Are Anti-Retinal Autoantibodies a Cause or a Consequence of Retinal Degeneration in Autoimmune Retinopathies?

Anti-retinal Autoantibodies in Hydroxychloroquine Eye Toxicity

OBJECTIVE

Autoimmune retinopathy and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ)-related retinal toxicity share many similarities, raising the possibility autoimmunity plays a role in HCQ retinopathy. The objective of this study is to determine whether patients diagnosed with HCQ retinal toxicity are more likely to have circulating antiretinal autoantibodies (AAbs) compared to controls.

METHODS

We tested plasma samples for the presence of anti-retinal AAbs by immunoblotting in 270 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) receiving HCQ. We then evaluated for the presence of HCQ retinal toxicity and other baseline risk factors for HCQ toxicity through chart review. Frequency of specific anti-retinal AAbs in patients with HCQ retinal toxicity was compared to those with no retinal toxicity via multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

Patients with HCQ retinal toxicity had a higher likelihood of testing positive for anti-arrestin AAbs (60.7% vs 30.6%, P = 0.001) and anti-pyruvate kinase M2 AAbs (46.4% vs 28.1%, P = 0.05). Patients with HCQ eye toxicity also had a higher number of total anti-retinal AAbs (mean 3.0 ± 2.40 vs 2.04 ± 1.7, P = 0.01). In multivariate analysis accounting for risk factors associated for HCQ eye toxicity, the presence of anti-arrestin antibodies was associated with a 3.2-fold increase in the odds of developing HCQ eye toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Anti-retinal AAbs were more common in patients with SLE with HCQ retinal toxicity. When controlling for risk factors associated with HCQ toxicity, anti-arrestin AAbs were associated with increased odds for the development of eye toxicity, suggesting a potential role for anti-retinal AAbs as a biomarker of HCQ eye toxicity.

Targeting Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in the Eye: Insights from a New Model of Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis

Autoimmune uveitis is a relapsing blind-causing ocular condition with complex pathogenesis that is not completely understood. There is a high demand for accurate animal models of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) suitable for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of the disease and testing new therapeutic approaches. Here, we demonstrated that photoreceptor Ca2+/Zn2+-sensor protein recoverin is a uveoretinal antigen in albino rabbits provoking typical autoimmune chorioretinitis 2-4 weeks after immunization. The pathologic process in recoverin-induced EAU shared features with human disease and included lymphocytic infiltration of the retina, Dalen-Fuchs nodules and foci of subtotal or total retinal atrophy, manifested as a decrease in amplitude of the a-wave of the electroretinogram. In some cases, changes in the retinal vascular pattern and subretinal hemorrhages were also observed. These signs were accompanied by a gradual accumulation of serum antibodies against recoverin. Biochemical examination of the aqueous humor (AH) revealed typical characteristics of inflammation and oxidative stress, including increased levels of TNF-α and IL-6 and decreased levels of IL-10, as well as decreased total antioxidant activity, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities, and increased zinc concentration. Consistently, metabolomic and targeted lipidomic analysis of AH showed high lactate and low ascorbic acid levels in early EAU; increased levels of key pro-inflammatory signaling lipids such as PGE2, TXB2, 11-HETE and Lyso-PAF; and reduced levels of the anti-inflammatory fatty acid DHA in advanced stages of the disease. Uveitic AH became enriched with recoverin, confirming disruption of the blood-ocular barrier and photoreceptor damage. Notably, the application of mitochondria-targeted antioxidant therapy impeded EAU progression by maintaining local antioxidant activity and suppressing TNF-α, IL-6 and PGE2 signaling. Overall, our results demonstrate that recoverin-induced EAU in rabbits represents an accurate model of human autoimmune posterior uveitis and suggest new directions for its therapy that can be trialed using the developed model.

Emerging Ocular Side Effects of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Comprehensive Review

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized cancer treatment, offering significant improvements in patient survival across various malignancies. However, their use is associated with a broad spectrum of immune-related adverse events (irAEs), including those affecting the eye and its surrounding structures, collectively termed ocular irAEs (OirAEs). Although rare, OirAEs (e.g., keratitis, uveitis, retinal vasculitis, etc.) can significantly impact a patient's quality of life, leading to ocular complications if left untreated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of OirAEs associated with ICIs, including their clinical manifestations, underlying mechanisms, and current management strategies. We delve into the anterior and posterior segment adverse events, highlighting conditions such as dry eye, uveitis, and retinal disorders, as well as neuro-ophthalmic and orbital complications. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges in diagnosing and treating these conditions, particularly given the overlap with other autoimmune and paraneoplastic syndromes. Finally, we identify key knowledge gaps and suggest future research directions aimed at optimizing the management of OirAEs while maintaining the efficacy of cancer therapy. This review underscores the need for increased awareness among clinicians to prevent irreversible ocular damage and enhance patient outcomes.

DIAGNOSTIC YIELD OF AN INHERITED RETINAL DISEASE GENE PANEL IN RETINOPATHY OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN

PURPOSE

Evaluating the presence of class 3, 4, and 5 genetic variants in inherited retinal disease (IRD) genes in patients with retinopathy of unknown origin (RUO).

METHODS

Multicentric retrospective study of RUO cases diagnosed between January 2012 and February 2022. General and ophthalmologic history, complete ophthalmologic examination, antiretinal antibodies, and IRD gene panel results were analyzed in every patient. Four RUO categories were defined: nonparaneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy, unilateral pigmentary retinopathy, asymmetrical pigmentary retinopathy, and acute zonal occult outer retinopathy.

RESULTS

The authors included 12 patients (9 females) across these four RUO categories. Mean age at inclusion was 45.6 years (20-68 years). Seven patients demonstrated class 3 variants in IRD genes. Of these, two also demonstrated class 5 variants in other IRD genes. The remaining five patients had negative panel results. IRD gene panel analysis allowed diagnosis refinement in 1 (8.3%) nonparaneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy patient in the RUO cohort. When considering the nonparaneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy subpopulation only, a higher diagnostic yield of 20% (1/5 patients) was achieved.

CONCLUSION

Every suspected nonparaneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy patient should benefit from gene panel testing to not overlook undiagnosed IRDs. By contrast, unilateral pigmentary retinopathy, asymmetrical pigmentary retinopathy, and acute zonal occult outer retinopathy subpopulations did not benefit from genetic testing in this study.

Comparison of Clinical and Immunological Features of Para- and Non-Paraneoplastic Autoimmune Retinopathy in Chinese - A Series of 48 Cases

PURPOSE

To characterize and compare clinical and immunological features of para(p)-autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) and non-para(np)-AIR and to assess the clinical significance of the presence of serum anti-retinal antibodies (ARAs).

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 48 Chinese patients with p-AIR or np-AIR who took comprehensive ophthalmic examinations and lab tests of the presence of serum ARAs.

RESULTS

p-AIR patients differed from np-AIR patients in terms of disease progression, ocular inflammation, findings of OCT, FFA, and presence of ARAs. No significant difference was found in the band number of serum ARAs between AIR patients and healthy controls. The prevalence of antibodies to recoverin and ɑ-enolase in the sera of p-AIR was significantly higher than that of the healthy individuals.

CONCLUSION

While having many similar clinical signs, patients with p-AIR or np-AIR nevertheless displayed unique characteristics. Detection of ARAs subtypes, rather than their quantity, may be helpful in evaluating the conditions in the verified instances.

CCR5-overexpressing mesenchymal stem cells protect against experimental autoimmune uveitis: insights from single-cell transcriptome analysis

Autoimmune uveitis is a leading cause of severe vision loss, and animal models provide unique opportunities for studying its pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies. Here we employ scRNA-seq, RNA-seq and various molecular and cellular approaches to characterize mouse models of classical experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), revealing that EAU causes broad retinal neuron degeneration and marker downregulation, and that Müller glia may act as antigen-presenting cells. Moreover, EAU immune response is primarily driven by Th1 cells, and results in dramatic upregulation of CC chemokines, especially CCL5, in the EAU retina. Accordingly, overexpression of CCR5, a CCL5 receptor, in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) enhances their homing capacity and improves their immunomodulatory outcomes in preventing EAU, by reducing infiltrating T cells and activated microglia and suppressing Nlrp3 inflammasome activation. Taken together, our data not only provide valuable insights into the molecular characteristics of EAU but also open an avenue for innovative MSC-based therapy.

