1
|
Nogueira JDS, Gomes TR, Secco DA, de Almeida IS, da Costa ASMF, Cobas RA, Costa Dos Santos G, Gomes MB, Porto LC. Type 1 Diabetes Brazilian patients exhibit reduced frequency of recent thymic emigrants in regulatory CD4 +CD25 +Foxp3 +T cells. Immunol Lett 2024; 267:106857. [PMID: 38604551 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2024.106857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
To control immune responses, regulatory CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells (Treg) maintain their wide and diverse repertoire through continuous arrival of recent thymic emigrants (RTE). However, during puberty, the activity of RTE starts to decline as a natural process of thymic involution, introducing consequences, not completely described, to the repertoire. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) patients show quantitative and qualitative impairments on the Treg cells. Our aim was to evaluate peripheral Treg and RTE cell frequencies, in T1D patients from two distinct age groups (young and adults) and verify if HLA phenotypes are concomitant associated. To this, blood samples from Brazilian twenty established T1D patients (12 young and 8 adults) and twenty-one healthy controls (11 young and 10 adults) were analyzed, by flow cytometry, to verify the percentages of CD4, Treg (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) and the subsets of CD45RA+ (naive) and CD31+(RTE) within then. Furthermore, the HLA typing was also set. We observed that the young established T1D patients feature decreased frequencies in total Treg cells and naive RTE within Treg cells. Significant prevalence of HLA alleles, associated with risk, in T1D patients, was also identified. Performing a multivariate analysis, we confirmed that the cellular changes described offers significant variables that distinct T1D patients from the controls. Our data collectively highlight relevant aspects about homeostasis imbalances in the Treg cells of T1D patients, especially in young, and disease prognosis; that might contribute for future therapeutic strategies involving Treg cells manipulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane de Souza Nogueira
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thamires Rodrigues Gomes
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Danielle Angst Secco
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Inez Silva de Almeida
- Nursing Faculty, Department of Nursing Fundamentals, Ambulatory of the Adolescent Health Studies Center (NESA), Pedro Ernesto University Hospital, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Roberta Arnoldi Cobas
- Ambulatory of Diabetes, Piquet Carneiro Polyclinic, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gilson Costa Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Metabolomics (LabMet), IBRAG, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Marília Brito Gomes
- Ambulatory of Diabetes, Piquet Carneiro Polyclinic, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luís Cristóvão Porto
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ma Q, Weng C, Yao C, Xu J, Tian B, Wu Y, Wang H, Yang Q, Dai H, Zhang Y, Xu F, Shi X, Wang C. Severe pneumonia induces immunosenescence of T cells in the lung of mice. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 15:7084-7097. [PMID: 37490715 PMCID: PMC10415552 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Severe pneumonia may induce sequelae and accelerated aging process even after the person has recovered. However, the underline mechanism is not very clear. More research is needed to fully understand the long-term effects of severe pneumonia. In this study, we found that mice recovered from severe pneumonia showed lung immunosenescence, which was characterized by a bias naive-memory balance of T lymphocytes in the lung. The reduction of naïve T cells is associated with the diminished immune response to cancer or external new antigens, which is one of the key changes that occurs with age. Our results also indicate the link between severe pneumonia and aging process, which is mediated by the disrupted T cells homeostasis in the lungs after pneumonia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingle Ma
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chenhui Weng
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chenlu Yao
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jialu Xu
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bo Tian
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yi Wu
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Heng Wang
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qianyu Yang
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Huaxing Dai
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fang Xu
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaolin Shi
- Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chao Wang
- Laboratory for Biomaterial and Immunoengineering, Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kwiatkowska KM, Mkindi CG, Nielsen CM. Human lymphoid tissue sampling for vaccinology. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1045529. [PMID: 36466924 PMCID: PMC9714609 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1045529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs) - largely resident in the bone marrow - secrete antibody over months and years, thus maintaining serum antibody concentrations relevant for vaccine-mediated immunity. Little is known regarding factors that can modulate the induction of human LLPC responses in draining lymph node germinal centres, or those that maintain LLPCs in bone marrow niches following vaccination. Here, we review human and non-human primate vaccination studies which incorporate draining lymph node and/or bone marrow aspirate sampling. We emphasise the key contributions these samples can make to improve our understanding of LLPC immunology and guide rational vaccine development. Specifically, we highlight findings related to the impact of vaccine dosing regimens, adjuvant/vaccine platform selection, duration of germinal centre reactions in draining lymph nodes and relevance for timing of tissue sampling, and heterogeneity in bone marrow plasma cell populations. Much of this work has come from recent studies with SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates or, with respect to the non-human primate work, HIV vaccine development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Catherine G. Mkindi
