Amino acid digestibility of larval meal (Musca domestica) for broiler chickens

Insects as an alternative protein source for poultry nutrition: a review

This review summarizes the most relevant scientific literature related to the use of insects as alternative protein sources in poultry diets. The black soldier fly, the housefly, the beetle, mealworms, silkworms, earthworms, crickets, and grasshoppers are in the spotlight because they have been identified as an important future source of sustainable animal proteins for poultry feeding. Insect meals meet poultry requirements in terms of nutritional value, essential amino acid composition, nutrient digestibility, and feed acceptance. Furthermore, they are enriched with antimicrobial peptides and bioactive molecules that can improve global health. Results from poultry studies suggest equivalent or enhanced growth performances and quality of end-products as compared to fish meal and soybean meal. To outline this body of knowledge, this article states established threads of research about the nutrient profiles and the digestibility of insect meals, their subsequent effects on the growth and laying performances of poultry as well as the quality of meat, carcass, and eggs. To fully exploit insect-derived products, the effects of insect bioactive molecules (antimicrobial peptides, fatty acids, and polysaccharides) were addressed. Furthermore, as edible insects are likely to take a meaningful position in the feed and food chain, the safety of their derived products needs to be ensured. Some insights into the current knowledge on the prevalence of pathogens and contaminants in edible insects were highlighted. Finally, the effect of insect farming and processing treatment on the nutritive value of insect larvae was discussed. Our overview reveals that using insects can potentially solve problems related to reliance on other food sources, without altering the growth performances and the quality of meat and eggs.

Evaluating an emerging technology-based biorefinery for edible house crickets

Introduction

Edible insects, specifically house crickets, are expected to play an important role in the future food systems due to their rich nutritional profile, low environmental impact and growing consumer acceptance as food. Their content of proteins, lipids, chitin and phenolics offer great potential for the valorization of their biomass into nutritional end products and fractions. Furthermore, emerging food processing technologies and green solvents are relevant for improving the valorization process.

Materials and methods

High pressure (HP) and ultrasound (US) processing were implemented in an insect biorefinery system, where a hexane/methanol/water solvent was used to separate fat, phenolics and a solid fraction containing proteins and chitin. Subsequently, a deep eutectic solvent of betaine and urea (B/U) was used to for protein and chitin isolation.

Results

A maximum of 15% of fat was isolated, with no positive effect from the US or HP treatments. The US treatment enhanced the phenolic extraction yield by 38.69%, while HP negatively affected the antioxidant capacity. B/U was efficient in separating proteins and chitin, resulting in a protein concentrate with a protein content ≥80% and a chitinous fraction with a chitin content ≥70%.

Conclusion

House cricket biomass can be refined into valuable fractions with a quick and simple method, making the process industrially relevant.

Could Insect Products Provide a Safe and Sustainable Feed Alternative for the Poultry Industry? A Comprehensive Review

The planet is home to more than 2000 species of edible insects, some of which have been consumed as food for many years. Recently, edible insect products have been gradually increasing in several countries, such as Italy and Egypt, as novel feed resources for humans and animals due to their availability, potential economic benefits, and high nutritive value. The insect industry can provide a new solution for livestock nutrition and offer many additional advantages, but there are obstacles to overcome, such as some nutritional organizations that forbid its usage. Nevertheless, previous research indicates that different insect species could be used safely as nutraceuticals in poultry farming to improve broiler growth performance (>3%) and layer egg production (>5%). Among these species, there are various products and extracts that can be used in poultry nutrition in a sustainable manner. This review provides an outline of insect composition, nutrient values, application in poultry feed, safety, and guidelines, and finally, the future perspectives of insects as an alternative feed source in poultry diets.