Circulating Anti-Endothelial Cell Antibodies in Patients with Geographic Atrophy Related to Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Background and Objectives: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of central vision loss among elderly patients, and its dry form accounts for the majority of cases. Although several causes and mechanisms for the development and progression of AMD have previously been identified, the pathogenesis of this complex disease is still not entirely understood. As inflammation and immune system involvement are strongly suggested to play a central role in promoting the degenerative process and stimulating the onset of complications, we aimed to analyze the frequency of serum anti-retinal (ARAs) and anti-endothelial cell antibodies (AECAs) in patients with dry AMD and to determine their relationship with the clinical features of the disease, notably the area of geographic atrophy (GA). Materials and Methods: This study included 41 patients with advanced-stage dry AMD and 50 healthy controls without AMD, matched for gender and age. ARAs were detected by indirect immunofluorescence using monkey retina as an antigen substrate, and the presence of AECAs was determined using cultivated human umbilical vein endothelial cells and primate skeletal muscle. Results: ARAs were detected in 36 (87.8%) AMD patients (titers ranged from 1:20 to 1:320) and in 16 (39.0%) (titers ranged from 1:10 to 1:40) controls (p = 0.0000). Twenty of the forty-one patients (48.8%) were positive for AECAs, while in the control group, AECAs were present only in five sera (10.0%). The titers of AECAs in AMD patients ranged from 1:100 to 1:1000, and in the control group, the AECA titers were 1:100 (p = 0.0001). There were no significant correlations between the presence of AECAs and disease activity. Conclusions: This study demonstrates a higher prevalence of circulating AECAs in patients with dry AMD; however, no correlation was found between the serum levels of these autoantibodies and the area of GA.

Anti-retinal Antibodies in Sarcoidosis

PURPOSE

To measure, characterize, and evaluate the clinical significance of anti-retinal antibodies in patients with sarcoid uveitis.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Prospective study of anti-retinal antibodies in 45 patients with biopsy-proven sarcoidosis (25 with and 20 without uveitis). Results were compared with patients with confirmed infectious uveitis (n = 40) and non-infectious uveitis (n = 40).

RESULTS

Among sarcoidosis patients, anti-retinal antibodies were positive in 23/25 patients with uveitis and in 15/20 without uveitis [P = ns]. The most common antigens recognized were carbonic anhydrase II (14/23) and α-enolase (6/23). Anti-carbonic anhydrase II autoantibodies were infrequently detected in sarcoidosis patients without uveitis (2 out 15, P < .001), in patients with infectious uveitis (1 out 18, P < .001), and in patients with non-infectious uveitis (8 out 37, P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-retinal antibodies recognizing carbonic anhydrase II are common in sarcoid uveitis. Although not fully sensitive and specific, they might be a useful non-invasive diagnostic tool for the diagnosis of sarcoid uveitis.

Pediatric autoimmune retinopathy and optic neuropathy: a case report and a review of the literature

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to present a rare case of pediatric bilateral optic neuropathy and retinopathy, which was consistent with a diagnosis of autoimmune retinopathy. We also reviewed the most current literature and phenotypes associated with reported pediatric cases of autoimmune retinopathy.

Design

The design of the study was a case report, with a retrospective case series literature review.

Subjects

This study incorporated data from six subjects, with one presenting as an original case report and five being identified from the English-language literature published to date.

Materials and methods

The materials and methods involved a descriptive analysis of fundus findings, electrophysiologic testing, serum autoantibody testing, optical coherence tomography (OCT), brain MRI scanning, and fluorescein angiography, which were performed where available.

Main outcome measures

The study evaluated the clinical presentation and treatment outcomes of all subjects and followed their visual function over time.

Results

All six subjects had retinal abnormalities that were documented on imaging, while five out of the six subjects had optic nerve abnormalities. Electrophysiologic testing was performed on three subjects, all of whom recorded abnormal results. An underlying neoplastic disorder was described for four subjects. Serum autoantibody testing results were available for four subjects. The serum testing included using antibodies against a 22-kDa antigen, a 35-kDa optic nerve-derived antigen, a 62-kDa antigen, enolase, recoverin, tubulin, and pyruvate kinase M2. Our subject presented 12 years after resection of a ganglioglioma with asymmetric bilateral vision loss, disc edema in one eye, advanced disc pallor in the fellow eye, and bilateral subtle retinal infiltrates, despite having a normal fluorescein angiogram. OCT demonstrated asymmetric ganglion cell layer thinning, which is consistent with the vision loss. Our subject also had abnormal brain MRI findings of widespread pachymeningeal enhancement, but he had a normal cerebrospinal fluid composition. He was initially treated with high-dose pulse steroids, followed by intravenous immunoglobulin therapy. He experienced partial visual recovery in both eyes.

Conclusions

Pediatric autoimmune retinopathy and optic neuropathy are rare diseases that can present with unique signs and symptoms. In pediatric patients who present with symptoms of subacute progressive vision loss with negative inflammatory workups, a history of prior neoplasm, and/or clinical findings of progressive retinopathy or optic neuropathy, an autoimmune process should be considered in the differential.

Immune System, Inflammation and Autoantigens in Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Pathological Significance and Therapeutic Importance

Wet age-related macular degeneration (wAMD) is a chronic inflammation-associated neurodegenerative disease affecting the posterior part of the eye in the aging population. Aging results in the reduced functionality of cells and tissues, including the cells of the retina. Initiators of a chronic inflammatory and pathologic state in wAMD may be a result of the accumulation of inevitable metabolic injuries associated with the maintenance of tissue homeostasis from a young age to over 50. Apart from this, risk factors like smoking, genetic predisposition, and failure to repair the injuries that occur, alongside attempts to rescue the hypoxic outer retina may also contribute to the pathogenesis. Aging of the immune system (immunosenescence) and a compromised outer blood retinal barrier (BRB) result in the exposure of the privileged milieu of the retina to the systemic immune system, further increasing the severity of the disease. When immune-privileged sites like the retina are under pathological stress, certain age- and disease-related conditions may necessitate assistance from cells distant from the resident ones to help restore the functionality of the tissue. As a necessary part of tissue repair, inflammation is a major response to disease and recruits immune cells to the site of damage. We suspect that the specific reparative inflammatory responses are controlled by an autoantigen-T cell-mediated mechanism, a process that may be hindered in wAMD.

Structural and Functional Changes in Non-Paraneoplastic Autoimmune Retinopathy

BACKGROUND

To describe longitudinal changes in patients with non-paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy (npAIR) by utilizing different diagnostic modalities/tests.

METHODS

The index study is a retrospective longitudinal review of sixteen eyes of eight patients from a tertiary care eye hospital diagnosed with npAIR. Multiple diagnostic modalities such as wide-angle fundus photography (WAFP), WA fundus autofluorescence (WAFAF), spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), Goldmann visual field (GVF) perimetry, microperimetry (MP), electrophysiologic testing, and adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO) were reviewed and analyzed.

