Trends in industrialization and commercialization of IgY technology

Comprehensive analysis of the major IgY antibody extraction strategies from chicken egg yolk

IgY technology refers to the process of producing, extracting, and utilizing IgY antibodies from the egg yolk. The extraction of IgY from the avian egg yolk is particularly interesting due to its potential as a reservoir of targeted antibodies for infection prevention. The objective of our study was to evaluate and compare the efficiency and purity of antibodies obtained through four different IgY extraction procedures: water dilution (WD), polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, chloroform (CF) extraction combined with PEG extraction, and phenol (PHE) extraction. The WD and CF techniques exhibited increased protein quantities; however, the reported IgY purity was reduced due to impurities detected in the SDS-PAGE analysis. The PEG technique provided a well-balanced approach with moderate protein content and greater purity than the WD and CF approaches. The phenol extraction procedure resulted in the best level of purity for IgY; however, the yield was lower. The WD methods and PEG precipitation extraction methods offer an effective and practical approach to purifying IgY antibodies. It is suitable for efficiently producing high-quality IgY on a wide scale following purification. The functionality of the IgY molecule is unaffected by various extraction techniques throughout an ELISA demonstration. This comparative study aims to gather valuable observational data on various IgY extraction methods. The main aim is to optimize these approaches to effectively address the specific demands of different practical working situations and antibody applications.

Allergenicity, Genotoxicity and Subchronic Toxicity Assessment of IgG Binding Protein LT Produced From Aspergillus oryzae

Gastrointestinal health is one of the fastest growing areas in the food and beverage industry, as its importance to overall health and well-being is becoming increasingly recognized. Immunoglobulins play a key role in protecting the gastrointestinal tract, and nonbovine sources of immunoglobulins (including camel milk, which has a long history of consumption in East Africa and Asia) are increasing in popularity in Western countries as functional foods, particularly for individuals with allergies or intolerances to cow's milk. The physiological benefits of consuming certain heavy-chain immunoglobulins from camel milk relate to the binding domains of camelid single-domain antibodies; thus, a novel binding protein termed "immunoglobulin G (IgG) binding protein LT" (a dimer of two camelid single-domain antibody protein sequences) has been developed for use in food and beverage products, to provide some of the physiological benefits attributed to consuming camel milk, on an industrial scale. To support the safety of IgG binding protein LT for such use, a comprehensive safety assessment (in silico allergenicity assessment, in vitro genotoxicity studies [bacterial reverse mutation test and in vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test], and a 90-day gavage toxicity study in rats) was conducted. The in silico allergenicity assessment results demonstrate that IgG binding protein LT is highly unlikely to pose a risk of allergenic cross-reactivity, and there was no evidence of genotoxicity in vitro. There were no test article-related effects in the 90-day toxicity study. These data demonstrate the safety of IgG binding protein LT for its intended uses in foods and beverages.

Advances in IgY antibody dosage form design and delivery strategies: Current status and future perspective

Immunoglobulin Y (IgY), a unique type of antibody found in birds, is attracting increasing attention for a broad range of biomedical applications. Rational IgY protection, dosage form design, and delivery are highly essential to transform functional IgY antibodies into desired IgY products for therapeutic and prophylactic administration. Although progress has been made in this field, it remains in the early stages, highlighting the fundamental research and development needed in this aspect of IgY technology. Hence, this article reviews the conventional and innovative IgY dosage designs and delivery strategies, emphasizes the challenges faced in various IgY delivery systems, discusses the criteria for evaluating IgY dosage form performance, and provides a comprehensive analysis of the current research status and prospects of IgY delivery strategies.

P23-Specific IgY Significantly Reduces Diarrhea and Oocyst Shedding in Calves Experimentally Infected with Cryptosporidium parvum

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic enteroparasite causing severe diarrhea in newborn calves, leading to significant economic losses in dairy and beef farming. This study aimed to evaluate whether C. parvum p23-specific IgY antibodies could control neonatal calf diarrhea caused by C. parvum.

