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Hanlon N, Gillan N, Neil J, Seidler K. The role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in modulating intestinal ILC3s to optimise gut pathogen resistance in lupus and benefits of nutritional AhR ligands. Clin Nutr 2024; 43:1199-1215. [PMID: 38631087 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2024.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Dysbiosis is emerging as a potential trigger of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) are recognised as key regulators of intestinal homeostasis. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is critical to intestinal ILC3 development and function. This mechanistic review aimed to investigate whether AhR activation of gut ILC3s facilitates IL-22-mediated antimicrobial peptide (AMP) production to enhance colonisation resistance and ameliorate SLE pathology associated with intestinal dysbiosis. Furthermore, nutritional AhR ligand potential to enhance pathogen resistance was explored. METHODOLOGY This mechanistic review involved a three-tranche systematic literature search (review, mechanism, intervention) using PubMed with critical appraisal. Data was synthesised into themes and summarised in a narrative analysis. RESULTS Preclinical mechanistic data indicate that AhR modulation of intestinal ILC3s optimises pathogen resistance via IL-22-derived AMPs. Pre-clinical research is required to validate this mechanism in SLE. Data on systemic immune consequences of AhR modulation in lupus suggest UVB-activated ligands induce aberrant AhR signalling while many dietary ligands exert beneficial effects. Data on xenobiotic-origin ligands is varied, although considerable evidence has demonstrated negative effects on Th17 to Treg balance. Limited human evidence supports the role of nutritional AhR ligands in modulating SLE pathology. Preclinical and clinical data support anti-inflammatory effects of dietary AhR ligands. CONCLUSION Current evidence is insufficient to fully validate the hypothesis that AhR modulation of intestinal ILC3s can enhance pathogen resistance to ameliorate lupus pathology driven by dysbiosis. However, anti-inflammatory effects of dietary AhR ligands suggest a promising role as a therapeutic intervention for SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh Hanlon
- CNELM (Centre for Nutrition Education and Lifestyle Management), 14 Rectory Road, Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 1DH, UK.
| | - Natalie Gillan
- CNELM (Centre for Nutrition Education and Lifestyle Management), 14 Rectory Road, Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 1DH, UK.
| | - James Neil
- CNELM (Centre for Nutrition Education and Lifestyle Management), 14 Rectory Road, Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 1DH, UK.
| | - Karin Seidler
- CNELM (Centre for Nutrition Education and Lifestyle Management), 14 Rectory Road, Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 1DH, UK.
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2
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Moreau GB, Naz F, Petri WA. Fecal microbiota transplantation stimulates type 2 and tolerogenic immune responses in a mouse model. Anaerobe 2024; 86:102841. [PMID: 38521227 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is the leading hospital-acquired infection in North America. While previous work on fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), a highly effective treatment for CDI, has focused on colonization resistance mounted against C. difficile by FMT-delivered commensals, the effects of FMT on host gene expression are relatively unexplored. This study aims to identify transcriptional changes associated with FMT, particularly changes associated with protective immune responses. METHODS Gene expression was assessed on day 2 and day 7 after FMT in mice after antibiotic-induced dysbiosis. Flow cytometry was also performed on colon and mesenteric lymph nodes at day 7 to investigate changes in immune cell populations. RESULTS FMT administration after antibiotic-induced dysbiosis successfully restored microbial alpha diversity to levels of donor mice by day 7 post-FMT. Bulk RNA sequencing of cecal tissue at day 2 identified immune genes, including both pro-inflammatory and Type 2 immune pathways as upregulated after FMT. RNA sequencing was repeated on day 7 post-FMT, and expression of these immune genes was decreased along with upregulation of genes associated with restoration of intestinal homeostasis. Immunoprofiling on day 7 identified increased colonic CD45+ immune cells that exhibited dampened Type 1 and heightened regulatory and Type 2 responses. These include an increased abundance of eosinophils, alternatively activated macrophages, Th2, and T regulatory cell populations. CONCLUSION These results highlight the impact of FMT on host gene expression, providing evidence that FMT restores intestinal homeostasis after antibiotic treatment and facilitates tolerogenic and Type 2 immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Brett Moreau