RESULTS

At the baseline visits, anomalies were detected by multimodal diagnostic tests on all patients. Subjects were followed up for a median duration of 11.5 [3.0-18.7] months. Structural changes at the baseline were detected in 14 of 16 (87.5%) eyes on WAFP and WAFAF and 13 of 16 (81.2%) eyes on SD-OCT. Eight of the ten (80%) eyes that underwent AOSLO imaging depicted structural changes. Functional changes were detected in 14 of 16 (87.5%) eyes on GVF, 15 of 16 (93.7%) eyes on MP, and 11 of 16 (68.7%) eyes on full-field electroretinogram (ff-ERG). Multifocal electroretinogram (mf-ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) tests were performed in 14 eyes, of which 12 (85.7%) and 14 (100%) of the eyes demonstrated functional abnormalities, respectively, at baseline. Compared to all the other structural diagnostic tools, AOSLO had a better ability to demonstrate deterioration in retinal microstructures occurring at follow-ups. Functional deterioration at follow-up was detected on GVF in 8 of 10 (80%) eyes, mf-ERG in 4 of 8 (50%) eyes, and MP in 7 of 16 (43.7%) eyes. The ff-ERG and VEP were stable in the majority of cases at follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The utilization of multimodal imaging/tests in the diagnosing and monitoring of npAIR patients can aid in identifying anomalous changes over time. Analysis of both the anatomical and functional aspects by these devices can be supportive of detecting the changes early in such patients. AOSLO shows promise as it enables the capture of high-resolution images demonstrating quantifiable changes to retinal microstructure.

Autoimmune-Related Retinopathy Presenting As Plaquenil Toxicity in Patients With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Purpose: To report 3 cases of autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) to explore the association between these conditions and highlight additional clinical consideration of AIR in patients presenting with atypical retinopathy in the context of hydroxychloroquine use. Methods: The medical and clinical follow-up records of 3 clinical cases were reviewed. The eligibility criteria were the absence of other retinopathy or systemic autoimmune diseases. Results: All patients had a long-standing diagnosis of SLE and had been taking hydroxychloroquine at a dose exceeding the American Academy of Ophthalmology recommendations. All 3 patients had extensive retinal degeneration atypical in appearance for drug toxicity alone. Examination, imaging, electroretinograms, and autoantibody assays eventually led to the diagnosis of AIR. Conclusions: Further study of the AIR and SLE may reveal an association between these conditions. In patients with SLE presenting with retinal degeneration, AIR may be underdiagnosed.

Ocular involvement in allergic drug reactions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Many systemic medications have been observed to cause ocular toxicity. A subset of these reactions is thought to involve immunomodulation or a hypersensitivity reaction. As new medications are developed, ocular adverse effects are becoming increasingly prevalent. Herein we review immune-mediated drug reactions affecting they eye with special attention to the hypersensitivity mechanisms leading to ocular toxicity.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent work has focused on mechanisms and risk of immune-mediated ocular adverse drug reactions including genetic susceptibility and loss of ocular immune privilege.

SUMMARY

Given the consequences of immune-mediated ocular adverse drug reactions, clinicians must be aware of these to facilitate early recognition and management. The prompt involvement of an ophthalmologist for diagnosis and management is often essential to preserve vision and avoid long-term morbidity.

Serum antiretinal antibodies and cytokine profiling in autoimmune retinopathy and their association with clinical outcomes

PURPOSE

Autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) is a group of autoimmune retinal diseases that can cause blindness. The purpose of this study is to investigate the profiles of serum antiretinal antibodies (ARAs) and cytokines and their association with disease diagnosis as well as clinical features in AIR.

METHODS

The patients with presumed para (p) and non-paraneoplastic (np) AIR diagnosis, the patients with retinitis pigmentosa and bilateral uveitis as disease controls, and healthy subjects were prospectively enrolled. Western blotting and Luminex multiple cytokine assay/enzyme linked immunosorbent assay were used to determine the presence of serum ARAs and the concentration of cytokines, respectively. Kruskal-Wallis or chi square test was applied to compare the profiles of ARA and cytokines among various groups. The multilevel mixed-effect regression was used to investigate the association of ARA or cytokines with clinical features.

RESULTS

No significant difference in the band number and subtypes of serum ARAs was found between AIR patients and their controls. AIR patients had higher concentration of serum IFN-ɤ, CXCL9, or CXCL10 than non-AIR controls. A positive correlation was found between increased number of ARAs and elevated TNF-α in np-AIR patients. Elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines or ARA subtypes (antibody against recoverin and α-enolase) were associated with worse retinal functions or anatomy, including visual acuity, visual field, ERG parameters, and central retinal thickness.

CONCLUSIONS

The data of our study demonstrate that detection of serum ARAs has limited value in the diagnosis of AIR. Th1-type cytokines/chemokines or specific ARA subtypes are associated with pathogenesis and disease severity of the AIR.

A CASE OF RAPIDLY PROGRESSIVE RETINOPATHY ASSOCIATED WITH PEMBROLIZUMAB IMMUNOTHERAPY FOR METASTATIC UROTHELIAL CARCINOMA

PURPOSE

To describe a novel case of bilateral rapidly progressive retinopathy after immunotherapy with pembrolizumab for metastatic urothelial carcinoma.

METHODS

Case report.

RESULTS

A 64-year-old man undergoing pembrolizumab immunotherapy was referred to our hospital because of bilateral acute vision loss. His best-corrected visual acuity was 20/30 in the right eye and 20/320 in the left eye, and a visual field test revealed central and paracentral scotomas in the right eye and central scotoma in the left eye. We suspected immune-related retinopathy based on the progressive photoreceptor damage with abnormal electroretinogram findings, absence of overt intraocular inflammation, and presence of malignancy. Cessation of pembrolizumab and steroid pulse therapy followed by decreasing oral prednisolone improved visual function and photoreceptor damage, although there was recurrence after pembrolizumab was restarted.

CONCLUSION

We reported a case of rapidly progressive retinopathy that may have been triggered by pembrolizumab immunotherapy for metastatic urothelial carcinoma. High-dose corticosteroid pulse therapy was effective in reversing photoreceptor damage.

The immune response in tubercular uveitis and its implications for treatment: From anti-tubercular treatment to host-directed therapies

Tubercular uveitis (TB-uveitis) remains a conundrum in the uveitis field, which is mainly related to the diverse clinical phenotypes of TB-uveitis. Moreover, it remains difficult to differentiate whether Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is present in the ocular tissues, elicits a heightened immune response without Mtb invasion in ocular tissues, or even induces an anti-retinal autoimmune response. Gaps in the immuno-pathological knowledge of TB-uveitis likely delay timely diagnosis and appropriate management. In the last decade, the immunopathophysiology of TB-uveitis and its clinical management, including experts' consensus to treat or not to treat certain conditions with anti-tubercular treatment (ATT), have been extensively investigated. In the meantime, research on TB treatment, in general, is shifting more toward host-directed therapies (HDT). Given the complexities of the host-Mtb interaction, enhancement of the host immune response is expected to boost the effectiveness of ATT and help overcome the rising burden of drug-resistant Mtb strains in the population. This review will summarize the current knowledge on the immunopathophysiology of TB-uveitis and recent advances in treatment modalities and outcomes of TB-uveitis, capturing results gathered from high- and low-burden TB countries with ATT as the mainstay of treatment. Moreover, we outline the recent progress of HDT development in the pulmonary TB field and discuss the possibility of its applicability to TB-uveitis. The concept of HDT might help direct future development of efficacious therapy for TB-uveitis, although more in-depth research on the immunoregulation of this disease is still necessary.

Ophthalmic Manifestations of ROSAH (Retinal Dystrophy, Optic Nerve Edema, Splenomegaly, Anhidrosis, and Headache) Syndrome, an Inherited NF κB-Mediated Autoinflammatory Disease with Retinal Dystrophy

PURPOSE

We aimed to characterize the ocular phenotype of patients with ROSAH (retinal dystrophy, optic nerve edema, splenomegaly, anhidrosis, and headache) syndrome and their response to therapy.

DESIGN

Single-center observational case study.

PARTICIPANTS

Eleven patients with a diagnosis of ROSAH syndrome and mutation in ALPK1 were included.

METHODS

Patients with molecularly confirmed ROSAH syndrome underwent ophthalmic evaluation, including visual acuity testing, slit-lamp and dilated examinations, color fundus and autofluorescence imaging, fluorescein angiography, OCT, and electrophysiologic testing.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Visual acuity, electrophysiology, fluorescein angiography, and OCT findings.