Research Note: Effects of partial replacement of noug seed (Guizotia abyssinica) cake with maggot meal in dual-purpose chicken

The aim of this trial was to evaluate the effect of partial replacement of noug seed cake (NSC) with housefly maggot meal (HFLM) on the growth performance, complete blood count, carcass traits, and gizzard erosion. A total of 120 twenty-seven-day-old Sasso chickens were divided into 4 groups in a completely randomized design. Four diets were prepared to replace NSC with HFLM at the rate of 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60%, labeled as C, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. During the 28-d trial, the chickens were provided feed and water ad libitum. Average daily feed intake (ADFI), final body weight (FBW), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were not affected by increasing the dietary level of HFLM (P > 0.05). However, there was a difference (P < 0.05) in body weight gain (BWG) between the control and treatment groups, in which a higher BWG was achieved in T1. In this trial, the crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and gross energy (GE) in HFLM were 34.06%, 26.85%, and 3871 (kcal/kg), respectively. Blood indices including white blood cells, granulocytes, red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were higher in treatment diets (P < 0.05) than in the control diets. No negative effects (P > 0.05) on carcass characteristics were found between the treated and control groups. Furthermore, no discrepancy (P > 0.05) in liver color scores and mortality rate were observed between the control and treatment diets. Surprisingly, feeding HFLM resulted in higher gizzard erosion scores (P < 0.05) in the group fed 40% HFLM. Overall, replacement of NSC at the rate of 20% HFLM in dual-purpose chicken feed produced higher BWG with no gizzard erosion and mortality.

Effect of insect protein and protease on growth performance, blood profiles, fecal microflora and gas emission in growing pig

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of Hermetia illucens larvae (HIL) as protein and protease on growth performance, blood profiles, fecal microflora, and gas emission in growing pig. In experiment 1, the seventy-two crossbred growing pigs ([Landrace × Yorkshire] × Duroc) with an initial body weight (BW) of 27.98 ± 2.95 kg were randomly allotted to one of four dietary treatments (3 pigs per pen and 6 replicates pen per treatments). The experimental design was a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments evaluating two diets (Poultry offal diets and HIL diets) without or with supplementing protease. The poultry offal in basal diet has been replaced by HIL. In experiment 2, the four crossbred growing pigs ([Landrace × Yorkshire] × Duroc) with an initial BW of 28.2 ± 0.1 kg were individually accepted in stainless steel metabolism cages. The dietary treatments included: 1) PO- (PO-; poultry offal diet), 2) PO+ (PO- + 0.05% protease), 3) HIL- (3% PO of PO- diet was replacement 3% HIL), 4) HIL+ (HIL- + 0.05% protease). In experiment 1, From weeks 0 to 2, average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (G:F) were significantly increased in the PO diet group compared with the HIL group. From weeks 2 to 4, ADG and G:F were higher for protease group than for non-protease group. At weeks 2 and 4, the PO diet group had lower blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels than HIL diet group. In experiment 2, crude protein (CP) and nitrogen (N) retention were decreased by HIL diet at weeks 2 and 4. The fecal microflora and gas emission were not affected by HIL and protease. The HIL diet showed lower CP digestibility than PO diet and total essential amino acids digestibility tended to higher in PO diet than HIL diet. In summary, the present study revealed that replacement of the PO protein with the HIL protein and the additive of protease in growing pig diets during the overall experimental period had no negative effect.

LMWP (S3-3) from the Larvae of Musca domestica Alleviate D-IBS by Adjusting the Gut Microbiota

Diarrhea-based Irritable Bowel Syndrome (D-IBS) and diarrhea are both associated with ecological imbalance of the gut microbiota. Low Molecular Weight Peptides (LMWP) from the larvae of Musca domestica have been shown to be effective in the treatment of diarrhea and regulation of gut microbiota. Meanwhile, the single polypeptide S3-3 was successfully isolated and identified from LMWP in our previous studies. It remains unclear exactly whether and how LMWP (S3-3) alleviate D-IBS through regulating gut microbiota. We evaluated the gut microbiota and pharmacology to determine the regulation of gut microbiota structure and the alleviating effect on D-IBS through LMWP (S3-3). The rates of loose stools, abdominal withdrawal reflex (AWR) and intestinal tract motility results revealed that LMWP (S3-3) from the larvae of Musca domestica had a regulating effect against diarrhea, visceral hypersensitivity and gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction in D-IBS model mice. Additionally, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was utilized to examine the gut microbiota, which suggests that LMWP induce structural changes in the gut microbiota and alter the levels of the following gut microbiota: Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia. LMWP putatively functioned through regulating 5-HT, SERT, 5-HT2AR, 5-HT3AR and 5-HT4R according to the results of ELISA, qRT-PCR and IHC. The findings of this study will contribute to further understanding how LMWP (S3-3) attenuate the effects of D-IBS on diarrhea, visceral hypersensitivity and GI dysfunction.