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Farha Naz
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - William A Petri
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
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3
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Wee VTK, Shirakawa H, Yeh SL, Yeh CL. Fermented rice bran supplementation attenuates colonic injury through modulating intestinal aryl hydrocarbon receptor and innate lymphoid cells in mice with dextran sodium sulfate-induced acute colitis. J Nutr Biochem 2024; 123:109493. [PMID: 37871768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of fermented rice bran (FRB) on modulating intestinal aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) expression, innate lymphoid cell (ILC)3 populations, the fecal microbiota distribution, and their associations with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced acute colitis. C57BL/6 mice were assigned to four groups: 1) NC group, normal mice fed the AIN-93M diet; 2) FRB group, normal mice fed a diet supplemented with 5% FRB; 3) NCD group, DSS-treated mice fed AIN-93M; 4) FRBD group, DSS-treated mice fed a 5% FRB-supplemented diet. DSS was administered for 5 d and followed by 5 d for recovery. At the end of the experiment, mice were sacrificed. Their blood and intestinal tissues were collected. Results showed that there were no differences in colonic biological parameters and function between the NC and FRB groups. Similar fecal microbiota diversity was noted between these two groups. Compared to the non-DSS-treated groups, DSS administration led to increased intestinal permeability, enhanced inflammatory cytokine production and disease severity, whereas tight junctions and AhR, interleukin (IL)-22 expressions were downregulated, and the ILC3 population had decreased. Also, gut microbiota diversity differs from the non-DSS-treated groups and more detrimental bacterial populations exist when compared to the FRBD group. FRB supplementation in DSS-treated mice attenuated fecal microbial dysbiosis, decreased intestinal permeability, improved the barrier integrity, upregulated AhR and IL-22 expression, maintained the ILC3 population, and pathologically mitigated colonic injury. These findings suggest enhanced ILC3- and AhR-mediated functions may be partly responsible for the anti-colitis effects of FRB supplementation in DSS-induced colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- ViVi Tang Kang Wee
- School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hitoshi Shirakawa
- Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Sung-Ling Yeh
- Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Li Yeh
- School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Nutrition Research Center, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center of Geriatric Nutrition, College of Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center for Digestive Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
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4
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Srivastava RK, Sapra L, Bhardwaj A, Mishra PK, Verma B, Baig Z. Unravelling the immunobiology of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs): Implications in health and disease. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2023; 74:56-75. [PMID: 37743134 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2023.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), a growing class of immune cells, imitate the appearance and abilities of T cells. However, unlike T cells, ILCs lack acquired antigen receptors, and they also do not undergo clonal selection or proliferation in response to antigenic stimuli. Despite lacking antigen-specific receptors, ILCs respond quickly to signals from infected or damaged tissues and generate an array of cytokines that regulate the development of adaptive immune response. ILCs can be categorized into four types based on their signature cytokines and transcription factors: ILC1, ILC2, ILC3 (including Lymphoid Tissue inducer- LTi cells), and regulatory ILCs (ILCregs). ILCs play key functions in controlling and resolving inflammation, and variations in their proportion are linked to various pathological diseases including cancer, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, and skin diseases. We highlight current advancements in the biology and classification of ILCs in this review. Additionally, we provide a thorough overview of their contributions to several inflammatory bone-related pathologies, including osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, periodontitis, and ankylosing spondylitis. Understanding the multiple functions of ILCs in both physiological and pathological conditions will further mobilize future research towards targeting ILCs for therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupesh K Srivastava
- Translational Immunology, Osteoimmunology & Immunoporosis Lab (TIOIL), Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi 110029, India.