RESULTS

Eleven individuals (6 female and 5 male patients) from 7 families ranging in age from 7.3 to 60.2 years at the time of the initial evaluation were included in this study. Seven patients were followed up for a mean of 2.6 years (range, 0.33-5.0 years). Best-corrected visual acuity at baseline ranged from 20/16 to no light perception. Variable signs or sequelae of intraocular inflammation were observed in 9 patients, including keratic precipitates, band keratopathy, trace to 2+ anterior chamber cells, cystoid macular edema, and retinal vasculitis on fluorescein angiography. Ten patients were observed to show optic disc elevation and demonstrated peripapillary thickening on OCT. Seven patients showed retinal degeneration consistent with a cone-rod dystrophy, with atrophy tending to involve the posterior pole and extending peripherally. One patient with normal electroretinography findings and visual evoked potential was found to have decreased Arden ratio on electro-oculography.

CONCLUSIONS

Leveraging insights from the largest single-center ROSAH cohort described to date, this study identified 3 main factors as contributing to changes in visual function of patients with ROSAH syndrome: optic nerve involvement; intraocular inflammation, including cystoid macular edema; and retinal degeneration. More work is needed to determine how to arrest the progressive vision loss associated with ROSAH syndrome.

FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S)

Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.

Antigen-Specific Intraocular Cytokine Responses Distinguish Ocular Tuberculosis From Undifferentiated Uveitis in Tuberculosis-Immunoreactive Patients

PURPOSE

To compare antigen-specific intraocular immune responses between different clinical phenotypes of tuberculin skin test (TST)-positive and TST-negative uveitis.

DESIGN

Single center, retrospective cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Patients requiring diagnostic or therapeutic vitrectomy for the management of intraocular inflammation were divided into 3 groups based on Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) classification criteria for tubercular uveitis. Group 1 included patients with ocular tuberculosis (OTB; n = 23) who were TST-positive patients, met the SUN criteria, and/or had a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive test for TB. Group 2 included patients with uveitis of unknown origin (UNK; n = 24) who were undifferentiated TST-positive patients who had not met SUN criteria. Group 3 included non-TB uveitis patients (n = 24) who were TST-negative either with or without a well-defined non-TB diagnosis. Total vitreous cells were activated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific Early Secreted Antigenic Target-6 (ESAT-6) or the retinal autoantigen, interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein peptide (pIRBP 1-20), stained for intracellular interferon gamma (IFNγ), tumor necrosis factor-alfa (TNFα), and interleukin 17 (IL-17), and analyzed by flow cytometry. Antigen-specific single and dual (polyfunctional) cytokine responses to ESAT-6 and IRBP were compared between the 3 groups.

RESULTS

All cytokine responses to ESAT-6 were higher in the UNK group compared with the non-TB control subjects, while all except IL-17 were comparable between the OTB and non-TB groups. Polyfunctional responses-IFNγ/IL-17 (P = .002), TNFα/IL-17 (P = .02), and TNFα/IFNγ (P = .01)-were significantly greater for UNK than the OTB group. Polyfunctional cells also produced more cytokine per cell than respective monofunctional cells. IRBP cytokine responses were comparable between different groups and were not affected by the clinical phenotype or duration of disease.

CONCLUSION

The intraocular polyfunctional cytokine response is stronger in undifferentiated TST-positive uveitis than in OTB patients, likely representing an exaggerated anti-TB immune response rather than active infection.

Anti-carbonic anhydrase II antibody reflects urinary acidification defect especially in proximal renal tubules in patients with primary Sjögren syndrome

Primary Sjögren syndrome (pSS) is a systemic autoimmue disease featured by excessive autoantibody production. It has been demonstrated that anti-carbonic anhydrase II (anti-CA II) antibody is correlated with renal tubular acidosis in pSS; however, no further details about urinary acidification defect have been reported, and the antibody's relationship with other organ impairments remains unknown. This case-control study aimed to examine anti-CA II antibody levels in relation to various systemic complications in pSS, and evaluate its potential role as a organ-specific biomarker in a Chinese cohort. Serum anti-CA II antibody levels were determined using ELISA in 123 patients with pSS and 72 healthy controls. The medical records of the patients were collected, and the correlation between serum anti-CA II antibody and clinical/immunological parameters was investigated. Serum anti-CA II antibody level and its positive rate were significantly increased in pSS patients compared with controls, and ANA-positive patients presented even higher titers of the antibody. In anti-CA II positive group, remarkably higher urine pH and bicarbonate, as well as lower urine titratable acid and serum potassium were observed, which indicated renal tubular acidification dysfunction both involving bicarbonate reabsorption and acid secretion. In addition, platelet count and complement 3, complement 4 levels decreased, whereas serum IgG, IgA and γ-globulin levels increased notably in accord with a higher EULAR SS disease activity index score in these patients. Further analysis showed that anti-CA II antibody was most elevated in patients with defect in bicarbonate reabsorption, reflecting proximal renal tubular injury, rather than in patients with distal renal tubular acidosis as previously reported. In conclusion, anti-CA II antibody reflects renal (especially proximal renal tubular) and hematologic impairment as well as increased disease activity in pSS. It may act as a serum biomarker of systemic damage of pSS.

Unilateral Melanoma-Associated Retinopathy Case Report

In this report, we present a case of unilateral melanoma-associated retinopathy in a 72-year-old woman. The patient's main symptoms were decreased vision and positive dysphotopsia. Unilateral electronegative electroretinogram (ERG) was suggestive for melanoma retinopathy. PET-CT discovered metastatic disease, 3 years after the initial melanoma. A prompt treatment with corticosteroids was started, followed by immunotherapy. The central and peripheral vision of the patient improved, and the ERG showed normalization of the responses. This case highlights the importance of early recognition and individualized treatment strategies for melanoma-associated retinopathy.

The double-edged sword of inflammation in inherited retinal degenerations: Clinical and preclinical evidence for mechanistically and prognostically impactful but treatable complications

We present retrospective data from our clinical research efforts of the past several years alongside a review of past and current clinical and preclinical data independently by several investigators supporting our clinical evidence for the importance of inflammation in inherited retinal degenerations (IRDs). We show how inflammation is a complicating factor in IRDs but, if recognized and managed, also a great opportunity to mitigate disease severity immediately, improve patient prognosis and quality of life, extend the treatment windows for gene-specific and agnostic therapeutic approaches, mitigate the impact of inflammatory complications on the accurate estimate of vision changes in IRD natural history studies, improve the chances of safer outcomes following cataract surgery, and potentially reduce the likelihood of inflammatory adverse events and augment the efficacy of viral vector-based treatment approaches to IRDs. Manuscript contribution to the field. Inflammation has been suspected to be at play in IRDs since the beginning of the 1900s and became a research focus through the early 1990s but was then largely abandoned in favor of genetic-focused research. Thanks to regained cognizance, better research tools, and a more holistic approach to IRDs, the recent reappraisal of the role of inflammation in IRDs has brought back to the surface its importance. A potential confounder in natural history studies and a limiting factor in clinical trials if not accounted for, inflammation can be managed and often offers an opportunity for immediately improved prognosis and outcomes for IRD patients. We present our retrospective clinical evidence for connections with a measurable secondary autoimmune component that can develop in IRDs and contribute to vision loss but is at least in part treatable. We also present ample lines of evidence from the literature corroborating our clinical observations at the preclinical level.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors Mediate Modulations of Cell Viability and Drug Sensitivity by Aberrantly Expressed Recoverin 3 within A549 Cells

To elucidate the currently unknown molecular mechanisms responsible for the aberrant expression of recoverin (Rec) within cancerous cells, we examined two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) cultures of Rec-negative lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells which had been transfected with a plasmid containing human recoverin cDNA (A549 Rec) or an empty plasmid as a mock control (A549 MOCK). Using these cells, we measured cytotoxicity by several anti-tumor agents (2D), cellular metabolism including mitochondrial and glycolytic functions by a Seahorse bio-analyzer (2D), the physical properties, size and stiffness of the 3D spheroids, trypsin sensitivities (2D and 3D), and RNA sequencing analysis (2D). Compared with the A549 MOCK, the A549 Rec cells showed (1) more sensitivity toward anti-tumor agents (2D) and a 0.25% solution of trypsin (3D); (2) a metabolic shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation; and (3) the formation of larger and stiffer 3D spheroids. RNA sequencing analysis and bioinformatic analyses of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis suggested that aberrantly expressed Rec is most likely associated with several canonical pathways including G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated signaling and signaling by the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB). The findings reported here indicate that the aberrantly expressed Rec-induced modulation of the cell viability and drug sensitivity may be GPCR mediated.