Chemical composition of selected insect meals and their effect on apparent total tract digestibility, fecal metabolites, and microbiota of adult cats fed insect-based retorted diets

Insect meals are novel and potentially sustainable protein sources. The objectives of this study were to determine the chemical composition and standardized amino acid digestibility using the cecectomized rooster model of three selected insect meals (i.e., speckled cockroach [SC], Madagascar hissing cockroach [MC], and superworm [SW]) and to determine the effects of these insect meals on food intake, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of macronutrients, fecal scores, and metabolites of adult cats fed insect- or chicken-based retorted diets. This study consisted of a complete randomized design, with 28 adult cats randomly assigned to one of the four experimental retorted diets: Control (chicken-based diet), SC diet, MC diet, or SW diet. All animal procedures were approved by the University of Illinois Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. All diets were formulated to be complete and balanced and meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of adult cats. The experimental period was 28 d, with the first 7 d allotted for diet adaptation. The total fecal collection was completed during the last 4 d of the experimental period. On day 21, a fresh fecal sample from each cat was collected for the determination of fecal metabolites and microbiota. Food was offered twice daily to maintain body weight and body condition score. Among the three selected insect meals evaluated, oleic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and stearic acid were the most prevalent fatty acids. Branched-chain amino acids and arginine were the most preponderant indispensable amino acids in these insect meals. ATTD of dry matter, organic matter, acid-hydrolyzed fat, and crude protein did not differ among treatments (P > 0.05), and all diets were well digested by the cats. Similarly, fecal scores did not differ among the treatments and were within ideal range. No differences (P > 0.05) in fecal metabolite concentrations or microbiota diversity were observed among cats fed different experimental diets; only a few genera from Firmicutes and Bacteroidota phyla differ (P < 0.05) in cats fed SW diet in contrast to other dietary treatments. In conclusion, the selected insect meals evaluated herein are rich in linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid for cats. Insect-based retorted diets led to comparable results to those achieved with a chicken-based retorted diet, suggesting that these novel protein sources might be adequate alternative ingredients in feline diets.

Insect meal as a feed ingredient for poultry

Shortage of protein feed resources is the major challenge to the world farm animal industry. Insects are known as an alternative protein source for poultry. A wide range of insects are available for use in poultry diets. Insect larvae thrive in manure, and organic waste, and produce antimicrobial peptides to protect themselves from microbial infections, and additionally these peptides might also be functional in poultry feed. The feed containing antimicrobial peptides can improve the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, intestinal health, and immune function in poultry. Insect meal contains a higher amount of essential amino acids compared to conventional feedstuffs. Black soldier fly, mealworm, housefly, cricket/Grasshopper/Locust (Orthoptera), silkworm, and earthworm are the commonly used insect meals in broiler and laying hen diets. This paper summarizes the nutrient profiles of the insect meals and reviews their efficacy when included in poultry diets. Due to the differences in insect meal products, and breeds of poultry, inconsistent results were noticed among studies. The main challenge for proper utilization, and the promising prospect of insect meal in poultry diet are also addressed in the paper. To fully exploit insect meal as an alternative protein resource, and exert their functional effects, modes of action need to be understood. With the emergence of more accurate and reliable studies, insect meals will undoubtedly play more important role in poultry feed industry.

Negative Impact of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Y12 on Its Host Musca domestica