METHODS

A recombinant immunogen comprising the p23 protein fused to the antigen-presenting cell homing (APCH) molecule was expressed using the baculovirus system. Hens were immunized with the APCH-p23 immunogen, and the resulting IgY was spray-dried for treatment use. Eight newborn calves were included in the study and received commercial colostrum within the first 12 h of life. Four calves were treated with 20 g of powdered egg containing IgY (p23-specific IgY titer of 256 in milk) twice daily for 7 days. The remaining four calves received regular non-supplemented milk. All calves were orally infected with 6 million oocysts and monitored for 21 days.

RESULTS

Calves treated with p23-specific IgY exhibited significantly reduced diarrhea duration (3.5 vs. 7.5 days; p = 0.0397) and oocyst shedding duration (6.50 vs. 12 days; p = 0.0089). In addition, the total number of excreted oocysts, as measured by the change of the area under the curve (AUC), was significantly reduced in the treated group (14.25 vs. 33.45; p = 0.0117). Although the onset of diarrhea was delayed (3.5 to 6.5 days post-infection; p = 0.1840), and diarrhea severity was reduced (24.25 to 17 AUC; p = 0.1236), both parameters were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

P23-specific IgY antibodies effectively reduced the C. parvum-induced duration of diarrhea in experimentally infected calves. These findings highlight the potential of this passive treatment as a promising strategy for controlling neonatal calf diarrhea.

A novel and quick egg yolk immunoglobulin y antibody extraction method leveraging the protein liquid-liquid phase separation principle

This study presents a novel and efficient method for extracting immunoglobulin Y (IgY) antibodies from egg yolk based on the principle of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) induced by polyethylene glycol 8000 (PEG 8000). Initial delipidation of egg yolk samples with varying PEG 8000 concentrations demonstrated optimal delipidation efficiency and protein recovery at 2.5 % PEG 8000 concentration. Subsequent IgY extraction involved inducing LLPS by raising PEG 8000 concentration to 6.5 %, resulting in turbid solutions and the formation of globular droplet-like condensates observed under a microscope. Unlike the PEG 6000 method that induced aggregation, the method developed here using PEG 8000 does not lead to the appearance of aggregates of IgY. SDS-PAGE analysis confirmed that IgY extracted was no different from the conventional PEG 6000 method, with similar purity levels (77 % vs 79 %). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and western blot analysis confirmed the antigen recognition properties of the isolated IgY. This method significantly reduces the amount of PEG used, leading to substantial cost savings compared to PEG 6000. The method can be completed within one hour. Despite a slightly lower IgY yield by the method, the time- and cost-saving advantages of this method make it a promising alternative for IgY extraction in research. This proposed IgY extraction technique utilizing protein LLPS has the potential to improve the study of the physicochemical properties of IgY and optimized production, while offering a quicker and cost-effective solution for various applications in biomedical research.

A novel antibody treatment reduces deformed wing virus loads in the western honey bee (Apis mellifera)

The deformed wing virus (Iflavirus aladeformis) (DWV) is a key driver of colony loss in the western honey bee (Apis mellifera). Here, we demonstrate that orally delivered anti-DWV antibodies can act systemically to reduce DWV loads in naturally infected honey bees. Immunoglobulin Y (IgY) was produced in adult chickens against two DWV proteins, harvested from their eggs, and fed to bees in a sucrose solution. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay demonstrated that orally delivered anti-DWV IgY migrated to the hemolymph. We next assessed the ability of orally delivered anti-DWV IgY to reduce DWV viral loads in naturally infected bees using qPCR. An antibody treatment resulted in a significant eightfold viral load reduction in DWV-infected bees. Our findings demonstrate the potential for antibody treatments to help mitigate the losses attributed to DWV in A. mellifera.

IMPORTANCE

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is considered to be a key component of declining honey bee health which threatens global food production. The virus can result in significantly shortened lifespan, deformities in developing bees, and impaired cognition. There is currently no method to directly control the virus. The virus can be indirectly controlled with acaricidal treatments that target a key vector, the parasitic varroa mite (Varroa destructor). But acaricide resistance and a lack of effective alternatives for the control of both Varroa and DWV are major threats to beekeeping and the wider agricultural industry. Our research presents a significant development in the ability to reduce DWV burden in honey bees using IgY antibodies. Moreover, immunoglobulin Y has the potential to be more broadly established as a new treatment modality to combat other pathogens and parasites in A. mellifera.