- Department of Intervention and Clinical Trials, Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Carolyn M. Nielsen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yang JHM, Ward-Hartstonge KA, Perry DJ, Blanchfield JL, Posgai AL, Wiedeman AE, Diggins K, Rahman A, Tree TIM, Brusko TM, Levings MK, James EA, Kent SC, Speake C, Homann D, Long SA. Guidelines for standardizing T-cell cytometry assays to link biomarkers, mechanisms, and disease outcomes in type 1 diabetes. Eur J Immunol 2022; 52:372-388. [PMID: 35025103 PMCID: PMC9006584 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202049067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cytometric immunophenotyping is a powerful tool to discover and implement T-cell biomarkers of type 1 diabetes (T1D) progression and response to clinical therapy. Although many discovery-based T-cell biomarkers have been described, to date, no such markers have been widely adopted in standard practice. The heterogeneous nature of T1D and lack of standardized assays and experimental design across studies is a major barrier to the broader adoption of T-cell immunophenotyping assays. There is an unmet need to harmonize the design of immunophenotyping assays, including those that measure antigen-agnostic cell populations, such that data collected from different clinical trial sites and T1D cohorts are comparable, yet account for cohort-specific features and different drug mechanisms of action. In these Guidelines, we aim to provide expert advice on how to unify aspects of study design and practice. We provide recommendations for defining cohorts, method implementation, as well as tools for data analysis and reporting by highlighting and building on selected successes. Harmonization of cytometry-based T-cell assays will allow researchers to better integrate findings across trials, ultimately enabling the identification and validation of biomarkers of disease progression and treatment response in T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennie H. M. Yang
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King’s College, London, UK
- National Institute of Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ National Health Service Foundation Trust, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Kirsten A. Ward-Hartstonge
- Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, California, USA
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, California, USA
| | - Daniel J. Perry
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida Diabetes Institute, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - J. Lori Blanchfield
- Center for Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Amanda L. Posgai
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida Diabetes Institute, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Alice E. Wiedeman
- Center for Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Kirsten Diggins
- Center for Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Adeeb Rahman
- Human Immune Monitoring Center, Hess Center for Science and Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Timothy I. M. Tree
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King’s College, London, UK
- National Institute of Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ National Health Service Foundation Trust, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Todd M. Brusko
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida Diabetes Institute, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida Diabetes Institute, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Megan K. Levings
- Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, California, USA
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, California, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, California, USA
| | - Eddie A. James
- Center for Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Sally C. Kent
- Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Cate Speake
- Center for Interventional Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Dirk Homann
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Diabetes, Obesity, & Metabolism Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - S. Alice Long
- Center for Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ling Q, Shen L, Zhang W, Qu D, Wang H, Wang B, Liu Y, Lu J, Zhu D, Bi Y. Increased plasmablasts enhance T cell-mediated beta cell destruction and promote the development of type 1 diabetes. Mol Med 2022; 28:18. [PMID: 35123388 PMCID: PMC8818172 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-022-00447-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although type 1 diabetes (T1D) is typically described as a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease, increasing evidence for a role of B cells has emerged. However, the pivotal disease-relevant B cell subset and its contribution to islet autoimmunity remain elusive. METHODS The frequencies and phenotypic characteristics of circulating B cell subsets were analyzed using flow cytometry in individuals with new-onset T1D, long-term T1D, type 2 diabetes, and nondiabetic controls, and also in a prospective cohort of patients receiving mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) transplantation. NOD mice and adoptive transfer assay were used to dissect the role of the certain B cell subset in disease progression. An in-vitro coculture system of islets with immune cells was established to examine the response against islets and the underlying mechanisms. RESULTS We identified that plasmablasts, a B cell subset at the antibody-secreting stage, were significantly increased and correlated with the deterioration of beta cell function in patients with new-onset T1D. Further, a fall of plasmablast number was associated with the preservation of beta cell function in patients who received MSC transplantation after 3 months of follow-up. Meanwhile, a gradual increase of plasmablasts in pancreatic lymph nodes during the natural progression of insulitis was observed in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice; adoptive transfer of plasmablasts together with T cells from NOD mice accelerated diabetes onset in NOD/SCID recipients. CONCLUSIONS Our study revealed that plasmablasts may function as antigen-presenting cells and promote the activation and proinflammatory response of CD4+ T cells, further contributing to the T cell-mediated beta cell destruction. Our results provide insights into the pathogenic role of plasmablasts in islet autoimmunity and may offer new translational strategies for inhibiting T1D development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Ling
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Shen
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - DuoDuo Qu
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hongdong Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Dalong Zhu
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Yan Bi