High concentrations of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Y12 significantly inhibit the development of housefly larvae and accelerate larvae death. In this study, the dynamic distribution of the gut microbiota of housefly larvae fed different concentrations of P. aeruginosa Y12 was investigated. Compared with low-concentration P. aeruginosa diets, orally administered high-concentration P. aeruginosa diets caused higher mortality and had a greater impact on the community structure and interaction network of intestinal flora in housefly larvae. The bacterial community of the gut microbiota in housefly larvae was reconstructed in 4 days. Bacterial abundance and diversity were significantly reduced in housefly larvae fed high concentrations of P. aeruginosa. With the growth of larvae, the relative abundances of Providencia, Proteus, Myroides, Klebsiella, and Alcaligenes increased significantly in housefly larvae fed with high concentrations of P. aeruginosa, while the relative abundances of Bordetella, Enterobacter, Morganella, Ochrobactrum, Alcaligenaceae, and Empedobacter were significantly reduced. To analyze the role of the gut microorganisms played on housefly development, a total of 10 cultivable bacterial species belonging to 9 genera were isolated from the intestine of housefly larvae among which Enterobacter hormaechei, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter cloacae, Lysinibacillus fusiformis, and Bacillus safensis promoted the growth of larvae through feeding experiments. This study is the first to analyze the influence of high concentrations of P. aeruginosa on the gut microbiota of houseflies. Our study provides a basis for exploring the pathogenic mechanism of high concentrations of P. aeruginosa Y12 in houseflies.

True metabolizable energy and amino acid digestibility in black soldier fly larvae meals, cricket meal, and mealworms using a precision-fed rooster assay

Six precision-fed rooster assays were conducted to determine nutrient composition, nitrogen-corrected true metabolizable energy (TMEn) and standardized amino acid digestibility for three black soldier fly larvae meals (BSFL), one partially-defatted BSFL, one cricket meal and two mealworm meals. The TMEn values were determined in three 48-h rooster assays using conventional roosters and the standardized amino acid digestibility values were determined in three 48-h rooster assays using cecectomized roosters. Nutrient analysis (DM basis) of the meals indicated that the CP varied from 45 to 58% among the four BSFL, was 67% for the cricket meal and varied from 51 to 56% for the two mealworms. Crude fat (12-30%), total P (0.7-1.1%), Ca (0.04-3.6%), and neutral detergent fiber (10-36%) also varied among the insect meals. The TMEn values for the three BSFL were generally consistent and averaged 4079 kcal/kg DM. As expected, partially-defatted BSFL contained a lower level of TMEn. The TMEn of the cricket meal was 4223 kcal/kg DM. Due to their low fiber content and high fat content, the TMEn values for the two mealworms were high and in excess of 5000 kcal/kg DM. Amino acid concentrations of the various insect meals ranged from 0.69 to 1.1% for methionine, 0.57 to 0.73% for cystine, 3.3 to 4.5% for lysine, and 1.9 to 2.6% for threonine. Standardized amino acid digestibility values were generally high (most were 85-95%) for the four BSFL and two mealworms. Digestibility values for most amino acids were slightly lower for the cricket meal. Digestibility of cystine and valine were generally lower and more variable than other amino acids in the seven insect meals. The results of this study indicated that nutrient composition varies substantially among different insect meals, but all insect meals contained high levels of TMEn and digestible amino acids compared with feed ingredients commonly used in poultry diets.

Human food waste to animal feed: opportunities and challenges

By 2050, the demand for animal protein is estimated to increase by 70%. Concurrently, United Nations (UN) member countries have committed to reduce food waste by 50% by 2030. Moreover, even if the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change dietary-change recommendations are followed, measures to produce food and animal feed more efficiently will become increasingly important in creating a more sustainable food future. Currently, livestock animals consume over a third of global grain production. However, livestock animals, including insects, could function as efficient bioprocessors for converting unavoidable food waste into valuable animal protein. Establishing such a circular food system would simultaneously reduce both the negative environmental impacts of food waste going to landfill and intensive livestock production, as well as meet the need for increased livestock feed. To be successful in establishing a food waste to livestock feed industry, it will be critical to ensure that feed safety is appropriately regulated to prevent adverse animal health, welfare, biosecurity, food safety, economic, market access and food insecurity outcomes. Currently, regulatory frameworks in most industrialised countries either prohibit feeding of food waste to livestock or limit the wastes permissible. However, there is a growing body of knowledge showing that if the correct processing and safety measures are implemented, that food waste from retail and food service can be effectively and safety utilised in commercial production systems. The Japanese have developed a successful food waste to pig feed industry, based on both liquid and dry feeding systems, which is regulated and encouraged under national policy. They have developed licenced ‘Ecofeed’-branded products, and the pork industry has not been negatively affected by emergency animal diseases through this feeding practice. If other countries are to establish similar food waste to livestock feed industries, then strategies to mitigate food safety and biosecurity concerns will need to be developed and implemented. Regional techno-economic analysis will also be required to assess industry profitability and determine the potential investment required for new collection, storage and feed production infrastructure. Furthermore, legislation, based on scientifically robust research, will be required to incentivise food-waste producers and the livestock industry to actively engage and drive change.

Growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality and serum profile of broiler chicks fed on housefly maggot meal as a replacement of soybean meal

A study was conducted to invesstigate the housefly maggot meal (HMM) as an alternative protein source to replace the soybean meal in broiler chick's diet. A total of 720 1-day-old male broiler chicks were divided into three groups and fed diets formulated with HMM to replace soybean meal at the rate of 0%, 4% and 8%. The study lasted for 42 days in two phases. Results showed that HMM addition did not markedly affect body weight, average daily body weight gain and average daily feed intake of the broiler chicks. Feed conversion ratio increased linearly (1-21 days) in starter or quadratically (22-42 days) in the grower phase. HMM non-significantly increased the feed intake and body weight during the grower phase. Slight changes were observed for decrease of blood biochemical indices in the platelets (day 21), and alkaline phosphatase and lysozyme (day 42), and increase for red blood cells, packed cell volume, total protein and uric acid on day 42; however, the fluctuations were within the physiological range. Non-significant effects were observed for carcass composition and meat quality, except that HMM numerically reduced the shear force of breast muscle (linear, p = .058). These results are the strong evidence that HMM can be used as an alternative protein source at 8% in broiler chick's diet without any adverse effect on chick's performance.

Cafeteria-Type Feeding of Chickens Indicates a Preference for Insect (Tenebrio molitor) Larvae Meal

This study aimed to determine whether broiler chickens display a preference for Tenebrio molitor larvae (TM) meal by evaluating ingredient acceptability and birds' performance. Sixty 14-day-old male chickens were assigned into two treatment groups (5 birds/pen, n = 6) in a cafeteria-type study: the control (C) group, and the TM group. Each pen was equipped with one bell drinker and four through feeders allocated side by side; all feeders of the C group contained a complete standard diet whereas each feeder of the TM group contained one of the following ingredients: ground corn, extruded semi-whole soybean, vitamin-mineral supplement mixture, and TM meal. Feed intake was recorded daily and growth was monitored periodically up to day 32. Chickens which had access to individual feed components showed a delay to display preference for TM, but consumed, overall, up to 50% of the total intake as TM meal. Feed intake and growth performance were lower in all periods for TM group (p < 0.02), whereas feed conversion ratio was improved on days 22-28 and days 29-32 of age (p < 0.01). Data from bivariate and multidimensional analysis indicate that birds started to reach a balance of ingredient intake at 25 days of age, showing a high correlation between consumption of each ingredient and the day of the experiment. Chickens exhibited a preference for T. molitor meal, resulting in improved feed efficiency, which allows us to conclude that it can be a suitable feed alternative for poultry.

Fermented crop straws by Trichoderma viride and Saccharomyces cerevisiae enhanced the bioconversion rate of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)

Crop straw is an abundant renewable resource whose usage is limited due to its high cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents. Here, Trichoderma viride, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Musca domestica were used to transform crop straws, and we investigated their impact on housefly rearing performance and optimized their utilization. The weights of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in fermented crop straw diets significantly decreased after bioconversion by M. domestica larvae. The highest bioconversion rate was recorded in corn straw diet (16.19%), followed by wheat straw diet (10.31%) and wheat bran diet (8.97%). Similarly, high larval weight (yield) and pupation rate and fecundity and fertility rate were recorded in fermented crop straw diets composed of corn straw and wheat bran in 1:1 proportions. These results indicated that fermenting crop straw with T. viride and S. cerevisiae represented an efficient strategy that enhanced crop straw bioconversion and improved the rearing capacity of the housefly larvae. The resulting larvae could further be used as proteinaceous feed in poultry and aquaculture industries. Graphical abstract.