Immunological consequences of compromised ocular immune privilege accelerate retinal degeneration in retinitis pigmentosa

Background

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a hereditary retinal disease which leads to visual impairment. The onset and progression of RP has physiological consequences that affects the ocular environment. Some of the key non-genetic factors which hasten the retinal degeneration in RP include oxidative stress, hypoxia and ocular inflammation. In this study, we investigated the status of the ocular immune privilege during retinal degeneration and the effect of ocular immune changes on the peripheral immune system in RP. We assessed the peripheral blood mononuclear cell stimulation by retinal antigens and their immune response status in RP patients. Subsequently, we examined alterations in ocular immune privilege machineries which may contribute to ocular inflammation and disease progression in rd1 mouse model.

Results

In RP patients, we observed a suppressed anti-inflammatory response to self-retinal antigens, thereby indicating a deviated response to self-antigens. The ocular milieu in rd1 mouse model indicated a significant decrease in immune suppressive ligands and cytokine TGF-B1, and higher pro-inflammatory ocular protein levels. Further, blood–retinal-barrier breakdown due to decrease in the expression of tight junction proteins was observed. The retinal breach potentiated pro-inflammatory peripheral immune activation against retinal antigens and caused infiltration of the peripheral immune cells into the ocular tissue.

Conclusions

Our studies with RP patients and rd1 mouse model suggest that immunological consequences in RP is a contributing factor in the progression of retinal degeneration. The ocular inflammation in the RP alters the ocular immune privilege mechanisms and peripheral immune response. These aberrations in turn create an auto-reactive immune environment and accelerate retinal degeneration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13023-022-02528-x.

Bioengineering approaches for modelling retinal pathologies of the outer blood-retinal barrier

Alterations of the junctional complex of the outer blood-retinal barrier (oBRB), which is integrated by the close interaction of the retinal pigment epithelium, the Bruch's membrane, and the choriocapillaris, contribute to the loss of neuronal signalling and subsequent vision impairment in several retinal inflammatory disorders such as age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. Reductionist approaches into the mechanisms that underlie such diseases have been hindered by the absence of adequate in vitro models using human cells to provide the 3D dynamic architecture that enables expression of the in vivo phenotype of the oBRB. Conventional in vitro cell models are based on 2D monolayer cellular cultures, unable to properly recapitulate the complexity of living systems. The main drawbacks of conventional oBRB models also emerge from the cell sourcing, the lack of an appropriate Bruch's membrane analogue, and the lack of choroidal microvasculature with flow. In the last years, the advent of organ-on-a-chip, bioengineering, and stem cell technologies is providing more advanced 3D models with flow, multicellularity, and external control over microenvironmental properties. By incorporating additional biological complexity, organ-on-a-chip devices can mirror physiologically relevant properties of the native tissue while offering additional set ups to model and study disease. In this review we first examine the current understanding of oBRB biology as a functional unit, highlighting the coordinated contribution of the different components to barrier function in health and disease. Then we describe recent advances in the use of pluripotent stem cells-derived retinal cells, Bruch's membrane analogues, and co-culture techniques to recapitulate the oBRB. We finally discuss current advances and challenges of oBRB-on-a-chip technologies for disease modelling.

Immunotherapy-induced retinopathy mimicking cancer associated retinopathy

PURPOSE

To report a patient who developed a cancer associated retinopathy (CAR) like syndrome in the setting of pembrolizumab and lenvatinib combination therapy for metastatic endometrial carcinoma. Symptoms resolved with normalization of objective functional tests following cessation of medications.

OBSERVATIONS

A 52-year-old female with history of endometrial carcinoma, managed with pembrolizumab infusions and daily oral lenvatinib treatment for 18 months, presented to a tertiary eye center with complaints of nyctalopia, photosensitivity and photopsia. Further investigations revealed a reduction in b-wave amplitude on full field ERG (ffERG), a mild color vision deficit, and positive antiretinal antibodies against carbonic anhydrase II, enolase and arrestin. A preliminary diagnosis of CAR was made. One month following diagnosis, the patient discontinued both lenvatinib and pembrolizumab and subsequently reported significant improvement in her eye symptoms and vision. Repeat ffERG had normalized with a robust b-wave, with an improvement noted on repeat color vision testing. A presumed diagnosis of immunotherapy-induced retinopathy was made, with clinical findings mimicking CAR.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPORTANCE

Pembrolizumab and lenvatinib treatment may be associated with a reversible retinopathy, with presentation very similar to CAR.

Anti-Programmed Death Ligand-1 Induced Acute Vision Loss in a Patient With Cancer-Associated Retinopathy

Cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR) is a potentially blinding disease triggered by autoimmunity to cancer antigens at distant sites. It may masquerade as immune-related adverse events from the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). We present a patient with an underlying tubby-related protein 1 (TULP1) cancer-associated retinopathy who lost vision following initiation of atezolizumab for small-cell lung cancer. This 75-year-old man presented with no light perception, paramacular and peripheral retinal pigmentary changes, attenuated outer retina, and extinguished rod and cone responses. The visual loss followed the induction of atezolizumab therapy. Possible atezolizumab-associated acute macular neuroretinopathy was considered, and atezolizumab was discontinued. Vision improved on oral corticosteroid and deteriorated when corticosteroid was tapered quickly. Retinal autoantibody serology testing was negative for both anti-recoverin and anti-enolase and was positive for anti-TULP1 autoantibodies. Re-induction of atezolizumab concomitant with high-dose oral and intravitreal corticosteroids resulted in visual recovery at the three-month follow-up. These findings suggest that ICI therapy for cancer can exacerbate the retinal dysfunction in a patient with underlying autoimmunity from cancer. Patients with a high risk of CAR may need to be evaluated for retinal autoantibodies before initiation of ICI. 

Autoimmune retinopathy with associated anti-retinal antibodies as a potential immune-related adverse event associated with immunotherapy in patients with advanced cutaneous melanoma: case series and systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the spectrum of autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) associated with immunotherapy for advanced cutaneous melanoma.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Retrospective chart review on patients with advanced cutaneous melanoma who developed AIR after initiating immunotherapy. Complete ophthalmic examination and relevant ancillary testing were performed on each patient. The presence of AIR-associated anti-retinal antibodies was confirmed by western blot and/or immunohistochemical staining. Ophthalmic and systemic outcomes after treatment for AIR were followed over time. A systematic review of AIR associated with immunotherapy for cutaneous or non-ocular mucosal melanoma was carried out in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

Case 1 developed photopsia and nyctalopia with electroretinographic findings characteristic for melanoma-associated retinopathy 1 week after initiating ipilimumab/nivolumab immunotherapy. Case 2 experienced new severe bilateral visual field loss associated with anti-retinal and anti-optic nerve antibodies while on maintenance nivolumab immunotherapy. Case 3 developed decreased visual acuity due to acute exudative polymorphous vitelliform maculopathy within 2 weeks of initiating ipilimumab/nivolumab immunotherapy. All patients had concurrent extraocular immune-related adverse events in addition to the presence of anti-retinal antibodies on serological testing. 14 published cases of AIR associated with immunotherapy for cutaneous or non-ocular mucosal melanoma were identified and reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

Immune checkpoint inhibition can trigger the development of AIR with varied clinical manifestations in patients with advanced cutaneous melanoma. This study highlights the need for close monitoring in cutaneous melanoma patients receiving immunotherapy who develop new visual symptoms with or without funduscopic changes, as well as the potential role for screening of patients prior to initiating immunotherapy.