The protective effect of specific yolk antibody against nervous necrosis virus infection in Mandarin fish(Siniperca chuatsi)

Nervous necrosis virus (NNV), a member of the Nodavirus genus, is a highly contagious disease that is found all over the world. As of right now, there aren't many reliable commercial vaccines available to combat this infection. In a previous study, we isolated a Mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi)-derived NNV strain, tentatively named MFNNV. By immunizing hens with MFNNV recombinant capsid protein (CP), this study produced high-purity anti-MFNNV yolk antibodies. According to the ELISA results, the purified anti-MFNNV IgY titer peaked at week 8 after the first vaccination; western blotting and indirect immunofluorescence results showed that IgY could act as a primary antibody to specifically recognize recombinant CP and virus particles. At the cellular level, specific IgY significantly reduced the appearance of vacuolated cytopathic effect in GS cells after incubation with an equal volume of virus compared with non-specific IgY. Mandarin fish was fed diets supplemented with anti-MFNNV IgY or non-specific IgY at 33 % (w/w) for 7 days prior to artificial infection with MFNNV. On the 14th day of artificial infection with MFNNV, the mortality rate was 53.3 % in the specific group and 83.3 % in the nonspecific group, and the relative protection rate of the specific IgY group was about 36 % compared with that of the nonspecific IgY group. In histopathological analysis, vacuolizing lesions were observed in the brain tissues of Mandarin fish in the non-specific group, whereas only slight vacuolization was observed in the brain tissues of the specific group. Further analysis revealed that compared with the non-specific group, the MFNNV-CP gene expression in the eyes as well as the brain of Mandarin fish in the specific group showed a significant decrease, and the mRNA expression levels of immune-related factors, such as TNF-α, IFN-h, IL-1, IL-8, Mx proteins, and IgM in the spleen, liver, kidney, and hindgut tissues of the specific group also showed a decrease of varying degrees, suggesting that oral administration of specific IgY could neutralize virus and reduce the immune responses as well as tissue pathological damage induced by the Nervous necrosis virus. Consequently, we suggested that IgY could protect Mandarin fish from MFNNV infection by acting as a passive immunological measure.

Comparison of immunoglobulin Y antibody production in new and spent laying hens

Background and Aim

Immunoglobulin (Ig)Y, a specific type of Ig found in chicken eggs, has potential use in the diagnosis of human and animal diseases. This study assessed the feasibility of using spent laying hens to produce IgY. In addition, the effects of antigen injection on egg and antibody production in new and spent laying hens were compared.

Materials and Methods

Hens were intramuscularly injected with three booster shots of antigens. IgY was extracted from egg yolks using polyethylene glycol 6000 precipitation followed by dialysis.

Results

Spent laying hens (83 weeks) consistently showed lower egg production than new laying hens (27 weeks) throughout the study. Post-immunization, a further decline in egg production was observed in spent laying hens, and egg production stopped after the second antigen injection. Eggs from spent laying hens were less dense than eggs from new hens. Despite lower IgY levels in eggs from spent laying hens, the heavy-to-light chain ratio remained consistent in both groups. Notably, IgY from spent and new laying hens demonstrated effective hemagglutination against cat erythrocytes in the A blood group.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated the potential of using spent laying hens to produce IgY, with significant implications for future research, immunotherapy, and diagnostic applications, despite the observed reduction in egg production compared with new laying hens.