Anti-diarrhea effects and identification of Musca domestica larvae low molecular weight peptides (LMWP)

Musca domestica larvae have been used clinically to cure children malnutritional stagnation and low molecular weight peptides (LMWP) of Musca domestica larvae showed more useful bioactivities. But there is no report on anti-diarrhea effects and identification of the LWMP. The purposes of this study were clarifying the anti-diarrhea effects by regulating intestinal microecology and identification of LMWP. In anti-diarrhea test, diarrhea mice were administered LMWP by oral gavage. Then rectal stool indicator bacteria were counted also the identification of rectal stool bacteria were determined by PCR-DGGE. In LMWP identification test, GFC and RP-HPLC were used to separate the peptide. Then the single polypeptide was tested by MALDI TOF and N-terminal sequence analysis. The results of anti-diarrhea showed that LMWP was effective in the inhibition diarrhea in mice. And microbial diversity indices showed that LMWP treatment group exhibited a higher number of bands. The identification test showed that LMWP had four main components (10-30KD, S1, S2, S3), and there were 5, 7 and 4 peaks in S1, S2 and S3, respectively. The the molecular weight of S2-5, S3-2 and S3-3 was 877.053D, 877.0631D and 1069.4391D, respectively. And S3-3 was determined as Chain A, Carboxypeptidase G2. So the hypothesis that intestinal microbiological regulation might be one of the potential anti-diarrhea mechanisms of Musca domestica larvae LMWP which had four main components and one of the single polypeptide was identified could be drawn.

Nutritional effects of the dietary inclusion of partially defatted Hermetia illucens larva meal in Muscovy duck

Background

The present work is aimed at evaluating the effect of different inclusion levels of a partially defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L.; HI) larva meal for ducks. A total of 192 female 3-day-old Muscovy ducklings (Cairina moschata domestica, Canedins R71 L White, Grimaud Freres Selection, France) were divided into 4 groups, assigned 4 different dietary treatments (6 replicates/treatment and 8 birds/replicate) and reared from 3 to 50 days of age. HI larva meal was included at increasing levels (0, 3%, 6% and 9%, HI0, HI3, HI6 and HI9, respectively) in isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets formulated for 3 feeding phases: starter (3–17 days of age), grower (18–38 days of age) and finisher (39–50 days of age). The growth performance and apparent total tract digestibility were evaluated during the trial using titanium dioxide as an inert marker (0.3% of inclusion). At 51 days of age, two birds per pen were slaughtered and histomorphological investigations were performed.

Results

The live weight and average daily gain showed a quadratic response to increasing HI meal in the grower period (minimum corresponding to the HI6 group). No effects of dietary inclusion levels were observed for the daily feed intake or feed conversion ratio. The apparent dry matter and organic matter digestibility were not affected by the dietary treatment. A linear decrease was observed for the crude protein apparent digestibility in the starter period (minimum for the HI9 groups). The ether extract apparent digestibility increased linearly during the grower and finisher periods (minimum for the HI0 group). The morphometric indices were not influenced by the dietary treatments.

Conclusions

The inclusion of up to 9% of HI partially defatted larva meal in the diet of ducks did not cause any effect on growth performance, as well as the apparent digestibility. Moreover, dietary HI inclusion preserved the physiological intestinal development.

Insects: a novel animal-feed protein source for the Australian market

The increasing demands on natural resources to provide food and feed has led to increased global initiatives to improve production sustainability and efficiency. The use of insects as an alternate source of protein for human food and production-animal feed is one such avenue gaining attention. With there being a large variety of insect species endemic to each region, there is likely to be an ideal candidate for each specific production system and region. Insects require less land and water than do terrestrial animals, have high feed-conversion efficiency (FCE) and emit low levels of greenhouse gases (GHG). Insect species currently investigated for mass production include black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), mealworms and crickets. In western societies, it is less likely that wide-scale adoption of insects as a food source will occur, although speciality products with ‘hidden’ insects, such as cricket flour, are commercially available. It is likely to be more achievable for insects to be included into the diets of production and companion animals. While there has been significant investment in research and development of large-scale insect-production systems, such facilities are yet to start producing at a significant scale. The safety and efficacy of insects as a food or feed must be established in conjunction with the development of mass rearing facilities and the optimisation of insect-rearing substrates. Insects also have nutraceutical properties that may have beneficial impacts on animal health and growth, with scope for these properties to be exploited as feed or food additives. The present review will explore the following question: ‘are insects a future livestock industry for Australia?’.