AUTOIMMUNE RETINOPATHY MIMICKING HERITABLE RETINAL DEGENERATION IN A PATIENT WITH COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNE DEFICIENCY

PURPOSE

1) To describe a case of autoimmune retinopathy mimicking heritable photoreceptor degeneration in a patient with common variable immune deficiency and 2) to investigate the humoral and cell-mediated branches of the immune system in this patient to better understand the mechanism of immune-mediated photoreceptor damage in this disease.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review with evaluation of multimodal imaging, genotype analysis, and investigation of circulating autoantibodies and T-cell response to retinal antigens.

RESULTS

A 40-year-old woman with bilateral, progressive vision loss was referred for evaluation of a possible inherited retinal degeneration. She was found to have asymmetric peripheral visual field constriction, cystoid macular edema, vitreous cells, and bone spicule-like pigmentary changes in both eyes. An extensive workup for underlying infectious or inflammatory causes was unrevealing, and molecular analysis for heritable retinal degeneration failed to identify a plausible disease-causing genotype. Screening for antiretinal antibodies showed the presence of multiple antiretinal antibodies, consistent with a diagnosis of autoimmune retinopathy. Immunologic workup demonstrated markedly decreased levels of serum IgA and IgG, consistent with common variable immune deficiency. T-cells isolated from the patient showed increased proliferation when stimulated with human retinal proteins, supporting a role for both cell- and humoral-mediated autoimmunity. Treatment with mycophenolate mofetil and intravenous immunoglobin therapy slowed the progression of disease and resulted in preservation of her central vision.

CONCLUSION

Autoimmune retinopathy can be seen in common variable immune deficiency and has clinical findings similar to heritable photoreceptor degeneration. Both the humoral and cellular immune responses are involved in the pathophysiology. Immune modulatory therapy has stabilized the disease course in this patient and may play an important role in the management of autoimmune retinopathy.

Importance of Autoimmune Responses in Progression of Retinal Degeneration Initiated by Gene Mutations

Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) are clinically and genetically heterogeneous rare disorders associated with retinal dysfunction and death of retinal photoreceptor cells, leading to blindness. Among the most frequent and severe forms of those retinopathies is retinitis pigmentosa (RP) that affects 1:4,000 individuals worldwide. The genes that have been implicated in RP are associated with the proteins present in photoreceptor cells or retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Asymmetric presentation or sudden progression in retinal disease suggests that a gene mutation alone might not be responsible for retinal degeneration. Immune responses could directly target the retina or be site effect of immunity as a bystander deterioration. Autoantibodies against retinal autoantigens have been found in RP, which led to a hypothesis that autoimmunity could be responsible for the progression of photoreceptor cell death initiated by a genetic mutation. The other contributory factor to retinal degeneration is inflammation that activates the innate immune mechanisms, such as complement. If autoimmune responses contribute to the progression of retinopathy, this could have an implication on treatment, such as gene replacement therapy. In this review, we provide a perspective on the current role of autoimmunity/immunity in RP pathophysiology.

Lyme Disease and Associated NMDAR Encephalitis: A Case Report and Literature Review

We present a case of a patient with positive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) IgG antibodies in their serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) associated with neuroborreliosis. Clinically, the patient presented with symptoms of confusion, as well as behavioral and speech impairments. Regardless of antibacterial treatment, no significant improvement was achieved. Methylprednisolone provided a marked improvement in the patient’s clinical signs and CSF findings. The screening did not reveal any underlying neoplasm. Taking into account the marked clinical improvement after treatment with glucocorticosteroids, we suggest that NMDAR encephalitis is a possible autoimmune complication in neuroborreliosis patients requiring additional immunotherapy.

Autoantibody profiles and clinical association in Thai patients with autoimmune retinopathy

Autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) is a rare immune-mediated inflammation of the retina. The autoantibodies against retinal proteins and glycolytic enzymes were reported to be involved in the pathogenesis. This retrospective cohort study assessed the antiretinal autoantibody profiles and their association with clinical outcomes of AIR patients in Thailand. We included 44 patients, 75% were females, with the overall median age of onset of 48 (17-74, IQR 40-55.5) years. Common clinical presentations were nyctalopia (65.9%), blurred vision (52.3%), constricted visual field (43.2%), and nonrecordable electroretinography (65.9%). Underlying malignancy and autoimmune diseases were found in 2 and 12 female patients, respectively. We found 41 autoantibodies, with anti-α-enolase (65.9%) showing the highest prevalence, followed by anti-CAII (43.2%), anti-aldolase (40.9%), and anti-GAPDH (36.4%). Anti-aldolase was associated with male gender (P = 0.012, OR 7.11, 95% CI 1.54-32.91). Anti-CAII showed significant association with age of onset (P = 0.025, 95% CI - 17.28 to - 1.24), while anti-α-enolase (P = 0.002, OR 4.37, 95% CI 1.83-10.37) and anti-GAPDH (P = 0.001, OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.32-2.64) were significantly associated with nonrecordable electroretinography. Association between the antibody profiles and clinical outcomes may be used to direct and adjust the treatment plans and provide insights in the pathogenesis of AIR.

Tumors, tumor therapies, autoimmunity and the eye

The eye as an immune privileged organ is mostly spared from (auto)immune attacks. Intraocular inflammation like autoimmune uveitis is a rare event. Nevertheless, tumor-related destructive autoimmune responses can affect the eye, as observed in the case of cancer- associated retinopathy (CAR), an autoantibody-mediated destruction of retinal cells induced by the ectopic expression of ocular antigens by peripheral tumors. The new tumor therapies targeting immune checkpoints to enhance anti-tumor responses can also induce autoimmune responses and result in autoimmune diseases even in immune privileged organs like the eyes. Even MEK/BRAF-inhibitor therapies using small molecules to block tumor-specific signal transduction molecules have turned out to not just inhibit tumor growth and survival and render tumors more susceptible for immune recognition, but to have additional toxic effects on non-dividing retinal cells, destroying and making them potential targets of autoimmunity.

An update on autoimmune retinopathy

Autoimmune retinopathy (AIR) refers to a group of rare autoimmune retinal degenerative diseases presumably caused by cross-reactivity of serum autoantibodies against retinal antigens. The pathogenesis of AIR remains largely presumptive and there are a significant number of antiretinal antibodies that have been detected in association with AIR. The diagnosis of AIR is largely based on the demonstration of antiretinal antibodies in the serum along with suggestive clinical features and ancillary investigations. A high index of suspicion along with early diagnosis and treatment may play a critical role to lower the risk of irreversible immunological damage to the retinal cells in these patients. A multi-disciplinary approach for complete management and evaluation is helpful in such conditions. Various therapeutic options have been described for the treatment of AIR, though there is no consensus on standard treatment protocol.

Presumed cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR) mimicking Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome (SARDS) in canines

OBJECTIVE

To describe functional and structural features of presumed cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR) mimicking sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS) in dogs and describe treatment outcomes.

ANIMALS

Subjects were 17 dogs from 8 eight US states and Canada diagnosed with SARDS or immune-mediated retinitis (IMR) by 12 ophthalmologists. Nine eyes from seven deceased patients were used for microarray (MA), histology, or immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis.

PROCEDURES

Dogs underwent complete ophthalmic examination, including retinal photography, optical coherence tomography (OCT), chromatic pupil light reflex testing (cPLR), and electroretinography (ERG), in addition to complete systemic examination. Histology, microarray, and IHC analysis were performed in CAR retinas to evaluate histological and molecular changes in retinal tissue.

RESULTS

None of the patients evaluated satisfied previously established criteria for diagnosis of SARDS (flat ERG+ no red - good blue PLR), and all were diagnosed with IMR. All patients were diagnosed with a cancer: meningioma (24%), sarcoma (18%), pituitary tumor (12%), and squamous cell carcinoma (12%), other (34%). Median survival time was 6 months from diagnosis (range 1-36 months). Most frequent systemic abnormalities were as follows: proteinuria (78%); elevated liver enzymes (47%); and metabolic changes (PU/PD, polyphagia - 24%). Immunosuppressive therapy resulted in the reversal of blindness in 44% of treated patients, with 61% of all treated patients recovering and/or maintaining vision. Median time for preservation of vision was 5 months (range 1-35 months).