| | - Leena Sapra
- Translational Immunology, Osteoimmunology & Immunoporosis Lab (TIOIL), Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi 110029, India
| | - Asha Bhardwaj
- Translational Immunology, Osteoimmunology & Immunoporosis Lab (TIOIL), Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi 110029, India
| | | | - Bhupendra Verma
- Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences(AIIMS), New Delhi-110029, India
| | - Zainab Baig
- Translational Immunology, Osteoimmunology & Immunoporosis Lab (TIOIL), Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi 110029, India
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Luo Z, Chen A, Xie A, Liu X, Jiang S, Yu R. Limosilactobacillus reuteri in immunomodulation: molecular mechanisms and potential applications. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1228754. [PMID: 37638038 PMCID: PMC10450031 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1228754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Frequent use of hormones and drugs may be associated with side-effects. Recent studies have shown that probiotics have effects on the prevention and treatment of immune-related diseases. Limosilactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri) had regulatory effects on intestinal microbiota, host epithelial cells, immune cells, cytokines, antibodies (Ab), toll-like receptors (TLRs), tryptophan (Try) metabolism, antioxidant enzymes, and expression of related genes, and exhibits antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects, leading to alleviation of disease symptoms. Although the specific composition of the cell-free supernatant (CFS) of L. reuteri has not been clarified, its efficacy in animal models has drawn increased attention to its potential use. This review summarizes the effects of L. reuteri on intestinal flora and immune regulation, and discusses the feasibility of its application in atopic dermatitis (AD), asthma, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and multiple sclerosis (MS), and provides insights for the prevention and treatment of immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zichen Luo
- Department of Neonatology, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Ailing Chen
- Research Institute for Reproductive Health and Genetic Diseases, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Anni Xie
- Department of Neonatology, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Xueying Liu
- Research Institute for Reproductive Health and Genetic Diseases, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Shanyu Jiang
- Department of Neonatology, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Renqiang Yu
- Department of Neonatology, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
- Research Institute for Reproductive Health and Genetic Diseases, Women’s Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, China
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Morales M, Xue X. Hypoxia in the Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:4767-4783. [PMID: 37358514 PMCID: PMC10799609 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c220002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic disease of disordered chronic inflammation in the intestines that affects many people across the world. While the disease is still being better characterized, greater progress has been made in understanding the many components that intersect in the disease. Among these components are the many pieces that compose the intestinal epithelial barrier, the various cytokines and immune cells, and the population of microbes that reside in the intestinal lumen. Since their discovery, the hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) have been found to play an expansive role in physiology as well as diseases such as inflammation due to their role in oxygen sensing-related gene transcription, and metabolic control. Making use of existing and developing paradigms in the immuno-gastroenterology of IBD, we summarized that hypoxic signaling plays as another component in the status and progression of IBD, which may include possible functions at the origins of inflammatory dysregulation. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4767-4783, 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Morales
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Xiang Xue
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
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Triantos C, Aggeletopoulou I, Mantzaris GJ, Mouzaki Α. Molecular basis of vitamin D action in inflammatory bowel disease. Autoimmun Rev 2022; 21:103136. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2022.103136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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8
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Zheng L, Wen XL, Duan SL. Role of metabolites derived from gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Clin Cases 2022; 10:2660-2677. [PMID: 35434116 PMCID: PMC8968818 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v10.i9.2660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past two decades, it is improved gut microbiota plays an important role in the health and disease pathogenesis. Metabolites, small molecules produced as intermediate or end products of microbial metabolism, is considered as one of the major interaction way for gut microbiota with the host. Bacterial metabolisms of dietary substrates, modification of host molecules or bacteria are the major source of metabolites. Signals from microbial metabolites affect immune maturation and homeostasis, host energy metabolism as well as mucosal integrity maintenance. Based on many researches, the composition and function of the microbiota can be changed, which is also seen in the metabolite profiles of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Additionally, some specific classes of metabolites also can trigger IBD. In this paper, definition of the key classes of microbial-derived metabolites which are changed in IBD, description of the pathophysiological basis of association and identification of the precision therapeutic modulation in the future are the major contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lie Zheng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xin-Li Wen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Sheng-Lei Duan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