Long-Term Oral Administration of Hyperimmune Egg-Based IgY-Rich Formulations Induces Mucosal Immune Response and Systemic Increases of Cytokines Involved in Th2- and Th17-Type Immune Responses in C57BL/6 Mice

Three hyperimmune egg-based formulations rich in immunoglobulin Y (IgY) were orally administered (daily, for up to 90 days) to C57BL/6 mice that were not microbially challenged. The serum levels of 32 cytokines were quantified every 30 days. Histopathology, hematology, and serum biochemistry investigations were also performed. As a sign of increased immune activity, lymphohistiocytic infiltrates were detected in the digestive tract and the liver after 30, 60, and 90 days of treatment. These infiltrates were also present in the lungs after 30 and 60 days, but not at 90 days. Blood analysis indicated systemic inflammation after 30 days of treatment: increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines, glycemia, total serum proteins, ALT, and ALP. After 60 and 90 days of treatment, the analyzed blood parameters showed mixed signs of both increased and decreased inflammation. The increased cytokines, which varied with formulation and time of exposure, indicated a combination of mostly Th17- and Th2-type immune responses. As the mice were healthy and housed in standardized sanitary conditions, and were not microbially challenged, the data were consistent with an interaction of IgY with the gut-associated lymphoid tissue as the main mechanism of action. This interaction generated a local immune response, which subsequently induced a systemic response.

Monoclonal IgY antibodies: advancements and limitations for immunodiagnosis and immunotherapy applications

Due to their high specificity and scalability, Monoclonal IgY antibodies have emerged as a valuable alternative to traditional polyclonal IgY antibodies. This abstract provides an overview of the production and purification methods of monoclonal IgY antibodies, highlights their advantages over polyclonal IgY antibodies, and discusses their recent applications. Monoclonal recombinant IgY antibodies, in contrast to polyclonal IgY antibodies, offer several benefits. such as derived from a single B-cell clone, monoclonal antibodies exhibit superior specificity, ensuring consistent and reliable results. Furthermore, it explores the suitability of monoclonal IgY antibodies for low- and middle-income countries, considering their cost-effectiveness and accessibility. We also discussed future directions and challenges in using polyclonal IgY and monoclonal IgY antibodies. In conclusion, monoclonal IgY antibodies offer substantial advantages over polyclonal IgY antibodies regarding specificity, scalability, and consistent performance. Their recent applications in diagnostics, therapeutics, and research highlight their versatility.

Development of an ostrich-derived single-chain variable fragment (scFv) against PTPRN extracellular domain

In type 1 diabetes, the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells in an autoimmune condition. To overcome this disease, a specific monoclonal antibody that binds to pancreatic beta cells could be used for targeted immunotherapy. Protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor N (PTPRN) is one of the important surface antigen candidates. Due to its high sequence homology among mammals, so far, no single-chain monoclonal antibody has been produced against this receptor. In this study, we developed a novel single-chain variable fragment (scFv) against the PTPRN extracellular domain. To this aim, ostrich species was used as a host is far phylogenetically birds from mammals to construct a phage display library for the first time. An ostrich-derived scfv phage display library was prepared and biopanning steps were done to enrich and screen for isolating the best anti-PTPRN binders. An scFv with appropriate affinity and specificity to the PTPRN extracellular domain was selected and characterized by ELISA, western blotting, and flow cytometry. The anti-PTPRN scFv developed in this study could be introduced as an effective tool that can pave the way for the creation of antibody-based targeting systems in cooperation with the detection and therapy of type I diabetes.

Use of Immunoglobulin Y Antibodies: Biosensor-based Diagnostic Systems and Prophylactic and Therapeutic Drug Delivery Systems for Viral Respiratory Diseases

Respiratory viruses have caused many pandemics from past to present and are among the top global public health problems due to their rate of spread. The recently experienced COVID-19 pandemic has led to an understanding of the importance of rapid diagnostic tests to prevent epidemics and the difficulties of developing new vaccines. On the other hand, the emergence of resistance to existing antiviral drugs during the treatment process poses a major problem for society and global health systems. Therefore, there is a need for new approaches for the diagnosis, prophylaxis, and treatment of existing or new types of respiratory viruses. Immunoglobulin Y antibodies (IgYs) obtained from the yolk of poultry eggs have significant advantages, such as high production volumes, low production costs, and high selectivity, which enable the development of innovative and strategic products. Especially in diagnosing respiratory viruses, antibody-based biosensors in which these antibodies are integrated have the potential to provide superiority in making rapid and accurate diagnosis as a practical diagnostic tool. This review article aims to provide information on using IgY antibodies in diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic applications for respiratory viruses and to provide a perspective for future innovative applications.