CONCLUSIONS

Observed changes are highly suggestive of immune-mediated damage in IMR-CAR eyes. A relatively high percentage of patients with CAR responded positively to immunosuppressive therapy.

Normalization of electroretinogram and symptom resolution of melanoma-associated retinopathy with negative autoantibodies after treatment with programmed death-1 (PD-1) inhibitors for metastatic melanoma

Melanoma-associated retinopathy (MAR) is a paraneoplastic syndrome that involves the production of autoantibodies which can cross-react with retinal epitopes leading to visual symptoms. Autoantibodies can target intracellular proteins, and only a few are directed against membrane proteins. This discrepancy in autoantibody-protein target can translate into different immune responses (T-cell mediated vs B-cell mediated). Historically, treatment of MAR has focused on surgical reduction or immunosuppressive medication, mainly glucocorticoids. However, tumor resection is not relevant in metastatic melanoma in which MAR is mostly encountered. Moreover, the use of glucocorticoids can reduce the efficacy of immunotherapy. We report the first case to our knowledge with subjective resolution of visual symptoms and objective evidence of normalization of electroretinogram of MAR with undetectable autoantibodies after administration of programmed death-1 (PD-1) inhibitor (pembrolizumab) without the use of surgical reduction or systemic immunosuppression. This case highlights the potential improvement and resolution of negative autoantibody MAR with the use of PD-1 inhibitors and emphasizes the importance of multidisciplinary approach and team discussion to avoid interventions that can decrease immunotherapy-mediated anti-tumor effect.

Alpha-Enolase: Emerging Tumor-Associated Antigen, Cancer Biomarker, and Oncotherapeutic Target

Alpha-enolase, also known as enolase-1 (ENO1), is a glycolytic enzyme that “moonlights” as a plasminogen receptor in the cell surface, particularly in tumors, contributing to cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and metastasis. ENO1 also promotes other oncogenic events, including protein-protein interactions that regulate glycolysis, activation of signaling pathways, and resistance to chemotherapy. ENO1 overexpression has been established in a broad range of human cancers and is often associated with poor prognosis. This increased expression is usually accompanied by the generation of anti-ENO1 autoantibodies in some cancer patients, making this protein a tumor associated antigen. These autoantibodies are common in patients with cancer associated retinopathy, where they exert pathogenic effects, and may be triggered by immunodominant peptides within the ENO1 sequence or by posttranslational modifications. ENO1 overexpression in multiple cancer types, localization in the tumor cell surface, and demonstrated targetability make this protein a promising cancer biomarker and therapeutic target. This mini-review summarizes our current knowledge of ENO1 functions in cancer and its growing potential as a cancer biomarker and guide for the development of novel anti-tumor treatments.

Using bioinformatic protein sequence similarity to investigate if SARS CoV-2 infection could cause an ocular autoimmune inflammatory reactions?

Although severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2) infection have emerged globally, findings related to ocular involvement and reported cases are quite limited. Immune reactions against viral infections are closely related to viral and host proteins sequence similarity. Molecular Mimicry has been described for many different viruses; sequence similarities of viral and human tissue proteins may trigger autoimmune reactions after viral infections due to similarities between viral and human structures. With this study, we aimed to investigate the protein sequence similarity of SARS CoV-2 with retinal proteins and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) surface proteins. Retinal proteins involved in autoimmune retinopathy and retinal pigment epithelium surface transport proteins were analyzed in order to infer their structural similarity to surface glycoprotein (S), nucleocapsid phosphoprotein (N), membrane glycoprotein (M), envelope protein (E), ORF1ab polyprotein (orf1ab) proteins of SARS CoV-2. Protein similarity comparisons, 3D protein structure prediction, T cell epitopes-MHC binding prediction, B cell epitopes-MHC binding prediction and the evaluation of the antigenicity of peptides assessments were performed. The protein sequence analysis was made using the Pairwise Sequence Alignment and the LALIGN program. 3D protein structure estimates were made using Swiss Model with default settings and analyzed with TM-align web server. T-cell epitope identification was performed using the Immune Epitope Database and Analysis (IEDB) resource Tepitool. B cell epitopes based on sequence characteristics of the antigen was performed using amino acid scales and HMMs with the BepiPred 2.0 web server. The predicted peptides/epitopes in terms of antigenicity were examined using the default settings with the VaxiJen v2.0 server. Analyses showed that, there is a meaningful similarities between 6 retinal pigment epithelium surface transport proteins (MRP-4, MRP-5, RFC1, SNAT7, TAUT and MATE) and the SARS CoV-2 E protein. Immunoreactive epitopic sites of these proteins which are similar to protein E epitope can create an immune stimulation on T cytotoxic and T helper cells and 6 of these 9 epitopic sites are also vaxiJen. These result imply that autoimmune cross-reaction is likely between the studied RPE proteins and SARS CoV-2 E protein. The structure of SARS CoV-2, its proteins and immunologic reactions against these proteins remain largely unknown. Understanding the structure of SARS CoV-2 proteins and demonstration of similarity with human proteins are crucial to predict an autoimmune response associated with immunity against host proteins and its clinical manifestations as well as possible adverse effects of vaccination.

Ocular Paraneoplastic Syndromes

Ocular-involving paraneoplastic syndromes present a wide variety of clinical symptoms. Understanding the background pathophysiological and immunopathological factors can help make a more refined differential diagnosis consistent with the signs and symptoms presented by patients. There are two main pathophysiology arms: (1) autoimmune pathomechanism, which is presented with cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR), melanoma-associated retinopathy (MAR), cancer-associated cone dysfunction (CACD), paraneoplastic vitelliform maculopathy (PVM), and paraneoplastic optic neuritis (PON), and (2) ectopic peptides, which is often caused by tumor-expressed growth factors (T-exGF) and presented with bilateral diffuse uveal melanocytic proliferation (BDUMP). Meticulous systematic analysis of patient symptoms is a critical diagnostic step, complemented by multimodal imaging, which includes fundus photography, optical coherent tomography, fundus autofluorescence, fundus fluorescein angiography, electrophysiological examination, and sometimes fundus indocyjanin green angiography if prescribed by the clinician. Assessment of the presence of circulating antibodies is required for diagnosis. Antiretinal autoantibodies are highly associated with visual paraneoplastic syndromes and may guide diagnosis by classifying clinical manifestations in addition to monitoring treatment.

Anti-retinal autoantibodies in myopic macular degeneration: a pilot study

AIM

The aim of this study is to evaluate the frequency and types of anti-retinal autoantibodies (ARAs) in highly myopic patients and to explore any association between ARAs and the severity of myopic macular degeneration (MMD).

METHODS

This was a clinic-based study of 16 patients with high myopia (spherical equivalent worse than -6 dioptres or axial length (AL) ≥ 26.5 mm) recruited from the High Myopia clinic of the Singapore National Eye Centre. MMD was graded from fundus photographs according to the Meta-analysis for Pathologic Myopia (META-PM) classification. Severe MMD was defined as META-PM category 3 or 4. AL and logarithm of the minimal angle of resolution (logMAR) best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) were measured. Sera were obtained from subjects and analysed for the presence of ARAs with the western blot technique.

RESULTS

The mean AL was significantly longer in patients with severe MMD (n = 8) than those without severe MMD (n = 8) (31.50 vs. 28.51, p = 0.005). There was at least one ARA identified in all patients. The most common ARA was anti-carbonic anhydrase II (anti-CAII), present in nine patients (56.3%). Anti-CAII was detected in more patients with severe MMD than those without (75 vs. 37.5%, p = 0.32). LogMar BCVA was also worse in subjects with anti-CAII (0.5 ± 0.38 vs. 0.22 ± 0.08, p = 0.06). The number of ARAs significantly correlated with increasing AL (r = 0.61, p = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

ARAs are prevalent in patients with high myopia, and this increases with increasing AL. In particular, anti-CAII antibodies were highly prevalent in patients with severe MMD, suggesting that ARAs may be associated with MMD. Further studies are necessary to confirm these observations in larger cohorts.