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9
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Zheng L, Wen XL, Duan SL. Role of metabolites derived from gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Clin Cases 2022; 10:2658-2675. [DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v10.i9.2658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past two decades, it is improved gut microbiota plays an important role in the health and disease pathogenesis. Metabolites, small molecules produced as intermediate or end products of microbial metabolism, is considered as one of the major interaction way for gut microbiota with the host. Bacterial metabolisms of dietary substrates, modification of host molecules or bacteria are the major source of metabolites. Signals from microbial metabolites affect immune maturation and homeostasis, host energy metabolism as well as mucosal integrity maintenance. Based on many researches, the composition and function of the microbiota can be changed, which is also seen in the metabolite profiles of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Additionally, some specific classes of metabolites also can trigger IBD. In this paper, definition of the key classes of microbial-derived metabolites which are changed in IBD, description of the pathophysiological basis of association and identification of the precision therapeutic modulation in the future are the major contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lie Zheng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xin-Li Wen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Sheng-Lei Duan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi’an 710003, Shaanxi Province, China
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Sultan S, El-Mowafy M, Elgaml A, Ahmed TAE, Hassan H, Mottawea W. Metabolic Influences of Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Front Physiol 2021; 12:715506. [PMID: 34646151 PMCID: PMC8502967 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.715506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic medical disorders characterized by recurrent gastrointestinal inflammation. While the etiology of IBD is still unknown, the pathogenesis of the disease results from perturbations in both gut microbiota and the host immune system. Gut microbiota dysbiosis in IBD is characterized by depleted diversity, reduced abundance of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) producers and enriched proinflammatory microbes such as adherent/invasive E. coli and H2S producers. This dysbiosis may contribute to the inflammation through affecting either the immune system or a metabolic pathway. The immune responses to gut microbiota in IBD are extensively discussed. In this review, we highlight the main metabolic pathways that regulate the host-microbiota interaction. We also discuss the reported findings indicating that the microbial dysbiosis during IBD has a potential metabolic impact on colonocytes and this may underlie the disease progression. Moreover, we present the host metabolic defectiveness that adds to the impact of symbiont dysbiosis on the disease progression. This will raise the possibility that gut microbiota dysbiosis associated with IBD results in functional perturbations of host-microbiota interactions, and consequently modulates the disease development. Finally, we shed light on the possible therapeutic approaches of IBD through targeting gut microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salma Sultan
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nutrition Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Mohammed El-Mowafy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Abdelaziz Elgaml
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Horus University, New Damietta, Egypt
| | - Tamer A E Ahmed
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nutrition Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Hebatoallah Hassan
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nutrition Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Walid Mottawea
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nutrition Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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Hyun CK. Molecular and Pathophysiological Links between Metabolic Disorders and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179139. [PMID: 34502047 PMCID: PMC8430512 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite considerable epidemiological evidence indicating comorbidity between metabolic disorders, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, as well as common pathophysiological features shared by these two categories of diseases, the relationship between their pathogenesis at molecular levels are not well described. Intestinal barrier dysfunction is a characteristic pathological feature of IBD, which also plays causal roles in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory metabolic disorders. Increased intestinal permeability is associated with a pro-inflammatory response of the intestinal immune system, possibly leading to the development of both diseases. In addition, dysregulated interactions between the gut microbiota and the host immunity have been found to contribute to immune-mediated disorders including the two diseases. In connection with disrupted gut microbial composition, alterations in gut microbiota-derived metabolites have also been shown to be closely related to the pathogeneses of both diseases. Focusing on these prominent pathophysiological features observed in both metabolic disorders and IBD, this review highlights and summarizes the molecular risk factors that may link between the pathogeneses of the two diseases, which is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying their comorbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Kee Hyun
- School of Life Science, Handong Global University, Pohang 37554, Gyungbuk, Korea
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