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gianchecchi E, Delfino DV, Fierabracci A. Natural Killer Cells: Potential Biomarkers and Therapeutic Target in Autoimmune Diseases? Front Immunol 2021; 12:616853. [PMID: 33679757 PMCID: PMC7933577 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.616853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases recognize a multifactorial pathogenesis, although the exact mechanism responsible for their onset remains to be fully elucidated. Over the past few years, the role of natural killer (NK) cells in shaping immune responses has been highlighted even though their involvement is profoundly linked to the subpopulation involved and to the site where such interaction takes place. The aberrant number and functionality of NK cells have been reported in several different autoimmune disorders. In the present review, we report the most recent findings regarding the involvement of NK cells in both systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases, including type 1 diabetes (T1D), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), systemic sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), primary Sjögren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. In T1D, innate inflammation induces NK cell activation, disrupting the Treg function. In addition, certain genetic variants identified as risk factors for T1D influenced the activation of NK cells promoting their cytotoxic activity. The role of NK cells has also been demonstrated in the pathogenesis of PBC mediating direct or indirect biliary epithelial cell destruction. NK cell frequency and number were enhanced in both the peripheral blood and the liver of patients and associated with increased NK cell cytotoxic activity and perforin expression levels. NK cells were also involved in the perpetuation of disease through autoreactive CD4 T cell activation in the presence of antigen-presenting cells. In systemic sclerosis (SSc), in addition to phenotypic abnormalities, patients presented a reduction in CD56hi NK-cells. Moreover, NK cells presented a deficient killing activity. The influence of the activating and inhibitory killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) has been investigated in SSc and SLE susceptibility. Furthermore, autoantibodies to KIRs have been identified in different systemic autoimmune conditions. Because of its role in modulating the immune-mediated pathology, NK subpopulation could represent a potential marker for disease activity and target for therapeutic intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gianchecchi
- VisMederi srl, Siena, Italy.,Infectivology and Clinical Trials Research Area, Primary Immunodeficiencies Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Rome, Italy
| | - Domenico V Delfino
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessandra Fierabracci
- Infectivology and Clinical Trials Research Area, Primary Immunodeficiencies Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Recombinant HA-based vaccine outperforms split and subunit vaccines in elicitation of influenza-specific CD4 T cells and CD4 T cell-dependent antibody responses in humans. NPJ Vaccines 2020; 5:77. [PMID: 32884842 PMCID: PMC7450042 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-020-00227-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although traditional egg-based inactivated influenza vaccines can protect against infection, there have been significant efforts to develop improved formats to overcome disadvantages of this platform. Here, we have assessed human CD4 T cell responses to a traditional egg-based influenza vaccine with recently available cell-derived vaccines and recombinant baculovirus-derived vaccines. Adults were administered either egg-derived Fluzone®, mammalian cell-derived Flucelvax® or recombinant HA (Flublok®). CD4 T cell responses to each HA protein were assessed by cytokine EliSpot and intracellular staining assays. The specificity and magnitude of antibody responses were quantified by ELISA and HAI assays. By all criteria, Flublok vaccine exhibited superior performance in eliciting both CD4 T cell responses and HA-specific antibody responses, whether measured by mean response magnitude or percent of responders. Although the mechanism(s) underlying this advantage is not yet clear, it is likely that both qualitative and quantitative features of the vaccines impact the response.
Collapse
|
8
|
Eichmann M, Baptista R, Ellis RJ, Heck S, Peakman M, Beam CA. Costimulation Blockade Disrupts CD4 + T Cell Memory Pathways and Uncouples Their Link to Decline in β-Cell Function in Type 1 Diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:3129-3138. [PMID: 32404353 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that costimulation blockade by abatacept limits the decline of β-cell function and the frequency of circulating CD4+ central memory T cells (TCM) (CD45RO+CD62L+) in new-onset type 1 diabetes. In human subjects receiving placebo, we found a significant association between an increase in CD4+ TCM cells and the decline of β-cell function. To extend and refine these findings, we examined changes in human CD4+ and CD8+ naive and memory T cell subsets at greater resolution using polychromatic flow and mass cytometry. In the placebo group, we successfully reproduced the original finding of a significant association between TCM and β-cell function and extended this to other T cell subsets. Furthermore, we show that abatacept treatment significantly alters the frequencies of a majority of CD4+ conventional and regulatory T cell subsets; in general, Ag-naive subsets increase and Ag-experienced subsets decrease, whereas CD8+ T cell subsets are relatively resistant to drug effects, indicating a lesser reliance on CD28-mediated costimulation. Importantly, abatacept uncouples the relationship between changes in T cell subsets and β-cell function that is a component of the natural history of the disease. Although these data suggest immunological markers for predicting change in β-cell function in type 1 diabetes, the finding that abatacept blunts this relationship renders the biomarkers nonpredictive for this type of therapy. In sum, our findings point to a novel mechanism of action for this successful immunotherapy that may guide other disease-modifying approaches for type 1 diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Eichmann
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom;
| | - Roman Baptista
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom.,Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J Ellis
- Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
| | - Susanne Heck
- Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Peakman
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom.,Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals and King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom.,Institute of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Obesity, King's Health Partners, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - Craig A Beam
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008
| |
Collapse
|