alter ptau levels in male htau hippocampus and appeared to enhance both neural and systemic TNFα levels. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the first evidence that enhancing the endogenous hormone irisin may be therapeutic against emerging neuropathology in a tauopathy-selective AD model. This is important because there are currently no disease-modifying therapeutics available for AD, and few agents in development address the multiple disease targets irisin appears to-making irisin an intriguing therapeutic candidate for further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie A Bretland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
| | - Li Lin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
| | - Kimberly M Bretland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA.,Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Matthew A Smith
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA.,Akron Children's Hospital, Rebecca D. Considine Research Institute, Akron, OH, USA
| | - Sheila M Fleming
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA
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16
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Dennison JL, Ricciardi NR, Lohse I, Volmar CH, Wahlestedt C. Sexual Dimorphism in the 3xTg-AD Mouse Model and Its Impact on Pre-Clinical Research. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 80:41-52. [PMID: 33459720 PMCID: PMC8075398 DOI: 10.3233/jad-201014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Female sex is a leading risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Sexual dimorphism in AD is gaining attention as clinical data show that women are not only more likely to develop AD but also to experience worse pathology and faster cognitive decline. Pre-clinical AD research in animal models often neglects to address sexual dimorphism in evaluation of behavioral or molecular characteristics and outcomes. This can compromise its translation to a clinical setting. The triple-transgenic AD mouse model (3xTg-AD) is a commonly used but unique AD model because it exhibits both amyloid and tau pathology, essential features of the human AD phenotype. Mounting evidence has revealed important sexually dimorphic characteristics of this animal model that have yet to be reviewed and thus, are often overlooked in studies using the 3xTg-AD model. In this review we conduct a thorough analysis of reports of sexual dimorphism in the 3xTg-AD model including findings of molecular, behavioral, and longevity-related sex differences in original research articles through August 2020. Importantly, we find results to be inconsistent, and that strain source and differing methodologies are major contributors to lack of consensus regarding traits of each sex. We first touch on the nature of sexual dimorphism in clinical AD, followed by a brief summary of sexual dimorphism in other major AD murine models before discussing the 3xTg-AD model in depth. We conclude by offering four suggestions to help unify pre-clinical mouse model AD research inspired by the NIH expectations for considering sex as a biological variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Dennison
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Natalie R Ricciardi
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ines Lohse
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Claude-Henry Volmar
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Claes Wahlestedt
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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17
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Differential effects of chronic immunosuppression on behavioral, epigenetic, and Alzheimer's disease-associated markers in 3xTg-AD mice. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2021; 13:30. [PMID: 33472690 PMCID: PMC7818784 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-020-00745-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Circulating autoantibodies and sex-dependent discrepancy in prevalence are unexplained phenomena of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Using the 3xTg-AD mouse model, we reported that adult males show early manifestations of systemic autoimmunity, increased emotional reactivity, enhanced expression of the histone variant macroH2A1 in the cerebral cortex, and loss of plaque/tangle pathology. Conversely, adult females display less severe autoimmunity and retain their AD-like phenotype. This study examines the link between immunity and other traits of the current 3xTg-AD model. METHODS Young 3xTg-AD and wild-type mice drank a sucrose-laced 0.4 mg/ml solution of the immunosuppressant cyclophosphamide on weekends for 5 months. After behavioral phenotyping at 2 and 6 months of age, we assessed organ mass, serologic markers of autoimmunity, molecular markers of early AD pathology, and expression of genes associated with neurodegeneration. RESULTS Chronic immunosuppression prevented hematocrit drop and reduced soluble Aβ in 3xTg-AD males while normalizing the expression of histone variant macroH2A1 in 3xTg-AD females. This treatment also reduced hepatosplenomegaly, lowered autoantibody levels, and increased the effector T cell population while decreasing the proportion of regulatory T cells in both sexes. Exposure to cyclophosphamide, however, neither prevented reduced brain mass and BDNF expression nor normalized increased tau and anxiety-related behaviors. CONCLUSION The results suggest that systemic autoimmunity increases soluble Aβ production and affects transcriptional regulation of macroH2A1 in a sex-related manner. Despite the complexity of multisystem interactions, 3xTg-AD mice can be a useful in vivo model for exploring the regulatory role of autoimmunity in the etiology of AD-like neurodegenerative disorders.
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18
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Shekari A, Fahnestock M. Cholinergic neurodegeneration in Alzheimer disease mouse models. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 182:191-209. [PMID: 34266592 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819973-2.00013-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cholinergic signaling is critical for cognitive function. The basal forebrain is the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system. Degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Mouse models are invaluable tools in disease research and have been used to study AD for over 25 years. However, animal models of AD vary greatly with respect to the degree of cholinergic degeneration observed. The following review will outline the most influential animal models of AD with an emphasis on the basal forebrain cholinergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Shekari
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Margaret Fahnestock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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19
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Kane AE, Shin S, Wong AA, Fertan E, Faustova NS, Howlett SE, Brown RE. Sex Differences in Healthspan Predict Lifespan in the 3xTg-AD Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:172. [PMID: 29946252 PMCID: PMC6005856 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) exhibit marked differences in life expectancy depending on their genotype and sex. The assessment of frailty could provide a measure of healthspan to facilitate comparisons between different AD models. We used a validated mouse frailty index (FI) assessment tool to explore genotype and sex differences in lifespan and healthspan of 3xTg-AD mice and their B6129F2 wild-type (WT) controls. This tool is based on an approach commonly used in people and quantifies frailty by counting the accumulation of age-related health deficits. The number of deficits in an individual divided by the total number measured yields an FI score theoretically between 0 and 1, with higher scores denoting more frailty. Male 3xTg-AD mice aged 300-600 days had higher FI scores (Mean FI = 0.21 ± 0.03) than either male WT (Mean FI = 0.15 ± 0.01) or female 3xTg-AD mice (Mean FI = 0.10 ± 0.01), and the elevated frailty scores were accompanied by parallel increases in mortality. Frailty increased exponentially with age, and higher rates of deficit accumulation elevated mortality risk in all groups of mice. When mice were stratified by FI score, frailty predicted mortality, at least in females. Therefore, the mouse clinical FI provides a valuable tool for evaluating healthspan in mouse models of AD with different lifespans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice E. Kane
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Sooyoun Shin
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Aimee A. Wong
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Emre Fertan
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Natalia S. Faustova
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Susan E. Howlett
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Richard E. Brown
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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