IgY Antibodies from Birds: A Review on Affinity and Avidity

IgY antibodies are found in the blood and yolk of eggs. Several studies show the feasibility of utilising IgY for immunotherapy and immunodiagnosis. These antibodies have been studied because they fulfil the current needs for reducing, replacing, and improving the use of animals. Affinity and avidity represent the strength of the antigen-antibody interaction and directly influence antibody action. The aim of this review was to examine the factors that influence the affinity and avidity of IgY antibodies and the methodologies used to determine these variables. In birds, there are few studies on the maturation of antibody affinity and avidity, and these studies suggest that the use of an adjuvant-type of antigen, the animal lineage, the number of immunisations, and the time interfered with the affinity and avidity of IgY antibodies. Regarding the methodologies, most studies use chaotropic agents to determine the avidity index. Studies involving the solution phase and equilibrium titration reactions are also described. These results demonstrate the need for the standardisation of methodologies for the determination of affinity and avidity so that further studies can be performed to optimise the production of high avidity IgY antibodies.

IgYs: on her majesty's secret service

There has been an increasing interest in using Immunoglobulin Y (IgY) antibodies as an alternative to "classical" antimicrobials. Unlike traditional antibiotics, they can be utilized on a continual basis without leading to the development of resistance. The veterinary IgY antibody market is growing because of the demand for minimal antibiotic use in animal production. IgY antibodies are not as strong as antibiotics for treating infections, but they work well as preventative agents and are natural, nontoxic, and easy to produce. They can be administered orally and are well tolerated, even by young animals. Unlike antibiotics, oral IgY supplements support the microbiome that plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, including immune system function. IgY formulations can be delivered as egg yolk powder and do not require extensive purification. Lipids in IgY supplements improve antibody stability in the digestive tract. Given this, using IgY antibodies as an alternative to antimicrobials has garnered interest. In this review, we will examine their antibacterial potential.

Egg Yolk Antibody for Passive Immunization: Status, Challenges, and Prospects

The immunoglobulin Y (IgY) derived from hyperimmune egg yolk is a promising passive immune agent to combat microbial infections in humans and livestock. Numerous studies have been performed to develop specific egg yolk IgY for pathogen control, but with limited success. To date, the efficacy of commercial IgY products, which are all delivered through an oral route, has not been approved or endorsed by any regulatory authorities. Several challenging issues of the IgY-based passive immunization, which were not fully recognized and holistically discussed in previous publications, have impeded the development of effective egg yolk IgY products for humans and animals. This review summarizes major challenges of this technology, including in vivo stability, purification, heterologous immunogenicity, and repertoire diversity of egg yolk IgY. To tackle these challenges, potential solutions, such as encapsulation technologies to stabilize IgY, are discussed. Exploration of this technology to combat the COVID-19 pandemic is also updated in this review.

IgY antibodies: The promising potential to overcome antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic resistant bacteria are a growing threat to global health security. Whilst the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a natural phenomenon, it is also driven by antibiotic exposure in health care, agriculture, and the environment. Antibiotic pressure and inappropriate use of antibiotics are important factors which drive resistance. Apart from their use to treat bacterial infections in humans, antibiotics also play an important role in animal husbandry. With limited antibiotic options, alternate strategies are required to overcome AMR. Passive immunization through oral, nasal and topical administration of egg yolk-derived IgY antibodies from immunized chickens were recently shown to be effective for treating bacterial infections in animals and humans. Immunization of chickens with specific antigens offers the possibility of creating specific antibodies targeting a wide range of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In this review, we describe the growing global problem of antimicrobial resistance and highlight the promising potential of the use of egg yolk IgY antibodies for the treatment of bacterial infections, particularly those listed in the World Health Organization priority list.