Clinical Correlation between Acute Exudative Polymorphous Paraneoplastic Vitelliform Maculopathy and Metastatic Melanoma Disease Activity: A 48-month Longitudinal Case Report

PURPOSE

Longitudinal evaluation of acute exudative polymorphous paraneoplastic vitelliform maculopathy (AEPPVM) following diagnosis and treatment of metastatic melanoma.

METHODS

Case report of a 47-year-old male with unknown primary metastatic melanoma and AEPPVM monitored before and during melanoma treatment using clinical exam, retinal imaging, and electroretinograms (ERG). Genetic testing and autoantibody panels were performed.

RESULTS

He presented within a month of metastatic melanoma diagnosis with numerous bilateral vitelliform lesions in the posterior pole, consistent with AEPPVM. Metastatic disease was treated with immunotherapy, radiosurgery, and radiation over 48 months. Maculopathy and metastatic disease improved and worsened in parallel. Genetic testing was negative for bestrophin-1. An autoantibody panel was positive for anti-recoverin and transducin-α.

CONCLUSION

AEPPVM is an uncommon paraneoplastic retinopathy found in patients with metastatic malignancy. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating a temporal association between metastatic disease activity and quantifiable changes in retinal imaging over a 4-year period.

Occurrence of major anti-retinal autoantibodies associated with paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy

Autoantibodies (AAbs) against retinal antigens can be found in patients with cancer and unexplained vision loss unrelated to the cancer metastasis. Cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR) is a rare paraneoplastic visual syndrome mediated by AAbs. Our goal was to determine whether CAR patients with different malignancies have a specific AAb or repertoire of AAbs that could serve as biomarkers for retinal disease. We found AAbs against 12 confirmed retinal antigens, with α-enolase being the most frequently recognized. The significant finding of the study was a high incidence of anti-aldolase AAbs in colon-CAR, anti-CAII in prostate-CAR, and anti-arrestin in skin melanoma patients thus these AAbs could serve as biomarkers in the context of clinical presentation and could support the diagnosis of CAR. However, a lack of AAb restriction to any one antigenic protein or to one retinal cellular location makes screening for a CAR biomarker challenging.

Occurrence of major anti-retinal autoantibodies associated with paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy

Autoantibodies (AAbs) against retinal antigens can be found in patients with cancer and unexplained vision loss unrelated to the cancer metastasis. Cancer-associated retinopathy (CAR) is a rare paraneoplastic visual syndrome mediated by AAbs. Our goal was to determine whether CAR patients with different malignancies have a specific AAb or repertoire of AAbs that could serve as biomarkers for retinal disease. We found AAbs against 12 confirmed retinal antigens, with α-enolase being the most frequently recognized. The significant finding of the study was a high incidence of anti-aldolase AAbs in colon-CAR, anti-CAII in prostate-CAR, and anti-arrestin in skin melanoma patients thus these AAbs could serve as biomarkers in the context of clinical presentation and could support the diagnosis of CAR. However, a lack of AAb restriction to any one antigenic protein or to one retinal cellular location makes screening for a CAR biomarker challenging.

Interactions of the choroid, Bruch's membrane, retinal pigment epithelium, and neurosensory retina collaborate to form the outer blood-retinal-barrier

The three interacting components of the outer blood-retinal barrier are the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), choriocapillaris, and Bruch's membrane, the extracellular matrix that lies between them. Although previously reviewed independently, this review integrates these components into a more wholistic view of the barrier and discusses reconstitution models to explore the interactions among them. After updating our understanding of each component's contribution to barrier function, we discuss recent efforts to examine how the components interact. Recent studies demonstrate that claudin-19 regulates multiple aspects of RPE's barrier function and identifies a barrier function whereby mutations of claudin-19 affect retinal development. Co-culture approaches to reconstitute components of the outer blood-retinal barrier are beginning to reveal two-way interactions between the RPE and choriocapillaris. These interactions affect barrier function and the composition of the intervening Bruch's membrane. Normal or disease models of Bruch's membrane, reconstituted with healthy or diseased RPE, demonstrate adverse effects of diseased matrix on RPE metabolism. A stumbling block for reconstitution studies is the substrates typically used to culture cells are inadequate substitutes for Bruch's membrane. Together with human stem cells, the alternative substrates that have been designed offer an opportunity to engineer second-generation culture models of the outer blood-retinal barrier.

Paraneoplastic Syndromes in Neuro-ophthalmology

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article discusses the varied types of paraneoplastic syndromes that commonly have neuro-ophthalmologic manifestations. Diagnostic considerations and therapeutic options for individual diseases are also discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Paraneoplastic syndromes can affect the afferent and efferent visual systems. Paraneoplastic syndromes may result in reduced visual acuity from retinal degeneration, alterations in melanocyte proliferation and uveal thickening, or acquired nystagmus. Ocular motor abnormalities related to paraneoplastic syndromes may present with symptoms from opsoclonus or from neuromuscular junction disease. Diagnosis remains challenging, but serologic identification of some specific antibodies may be helpful or confirmatory. Treatment, in addition to directed therapies against the underlying cancer, often requires systemic corticosteroids, plasma exchange, or immunosuppression, but some specific syndromes improve with use of targeted pharmacologic therapy.

SUMMARY

Diagnosis and therapy of paraneoplastic syndromes presenting with neuro-ophthalmic symptoms remain a challenge, but strategies are evolving and new approaches are on the horizon.

Acute Retinopathy in Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum

Importance

Acute retinopathy may partly explain variable disease manifestation and vision loss in patients with pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE). The diagnosis of this likely autoimmune process may inform patient counseling and treatment approaches.

Objective

To characterize acute retinopathy in patients with PXE as a disease manifestation that may be associated with profound visual impairment.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This single-center case series was conducted from May 2013 to October 2018. It used the patient database of the Department of Ophthalmology at the University of Bonn, a referral center for PXE in Germany. Patients at this center with genetically confirmed PXE and who met the inclusion criteria were included (n = 9). Patients underwent multimodal retinal imaging, including fundus photography, fundus autofluorescence (AF), optical coherence tomography (OCT), fluorescein angiography (FA), and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA); in select cases, electroretinography as well as antiretinal and anti-retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) antibody testing were also used.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Clinical presentation and disease course.

Results

Nine patients (8 [89%] female; mean [range] age, 43 [19-55] years) with acute retinopathy were identified in a cohort of 167 consecutive patients with PXE (frequency of 5%). Symptoms ranged from light sensations or metamorphopsia to profound vision loss. Visual acuity was reduced in 6 patients (67%), ranging from a best-corrected visual acuity of 20/30 to perception of hand movements at manifestation. All patients revealed characteristic fundus features with temporary appearance of partly confluent outer retinal whitish dots at the posterior pole, which corresponded to areas of hyperautofluorescence on fundus AF, loss of the ellipsoid band on OCT, and associated scotomata. The FA and late-phase ICGA imaging showed associated hyperfluorescence and hypocyanescence. Electroretinography revealed a variable reduction of amplitudes. Changes were fully reversible within 1 month in 3 of 8 patients with available follow-up data. Of the remaining 5 patients, 3 had a prolonged and likely permanent vision loss (observation period, 1-64 months) mainly owing to central subretinal hyperreflective material originating from angioid streaks. In 4 (67%) of 6 tested, antiretinal and/or anti-RPE antibodies were detected.

Conclusions and Relevance

Acute retinopathy in patients with PXE may occur, with symptoms ranging from short-term, reversible alterations to irreversible vision loss; these findings contribute to understanding the variable ocular disease progression in PXE and provide insights into the autoimmune phenomena of the posterior pole.